THE ESSAY

An ESSAY is a piece of writing several paragraphs long instead of just one or two
paragraphs. It is written about one topic, just as a paragraph is. However, the topic of an
essay is too long and too complex to discuss in one paragraph. Therefore, you must divide
the topic into several paragraphs, one for each major point. Then you must tie all the
separate paragraphs together by adding an introduction and a conclusion.

Writing an essay is no more difficult than writing a paragraph except that an essay is
longer. The principles of organization are the same for both, so if you can write a good
paragraph, you can write a good essay.

An essay has three main parts:

 an INTRODUCTORY paragraph;
 a BODY (at least one, but usually two or more paragraphs);
 a CONCLUDING paragraph.

1. - The introductory paragraph consists of two parts: a few general statements about
your subject to attract your readers’ attention and a thesis statement to state the specific
subdivisions of your topic and/or the “plan” of your paper. A thesis statement for an essay
is just like a topic sentence for a paragraph: it names the specific topic and the controlling
ideas or major subdivisions of the topic.

2. - The body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph develops a subdivision
of your topic, so the number of paragraphs in the body will vary with the number of
subdivisions. The paragraphs of the body are like the main supporting points of a
paragraph. Furthermore, just as you can organize the ideas in a paragraph by
chronological order or by order of importance, you can organize the paragraphs in an
essay in the same way.

3. - The conclusion in an essay, like the concluding sentence in a paragraph, is a summary

or review of the main points discussed in the body.

The only additional element in an essay is the linking expressions between the paragraphs
of the body. These are just like transitions within a paragraph to connect the ideas
between two sentences. Similarly, you use transitions between paragraphs to connect the
ideas between them.

You can see that writing an essay is essentially the same as writing a paragraph: an essay is
just longer. The chart on page 2 shows you how the parts of a paragraph correspond to
the parts of an essay:

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 ESSAY

1. INTRODUCTION

General
Statements
Thesis
Statement

2. BODY

A. Topic Sentence
1. Support
PARAGRAPH 2. Support
3. Support
(Concluding Sentence)

Topic Sentence
B. Topic Sentence
A. Support 1. Support
B. Support 2. Support
C. Support 3. Support
(Concluding Sentence)
Concluding Sentence

C. Topic Sentence
1. Support
2. Support
3. Support
(Concluding Sentence

3. CONCLUSION

Restatement or
summary of the main
points; final comment.

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The INTRODUCTORY Paragraph: Getting started, or writing an introduction, can be easy if
you remember that an introduction has four purposes:

1. It introduces the topic of the essay.

2. It gives a general background of the topic.
3. It often indicates the overall “plan” of the essay.
4. It should arouse the reader’s interest in the topic.

The introduction has two parts:

1. General statements.
2. A thesis statement.

The general statements: a) introduce the topic of the essay;

b) give background information on the topic.
The thesis statement: a) states the main topic;
b) lists the subdivisions of the topic;
c) may indicate the method of organization of the entire paper;
d) is usually the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.

Example: Today most young people seem to be anxious to acquire useful

knowledge to the exclusion of anything else. They seek practical
GENERAL
information which will enable them to get a well-paid job. True
STATEMENTS
education does not lie within their range of interest. They may be in
command of computer science and be brilliant at their jobs without
being educated. Those who measure knowledge solely in terms of its THESIS
usefulness often deliberately ignore the immense cultural heritage of STATEMENT
the past and often regard the study of Philosophy, Logic, Literature,
Latin and Greek as a “waste of time”.

To sum up, an introductory paragraph is like a funnel: very wide at the top, increasingly
narrow in the middle, and very small at the neck or bottom.

A ZOOM PARAGRAPH

GENERAL STATEMENTS

THESIS STATEMENT

The CONCLUDING paragraph: It is a very important part of the essay. In this paragraph you
tell the reader that you have completed the essay. This is achieved by either writing a
summary of the main points discussed in the body or by re-writing the thesis statement in
different words. Then you add your final comments on the subject: food for thought.
Since this is your last opportunity to make your point, you should write a strong, effective
message that the reader will remember.

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Example: In conclusion, although the last two decades of the twentieth century
have indeed placed computers to hand, they have not made us any
wiser. There is no denying that computers open up a whole world of
possibilities: this fact is, indeed, true. However, we cannot ignore the
traditions of the Western world which constitute the pedestal our
cultural heritage stands on. The human being must certainly respect his
inheritance and be deep-rooted in his ancestry, or else he will be blown
off his base.

