Flight Mechanics/Dynamics: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 1 / 22

Stability: Static and Dynamic
□ Notions of stability: Static or Dynamic

□ Static stability: If the forces and moments on the body caused by a
disturbance tend initially to return the body toward its equilibrium position,
the body is statically stable.
⇒ No requirement of actual return of vehicle to equilibrium.
⇒ If the forces and moments are such that the body continues to move away from
its equilibrium position after being disturbed, the body is statically unstable.
□ Dynamic stability: A body is dynamically stable if, of its own accord, it

eventually returns to and remains at its equilibrium position over time.
□ Static stability is related to initial tendency while dynamic stability focus on
final state.

Balance or Equilibrium
An airplane can continue in steady unaccelerated flight only when the

resultant external force and moment about the CG both vanish.
Longitudinal balance: Zero pitching moment
Nonzero pitching moment =⇒ Rotation in direction of unbalanced moment

Positive Camber Wing
How most of airplanes are using positive camber airfoil?
Any other possible configurations?
What about angle of attack for both configurations?

Moment Computation
How to obtain lift and

pitching moment?
Depends on α, ρ, δi , M , Ti ,
etc.
Through wind tunnel test
Contributions of various
parts of airplane
Aerodynamic forces and
moment

Moment Computation
Pitching moment about CG
Mw = Macw + (Lw cos αw + Dw sin αw )(h − hnw )c̄ + (Lw sin αw − Dw cos αw )z

Moment Computation
For small αw
Mw = Macw + (Lw + Dw αw )(h − hnw )c̄ + (Lw αw − Dw )z
On dividing by (1/2)ρV 2 Sc̄,

Cmw = Cmacw + (CLw + CDw αw )(h − hnw ) + (CLw αw − CDw )z/c̄
| {z } | {z }
≪CLw negligible

On simplification,
Cmw = Cmacw + CLw (h − hnw )

= Cmacw + αw aw (h − hnw )
where aw is the lift-curve slope of the wing.

Moment Computation: Wing-body Combination
What is the effect of adding body and nacelles to the wing, on a moment
coefficient?
Will superposition of aerodynamic forces hold here?
When wing and body are put together, however, a simple superposition of
the aerodynamic forces that act upon them separately does not give a correct
result.
For wing-body combination,
Cmwb = Cmacwb + CLwb (h − hnwb )

= Cmacwb + αwb awb (h − hnwb )
where awb is the lift-curve slope of the wing-body-nacelle combination.

Wing-body Combination: Interference in Flow Field

Example 1
For a given wing-body combination, the aerodynamic center lies 0.05 chord length
ahead of CG. Moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center is -0.016. If the
lift coefficient is 0.45, calculate the moment coefficient about the CG.
Moment coefficient about the CG

Cmwb = Cmacwb + CLwb (h − hnwb )
= − 0.016 + 0.45 × 0.05 = 0.0065
Example 2
A wing-body model is tested in a subsonic wind tunnel. The lift is found to be
zero at geometric α = −1.5◦ . At α = 5◦ the lift coefficient is measured as 0.52.
Also, at α = 1◦ and 7.88◦ , the moment coefficients about CG are measured as
-0.01 and 0.05, respectively. The CG is located at 0.35c. Calculate the location of
ac hnwb and moment coefficient about aerodynamic center, Cmac,wb .
Lift slope
dCL 0.52 − 0
awb = = = 0.08/deg
dα 5 − (−1.5)
Moment coefficient about the CG
Cmwb = Cmacwb + awb αwb (h − hnwb )
On substituting values, we obtain
−0.01 =Cmacwb + 0.08(1 + 1.5)(h − hnwb )

0.05 =Cmacwb + 0.08(7.88 + 1.5)(h − hnwb )
As h = 0.35, hnwb = 0.24 and Cmacwb = −0.032.

Moment due to Tail
Forces on tail alone is same as that of wing.

But when mounted on airplane, interference occurs.
A downward deflection of the flow, mean downwash angle ϵ at the tail.
A reduction of the relative wind when the tail lies in the wing wake.

Moment due to Tail
Lift and drag ⊥ and parallel to V ′ .

Tail angle it is positive.
Contribution of tail lift to the airplane lift ⊥ V is Lt cos ϵ − Dt sin ϵ.
As ϵ is always small, contribution reduces to Lt .
Lift coefficient of the tail
Lt
CLt = 1 2S
2 ρV t
What about difference in V and V ′ magnitude?

⇒ Accounted in tail lift-slope at
⇒ Tail efficiency factor ηt
Total lift of airplane L = Lwb + Lt , thus total lift coefficient
St
CL = CLwb + CLt
S

Moment Computation
Pitching moment about CG

Mt = Mact − lt [Lt cos(αwb − ϵ) + Dt sin(αwb − ϵ)]
− zt [Dt cos(αwb − ϵ) − Lt sin(αwb − ϵ)]
For small αwb , with only dominant term

1
Mt = −lt Lt = −lt CLt ρV 2 St
2
On dividing by (1/2)ρV 2 Sc̄,

Mt lt St
Cmt = =− CLt
(1/2)ρV 2 Sc̄ c̄ S
lt St
On defining VH = , we have
c̄S
Cmt = −VH CLt

Moment Computation
What does VH represent?

