WEEK 4: CARBOHYDRATES Triose- lipid synthesis

Tetrose- glucose oxidation

Carbohydrates- saccharides; hydrates of Pentose (ribose-RNA; deoxyribose-DNA)
Carbon Hexose- most common and important
-contain elements (C, H, O) carbohydrates found in human body.
-polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones
-substances that yield aldehydes or ketones on Most biologically important hexoses in body
hydrolysis
- molecules containing 3 or more C atoms and 1. Glucose- dextrose; grape sugar; blood sugar
more than 1 hydroxyl group - white crystalline solid that is soluble in water
-white solid crystalline, soluble in water except and insoluble in most organic liquids
some polysaccharides - found in many fruit juices; most important
-lower molecular levels have sweet taste monosaccharide
-vast amount of carbohydrates made -product/ constituent of sucrose & starch
photosynthesis are the main energy source of hydrolysis
animal cells. -given intravenously to patients who are
- General Formula: Cn(H2O)n unable to take food by mouth
 ORIGIN/ OCCURRENCE Glycosuria-excretion of glucose in urine
Plants: photosynthesis product (starch)  Emotional Glycosuria- extreme excitement
Animals: liver and muscles (glycogen)  Alimentary Glycosuria- ingestion of large
Blood sugar and body fluids amounts of sugar
(glucose) Blood glucose level are maintained at 70-
Mammalian milk (lactose) 100mg/Ml
 Hypoglycemia- glucose level lower than
 CLASSIFICATION maintained level
I. MONOSACCHARIDES  Hyperglycemia- blood glucose level higher
General Formula: CnH2nOn than maintained level
- simple sugars; sweet taste and soluble in  Extreme hypoglycemia- result to convulsion,
water; can’t be hydrolyzed or changed into unconsciousness (cause of glucose
simple/ smaller sugars upon hydrolysis deficiency in brain), lower blood pressure,
(reaction with H2O) death.
IA. Number of Carbon atoms 2. Galactose- occurs in tissues, glycoproteins,
triose- 3 C glycolipids; constituent of lactose hydrolysis
tetrose- 4 C Galactosuria- presence of galactose in blood &
pentose- 5 C urine
hexose- 6 C 3. Fructose- levulose; fruit sugar; constituent
IB. functional groups of sucrose and inulin; most soluble in water;
aldose- aldehyde (-CHO) sweetest of all sugars; semen is rich in
ketose- ketone (-CO) fructose; sperms utilize fructose for energy
 General Properties
1. Asymmetric Carbon- C atom which 4 Mannitol- constituent/ product of fructose
different atoms/ group of atoms are attached reduction; treatment for malignant brain
2. Stereoisomerism- identical composition but tumors; brain have blood- brain barriers acting
different structure as defense mechanism which allows
3. Optical Isomerism- beam of polarized light hallucinogenic agents and inhibits
passed through (rotation from right to left) chemotherapeutic drugs; injection of high
4. Mutarotation- change in specific rotation of concentration of mannitol in brain’s main
optically active solution without any change in arteries will cause temporary shrinking of cells
other properties that line those blood vessels. This will lower
 Biological Importance of Monosaccharides blood-brain barriers for approximately 30
minutes and allows chemotherapeutic agents
to be administered.
Diseases on Monosaccharides
Diabetes mellitus- detected through persistent
presence of glucose in urine
Galactosemia- severe inherited disease
caused by defiency of either enzyme:
galactokinase; or galactose 1 phosphate uridyl
transferase. This will result to the inability of
infants to metabolize galactose.
Fructosemia- an inherited disease of fructose
intolerance caused by deficiency of the
enzyme fructose 1 phosphate aldolase that will
result to hypoglycemia, vomiting, and severe
malnutrition. Hence, infants should be placed
on a low fructose diet.
II. DISACCHARIDES
Greneral Formula- C12H22O11
Most biologically important disaccharides
1. Lactose- milk sugar; animal origin; present
in mammalian milk and urine of pregnant
women; hydrolyzed to gain glucose and
galactose
Uses: high calcium diet & infant foods;
increase calorie intake without adding much
sweetness
2. Maltose- malt sugar; present in germinating
grain; intermediate product of starch
hydrolysis
3. Sucrose- cane sugar; table sugar; used
ordinarily at home; hydrolyzed to produce
glucose & fructose
water and amylopectin- branched; 80-85%;
insoluble in water)
2. Glycogen- animal origin; animal starch;
major carbohydrate reserve supply in animals
(liver and muscle)
Glycogenesis- formation of glycogen through
glucose
Glycogenolysis- hydrolysis/ breaking down of
glycogen to form glucose
3. Cellulose- chief constituent of cell wall for
support and structure of plants; highly
insoluble and resistant to water and
hydrolysis; no enzymes in the body can digest/
affect this sugar. Only cellulase, enzyme that
can hydrolyze cellulose are present in bacteria
not in humans.
Dextrans- produced by certain yeast and
bacteria when grown on sucrose.
Uses: blood substitute in extensive loss of
blood; blood extenders to hold in blood
stream; prevent drops in blood volume and
blood pressure; dextrans growing on teeth
surface are essential component for dental
plaque.
Comparison of polysaccharides with
monosaccharides and disaccharides