ESSAY OUTLINING

Because an essay is longer and more complex than a paragraph, it is even more important
to organize your thoughts and to plan your essay before you begin to write. The best way
to do this is to make an outline. The principles and techniques that you have already
learnt for paragraph outlining can be applied to essays.

Model: METROPOLITAN CITY

1. Introduction:

Although Metropolitan City is a culturally rich city and an important centre of national and
international business, it still has several serious problems.

2. Body:
A. The first problem is the city’s unreliable public transportation system.
1. Schedules are unreliable.
a. Late bus arrivals.
b. Arrival in bunches.
2. Passengers are victims.
a. Late to work, appointments, classes.
b. Extra waiting time.
B. The second problem is the shortage of affordable housing for young people
and immigrants.
1. Shortage of rentals.
2. High rents.
C. The final problem is the extremely congested condition of the city’s streets.
1. Heavy downtown traffic.
a. Cars and trucks within city.
b. Commuter traffic from suburbs.
c. Accidents.
2. Traffic jams.
3. City officials ´pleas.
a. Use of public transportation.
b. Use of transit system.

3. Conclusion:

In conclusion, Metropolitan City’s public transit system is in bad shape. Furthermore, the
high cost of housing and massive traffic jams are all negative aspects of this beautiful city.

The final copy can be found on next page.

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 The Final Copy: THE PROBLEMS OF METROPOLITAN CITY

Metropolitan City is full of charm and scenic beauty, so visitors from around the world
come to enjoy its famous theatres, museums, countless ethnic restaurants, and scenic
wonders. Although Metropolitan City seems like a paradise, it is no so, for the city has
several serious problems: poor public transportation, congested streets and expensive
housing.
The first and most important problem is Metropolitan’s inadequate public
transportation system. Thousands of residents rely on the city’s buses and streetcars to
travel throughout this large city, but Metro Transportation System’s daily schedules are
totally unreliable. A bus or streetcar that should arrive at 7.45 A. M. may not arrive until
eight o’clock or even later. Sometimes three buses or streetcars will arrive in bunches, one
after another. Moreover, it is not unusual for a bus driver or a streetcar conductor to pass
up groups of people anxiously waiting in the snow in freezing weather because he is
behind schedule and wants to make up for lost time. Unfortunately, passengers become
unhappy victims of the waiting game, causing them to be late for work or to miss
important appointments. For instance, once I waited so long in below zero weather that I
caught a bad cold and ended up in bed for a week. Then, on the day of my psychology
final, the street car was thirty minutes late. In order to get to their destinations on time,
people must allow for waiting time at the bus and streetcar stops.
The second serious problem is the extremely congested condition of the city
streets. There are simply too many cars everywhere. Besides the heavy traffic caused by
city residents, many commuters drive on the freeways and bridges leading into the city
from the suburbs. This added traffic causes even greater traffic jams. To clear up the
congested streets, city officials want city residents to leave their cars at home and use
public transportation. They have pleaded with out-of-towners to use the transit systems
coming into this huge metropolis. However, their pleas have fallen on deaf ears because
residents know that the city’s public transportation is poor; moreover, suburbanites like
the convenience of driving, which gives them the freedom to come and go as they please.
The final point is the lack of reasonable housing in Metro City. This is a fascinating
city that offers an exciting lifestyle for young and ambitious business and professional
people. Also, immigrants are attracted to this city because it offers many unskilled job
opportunities. All of these would-be residents need affordable rentals like apartments,
flats and single-family houses. But, unfortunately, because there is a tremendous shortage
of rentals units, rents skyrocket, and so people leave the city. For example: Kathleen and
Suzy’s rent for a two-bedroom flat was recently raised from $750.00 to $1,000.00 per
month, so Suzy moved to Vallejo, where she teaches. Kathleen has been looking for a
studio apartment, and, so far, she has found that the rents range from $550.00 to $750.00
per month, depending on the location.
In conclusion, Metropolitan City must improve its public transit system, clear up
the massive traffic jams caused by slow-moving traffic in the downtown areas, and keep
rentals down to affordable levels. In other words, Metropolitan City must improve its
image, or it will soon become just another mediocre city due to the lack of administrative
responsibility to solve these unfortunate problems.