A ratio of two volume characteristic of airplane geometry, called “horizontal
tail volume ratio” or “tail volume”
CG is not fixed so better to compute Mt about fixed point, mean

aerodynamic center of wing-body combination.

Moment Computation
Define
¯lt St
V̄H =
c̄S
We have the relation between two volume ratios
St
VH = V̄H − (h − hnwb )
S
Moment of the tail about the wing-body mean aerodynamic center
C̄mt = −V̄H CLt
Moment of tail about the CG

St St
Cmt = −V̄H CLt + CLt (h − hnwb ) = C̄mt + CLt (h − hnwb )

S S
Pitching moment due to propulsive system, Cmp
Total Moment
Total pitching moments

Cm = Cmacwb + CL (h − hnwb ) − V̄H CLt + Cmp

Pitch stiffness is given by −Cmα .

∂Cmacwb ∂CLt ∂Cmp
Cmα = + CLα (h − hnwb ) − V̄H +
∂α ∂α ∂α
∂Cmacwb
As = 0, we have
∂α

∂CLt ∂Cmp
Cmα = CLα (h − hnwb ) − V̄H +

∂α ∂α
As CLα is large, magnitude of Cmα is dictated by h.
Cmα can always be made negative by a suitable choice of h, CG location.
When is Cmα = 0?
Moment: Controbutions from Components

Total Moment: Neutral Point
Neutral point (NP): A CG position h, for which Cmα = 0. Also known as

“vehicle aerodynamic center”.
A boundary between positive and negative pitch stiffness
NP is given by

∂Cmacwb

1 ∂CLt ∂Cmp
hn = hnwb − − V̄H +
CLα ∂α ∂α ∂α

Cmα in terms of NP
Cmα = CLα (h − hn )
Static margin: Difference between CG position and NP
Kn = hn − h
Kn > 0 =⇒ Cmα < 0, a positive stiffness

For positive stiffness, CG must be forward to NP
Total Moment: Static Margin

Total Moment: NP
Farther forward CG =⇒ greater K, and in the sense of “static stability” a

more stable vehicle.
dCm
NP is sometimes defined as the CG location for which = 0.
dCL
Why is it so?
∂Cm
dCm
CL is a unique function of α under some restrictions and = ∂α
dCL ∂CL
∂α
dCm ∂Cm
Both =0= simultaneously.
dCL ∂α

Reference
1 John Anderson Jr., Introduction to Flight, McGraw-Hill Education, Sixth
Edition, 2017.
2 Bernard Etkin and Llyod Duff Reid, Dynamics of Flight Stability and Control,
John Wiley and Sons, Third Edition, 1996.
Thank you for your attention !!!

Flight Mechanics/Dynamics: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

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Flight Mechanics/Dynamics

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 1 / 22

□ Notions of stability: Static or Dynamic

□ Dynamic stability: A body is dynamically stable if, of its own accord, it

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 2 / 22

An airplane can continue in steady unaccelerated flight only when the

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 3 / 22

How most of airplanes are using positive camber airfoil?

Any other possible configurations?

What about angle of attack for both configurations?

How to obtain lift and

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 5 / 22

Pitching moment about CG

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 6 / 22

Mw = Macw + (Lw + Dw αw )(h − hnw )c̄ + (Lw αw − Dw )z

On dividing by (1/2)ρV 2 Sc̄,

Cmw = Cmacw + CLw (h − hnw )

where aw is the lift-curve slope of the wing.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 7 / 22

Cmwb = Cmacwb + CLwb (h − hnwb )

where awb is the lift-curve slope of the wing-body-nacelle combination.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 8 / 22

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 9 / 22

Moment coefficient about the CG

Moment coefficient about the CG

Cmwb = Cmacwb + awb αwb (h − hnwb )

On substituting values, we obtain

−0.01 =Cmacwb + 0.08(1 + 1.5)(h − hnwb )

As h = 0.35, hnwb = 0.24 and Cmacwb = −0.032.

Forces on tail alone is same as that of wing.

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 12 / 22

Lift and drag ⊥ and parallel to V ′ .

What about difference in V and V ′ magnitude?

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 13 / 22

Pitching moment about CG

For small αwb , with only dominant term

On dividing by (1/2)ρV 2 Sc̄,

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 14 / 22

What does VH represent?

CG is not fixed so better to compute Mt about fixed point, mean

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 15 / 22

Moment of the tail about the wing-body mean aerodynamic center

C̄mt = −V̄H CLt

Moment of tail about the CG

Total pitching moments

Pitch stiffness is given by −Cmα .

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 18 / 22

Neutral point (NP): A CG position h, for which Cmα = 0. Also known as

Static margin: Difference between CG position and NP

Kn > 0 =⇒ Cmα < 0, a positive stiffness

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 20 / 22

Farther forward CG =⇒ greater K, and in the sense of “static stability” a

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 21 / 22

Thank you for your attention !!!

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar AE 305/717 Lecture 6 Flight Mechanics/Dynamics 22 / 22

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