III. POLYSACCHARIDES
-polymers of monosaccharides; tasteless;
insoluble in water; complete hydrolysis of
polysaccharides produces many
monosaccharide molecules
Homopolysaccharide- contain 1 type of
monosaccharide
Heteropolysaccharide- contain more than 1
monosaccharide

Most biologically important

polysaccharides

1. Starch- plant origin; major food and energy

storage in plants; form of compact insoluble
grains/ granules inside plant cells (amylose-
non-branched; 15-20% in starch; soluble in
Property Monosaccharide Polysaccharide
& Disaccharide
Molecular Low Very high
mass
Taste Sweet Tasteless
Solubility Soluble insoluble
in water
Size of Can pass Can’t pass on
particles through cell cell
membrane membrane
Test with Positive Negative
Cu2+ (except
complex sucrose)
ions
(oxidizing
agent)
Sugars specifically hexoses show reducing properties (reduction). This is the basis of test for sugar in
urine and blood. When a reducing agent is treated with an oxidizing agent (like Cu 2+) or complex ion+, a
red-orange precipitate of copper I (oxide) Cu 2O is formed

Laboratory Tests for detection of Carbohydrates in urine or body fluids

1. Molisch Test- general test for identification of carbohydrates
2. Bial’s Test/ Bial’s Orcinol Test- identification of pentose (ribose) and nucleotides
3. Seliwanoff’s Test- differentiate aldohexose from ketohexose; identification of ketose (fructose)
4. Barfoed’s Test- distinguish monosaccharides from reducing disaccharides
5. Benedict’s Test- test for reducing sugars in urine and body fluids
6. Fehling’s Test- test for reducing sugar in urine and blood
7. Tollen’s Test
8. Iodine Test
9. Phenylhydrazine Test

Test Reagent Positive Result

Molisch Test  a-naphthol in methanol  Red- violet to violet ring (presence of
 H2SO4 carbohydrates)
Iodine Test  Dilute iodine solution  Deep blue- starch
 Red- glycogen and erythrodextrin
Bial’s Test  Orcinol  Heptose- blue/green
 80% HCl  Hexose- yellow brown (negative)
 FeCl3 solution  Pentose-positive
 Fructose- red
 Glucuronic acid- green
Seliwanoff’s  HCl+ (diluted HCl)  Cherry red/ bright cherry red-
Test  resorcinol (diluted solution) ketohexose/ fructose
 Pale pink-aldohexose
 Negative- glucose and galactose
Barfoed’s Test  Cu(Ac2) copper acetate  Brick red precipitate
 Dilute HCl (dilute acetic/  Monosaccharides-positive test (very
lactic acid) rapid 5mins.)
 Disaccharides-very slow (7-12 mins.)
Benedict’s Test  CuSO4 (cupric sulfate)  Red/ brick red precipitate (cuprous
 Na2CO3 (alkali) oxide)
 Sodium citrate
Fehling’s Test  Cupric sulfate (CuSO4)  Red/ Brick red ppt. –cuprous oxide
 Na2CO3 (alkali)  Yellow ppt.- cuprous hydroxide
 Sodium citrate
Tollen’s Test  AgNO3  Metallic silver/ deposition of Ag
 NH3 (ammoniacal silver (silver) mirror
nitrate solution)
Phenylhydrazine  Phenylhydrazine  Yellow ppt.
Test