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 THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

This type of essay deals with one or more arguments. For an essay of this kind, subjects
are usually set which have two sides to them: a “for” and an “against”. Such essays will
therefore consist of two arguments. It is possible, however, to present only one side of the
case, and then the essay will be a proof or a thesis. An argumentative essay presenting
two sides may bear its title as a question, like: Is It Always Wrong to Tell a Lie? - Is It True
that Colonization Has Done More Good than Harms? If only one side is given, the wording
might be as follows: A Change is Always Welcome.

The aim of this type of essay is to convince an opponent by the effective

presentation of an argument. Persuasiveness in style and roundness in reasoning are
therefore essential ingredients. If the essay does not convince, it is, to some extent, a
failure. Purely emotional appeals should not be included in the essay.

The following points should be noticed:

 The strongest argument should be left until the end. In this way it will gain in
strength. Weak arguments should be presented at the beginning.
 The arguments “for” and “against” may run parallel to each other or presented
separately.
 It is usually advisable to begin with the opponent’s arguments and show where
they are wrong: in this way the writer’s own case gains in strength.
 No case should be overstated – avoid generalizations. The word “always” is
dangerous: if somebody states: “fogs always occur in November,” it has only to be
shown that there was once when they didn’t occur in November for the
proposition to be disproved.
 It is unadvisable to begin sentences with expressions such as the following: “it is
obvious that”, “no one can fail to realize that”, “everyone knows that”, for these
expressions try to make up by vehemence what they lack in logical reasoning.

An argumentative essay must be carefully thought out: its values lie in the cogency
of its reasoning, not in the noisy parade of its assertions.

When writing an argumentative essay you may follow this method:

 Consider the subject very carefully and jot down as many arguments to sustain
your views as you can think of.
 Write down a list of arguments to support the opposing view.
 Add suitable details to prove or illustrate your views of both sides.
 Decide definitely which side of the case you are going to adopt.
 Present your opponent’s case first, demolish it and then provide your own
arguments.
 You need not, however, consider both sides.
 You need not take sides. You may present both sides impartially and let the reader
judge for himself.

Argumentative essays sometimes take the form of challenging quotations, like

“Music Today Has Become Meaningless.” The actual phrasing of the topic often helps you
to define a satisfactory essay.

The ability to write a good argumentative essay depends not only on what you
know about a subject but also on how well you can use what you know. A few facts which

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are used well can be far more effective than a great number which do not add anything
significant to the essay.

The main devices to be used are illustration and contrast. You should keep your
English as simple and direct as possible. Clear thinking is essential. In argumentative
essays the emphasis is not on telling a story, nor on descriptive writing, but on putting
over a point of view in clear, direct English, within a well-developed logical framework.
Topic sentences usually signal the subject of the paragraph. You can work a paragraph
inductively (from the particular to the general) or deductively (from the general to the
particular). The correct use of the cohesive devices is essential for the argumentative
essay to be clear and effective.

Three possible ways of working: The Fur Trade

1. One side only:
(Use examples)
 Introduction: A paragraph developing a topic sentence which shows the writer is
against the fur trade.
 Development:
(3/4 paragraphs)
 Animals suffer unnecessarily.
 Killing animals for their coats is cruel.
 An animal has more right to live than a human being to wear its coat.
 The manufacture of artificial fur.
 Conclusion: The writer’s position is restated.

2. The zig-zag pattern: (Use comparison and contrast)

 Introduction: an issue which arouses strong feelings: two positions.
 Development:
 Animals do not suffer unnecessarily.
 It is proved they do.
 If the trade were made illegal, hunters without licenses would cause great
suffering to animals.
 Killing animals for their coat is cruel. It is a sign of
luxury.
 Banning the trade would mean more unemployment.
 The manufacture of artificial fur could create jobs and
satisfy the demands of fashion.
 Conclusion: restatement of the writer position.

3. The two opposite sides: (Use comparison and contrast)

 Introduction: an issue which arouses strong feelings: two positions.
 Development:
 Animals do not suffer unnecessarily.
 If the trade were made illegal, hunters without licenses would cause great
suffering to animals.
 Banning the trade would mean more unemployment.
 People would lose their freedom of choice.
 Animals do suffer unnecessarily.
 Killing animals for their coats is cruel.
 An animal has more right to live than a human being
to wear its coat, etc.
 Conclusion: writer’s position restated.

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 IS THE READING OF NOVELS A PROFITLESS OCCUPATION? By T.F. Thompson

The first essential in arguing a question of this sort is, of course, to define one’s terms.
What then is a novel? The definition could take a variety of forms but perhaps is
sufficiently summarized in the statement that it is a fictitious story in prose, which reveals
in a connected series of incidents the manners and characters of the personages who live
within its pages.
If the reading of novels is to be defended, as assuredly it must be, then the primary
consideration must be the arguments marshaled by those who condemn the practice, and
these objections appear principally to be threefold. First it is advanced that the reading of
fiction, particularly of one class, can give the reader a distorted view of life in so far as the
pursuit puts one in touch with conceptions either exaggerated or lacking in balance. The
second principal line of argument is that the time expended on reading novels could more
profitably be used either in the attainment of new factual knowledge or in experimenting
life at first hand rather than at second hand. Finally, the opponent of novels avows that
the contents of a light novel do not tax the understanding of the reader and that frequent
indulgence in this form of recreation will generate a mental laziness which will develop
into a lasting distaste for the mental exertion demanded by serious study.
As a preface to any defense against these arguments it should be stated at once
that there do exist some bad novels which have a corrupting influence either by virtue of
the poor technical qualities of their style or of the ethics revealed in their subject matter.
Nothing can or should be said in defense of such books and the best defense against them
is the exercise of “a wise selectivity” in one’s choice of reading matter. On behalf of novels
of sound quality, however, there is much to be said.
One of the fundamental interests of human beings (for which purpose man is
endowed with inner curiosity) is the desire to broaden one’s experience of human life in
order thereby to enlarge one’s sympathies and to develop oneself as a unified personality.
Within the restricted compass of the average person’s daily life, opportunities for so doing
are severely limited but it is here that the novel can be a considerable asset in enlarging
the mental horizon of its reader beyond the circumscribing bounds of routine. The
characters and situations described in a novel may be quite foreign to one’s own circle
but, through the medium of the novel, there can be achieved some appreciation of the
varied factors motivating the lives of those in other classes of society – people with whom
there is no chance of coming into contact. The ramifications of this function of the novel
are infinitely varied and are so obvious as to need no further elaboration.
Certain classes of novels take their readers into periods of time other than the
present and reveal in their pages facets of life and behavior which differ in form from their
modern equivalents and, in so doing, elucidate the forces guiding men’s actions in past
times, perhaps making their actions more intelligible to the contemporary mind. The
historical novels of Scott and Thackeray, to name only two amongst many, are good
examples of this. Thus from the perusal of worthwhile novels a clearer historical
perspective can be gained which, combined with knowledge of the developments and
changes which the passing of the centuries has brought about, assist the modern reader
to evaluate more fully the form of society in which he lives. Nor must those novels be
forgotten which attempt to probe into the future as they have a value in forecasting
possible lines of development of human society and invention. From them can be drawn
conclusions as to the advantages and dangers inherent in the trends of contemporary
thought and action. The War of the Worlds, by H. G. Wells was such a novel, and there is a
new vogue for such literature now, when every bookstall carries its quota of science
fiction.
The didactic purpose of the novel touched on in the previous paragraph can take a
multiplicity of forms. As novels command a wide public, their usefulness in influencing

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opinion has not been used for the exposure of abuses which are in urgent need of reform.
A fictional story movingly written, which reflects actual conditions obtaining in a particular
class of society, can be a powerful vehicle for the arousal of sympathies. Charles Dickens is
a pertinent example of a novelist who used his creations for this purpose and we owe
much of the poignancy of our picture of the poorer classes in Victorian times to his
powerful writing. In our present-day literature, mention must be made of Darkness at
Noon, by Arthur Koestler, George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four or Aldoux Huxley’s Brave
New World as potent warnings of the trend which may be taken by certain aspects of
contemporary political philosophy and science.
Turning from the more serious side of the novel to a brief examination of the light
variety – perhaps humorous or fanciful in conception – the suggestion may be made that
the novel has its function to perform too as a means of giving relaxation and refreshment
to the weary brain. The plot of a light novel is of sufficient interest to maintain attention
without being of such complexity as to tax the brain which is in need of pleasing
recreation. Herein lies another sound and valuable function of the novel.
Perhaps the above arguments are sufficient to convince the skeptical that the
novel has a very definite merit and that it is fully entitled to a place of respect in the
modern world. The fact that the pill of knowledge is sometimes concealed beneath the
sugar of fiction should act as an incentive towards rather than a deterrent from its
continued popularity, provided always that due moderation is exercised in reading this
form of literature. The mind, like the body, needs a change of diet and should not be
required to subsist only on one type of food.