INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION OF FOOD CULTURES IN THE

PHILIPPINES

Patricia Leuterrio1 and Dr. Danilo S. Vargas2

Central Luzon State University ,Central Luzon State University2
1

leuteriopatricia@gmail.com1 dsvargas@clsu.edu.ph2

ABSTRACT

Kapampangan cuisine is known for its cultural heritage and influence in the province of Pampanga,
particularly within Kapampangan families. This study entitled : Intergenerational Transmission of Food Cultures
in t he Philippines seeks to discover the transmission process involved in the intergenerational transfer of food
cultures within Kapampangan families and show its cultural, communication, and developmental significance and
implications. The study employed interview schedules with 10 households from two different barangays: Five
(5) from Barangay San Juan which is the main barangay in Apalit and five (5) from Barangay Capalangan,
which is a barangay situated adjacent to the town of Calumpit, Bulacan. Households with three generations
still present and are living in one house or compound is considered as one respondent. Majority of the respondents
are females who have been taught such food cultures at a young age. The results of the study show that food cultures
are transmitted within the family from generation to generation and these are passed on by means of both oral
narration and teaching, as well as observation. These food cultures are also transmitted to people in the community
where the respondents have non-familiar relationships. This shows that the continual transmission of food cultures
preserves such culture within the families and the community, and this culture promotes social and economic
development both individually and within the community. However, certain problems with the transmission of these
food cultures arose from the interviews such as the apparent loss of interest of the younger generation on learning
these food cultures due to mo and the advent of fast food culture particularly in rural areas.

Keywords: Intergenerational, Transmission , Food Cultures

INTRODUCTION 2. To describe the communication

Kapampangan cuisine plays a vital role in
Kapampangan culture as the province of Pampanga is
well-known with its rich, culinary culture. Despite its
rich culinary culture, the range of culinary experts in
the province is decreasing thus posing a threat to the
food cultures, but in the town of Apalit, Pampanga
such food cultures remain preserved (Medina, 2014).
Culture renders a community’s development and food
cultures determine the richness of a certain
community’s culture is as well. Communication drives
culture as it preserves it by the transmission of cultures
through generations. The study aims to determine the
process involved in the transmission of food cultures
from one generation to another including its modes,
sources and recipients, adoption, and significance; and
the food cultures found among households in Apalit.
Objectives of the Study
The following were the objectives of the study:
1. To know the socio-demographic
characteristics of the respondents;
characteristics of the respondents,
particularly their preferred interpersonal
medium of communication and language in
culture transmission;
3. To document the food cultures present
within the households of Apalit;
4. To describe the communication process of
transmission of food traditions and cultures
within the family;
5. To analyze the cultural, developmental, and
communication implications of the
transmission of tradition and cultures; and
6. To draw insights from these implications and
their relevance to development.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND
STUDIES
The province of Pampanga is home to
culinary feats. It is hailed as the country’s culinary
capital, bringing together the many influences such as
European and American cuisines and incorporating
them to form their own style of cooking (Tantingco,

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2011). Through the ages, the art of traditional cooking
did not falter across the generations; rather, its culinary
culture grew richer and richer with the coming of
influences in the country, merging practices and
recipes together to form a more unique flavor that can
be easily identified by one’s palate (Henson, 1955).
In a Kapampangan home, the stereotype that
women are the best cooks are generally proven to be
true. Husbands who had Kapampangan wives were
considered lucky because they have been well-trained
in the kitchen. Such stereotypes carried on, but as the
newer generations emerged, men and women broke
free from traditional stereotypes and pursued
professional careers, proving that they do not only
excel in the culinary front (Fenix, 2005). However, it
is expected of Kapampangans, no matter the gender,
to acquire the food cultures within their families and
will be their choice whether or not they will pass on
the cultures they have been given to the next
generations (Medina, 2014).
Foodways or knowledge about the culture of
food provides a good avenue in understanding social
theories on how culture survives and how it is passed
on, and how society has developed through such
culture. Food transcends the boundaries of human
interaction as it may be used to send messages,
promote solidarity and solemnity, sacredness, and
carries messages about a family’s or social status.
Ergo, culture is a form of communication and
representation (Anderson, 2014).
Cultural transmission plays a vital role in the
preservation of cultures, particularly values, traditions,
and in the determination and formation of cultural
traits and norms. It is modelled after “purposeful
socialization decisions inside the family,” which is
referred to as direct vertical socialization or
transmission; and indirect learning and socialization,
referred to as horizontal and oblique socialization or
transmission (Bisin and Verdier, 2005).
This gives proof to the fact that cultures are
most likely to be passed on within a certain household;
hence, the term “intergenerational transmission” – a
type of message transmission which revolves around
the range of communication patterns of interaction
within the family. This concerns all members of the
family, from the grandparents, right down to the
children and grandchildren, and nieces and nephews.
The object of transmission may be something
intangible such as values, traditions, norms, and
religious, ethnical, and sociological beliefs (Marriage
and Family Encyclopedia, 2016).
Tiburcio Jr.’s study on Indigenous
Agricultural Knowledge (IAK) and this study are
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similar in nature as both studies aim to discover and
describe the cultural transmission processes within the
community. However, this study aims to look onto the
communication transmission for food culture transfer
at the household level as opposed to his study’s
individual level. In addition, this study also aims to
discover the food cultures existing within the
household, similar to Tiburcio Jr.’s exploration of the
IAK existing within the Ayangan community
(Tiburcio Jr., 2012).
METHODOLOGY
The study is exploratory and descriptive in
nature, being a study which had no related studies with
the similar topic. It is made to explore the topic
presented as a study and describe the data gathered
from the gathering process. Purposive sampling was
employed to determine the respondents, given that
they followed the following conditions of: (1) that
three generations in a household were present
(grandparent, parent, and grandchild), and (2) that all
three live in the same household or compound. 10
households from two different barangays were taken
as respondents: Five (5) from Barangay San Juan
which is Apalit’s main barangay, and five (5) from
Barangay Capalangan, a barangay adjacent to
Calumpit, Bulacan. Data were collected by means of
an interview schedule guided by an interview guide
which includes the respondents’ socio-demographic
information, communication characteristics, food
cultures within their families, and the families’ food
culture transmission process. The data consisted of
both quantitative and qualitative data, where
quantitative data were analyzed using simple
statistical methods (frequency distribution tables,
percentage, and mean), and qualitative data were
analyzed through descriptive analysis and were
arranged thematically.
The study employed Lev Vygotsky’s (1978)
theory on social development which h states that a
child’s cultural development begins at a social level,
where it is taught first by a more knowledgeable other
(MKO) who has a higher level of knowledge than the
learner, which in the case of the study are the older
generations (first and second generations)
 2. Communication Characteristics
Language Used in Family Communication
The local dialect of Kapampangan is used
most often in the households (90%) when
communicating with each other.
Manner of Communication
All of the households (100%) communicated
in an informal or casual manner with each other.
Flow of Communication
Figure 1. Research paradigm
Majority of the flow of communication
within the households’ members are interactive (90%).
Matters/Subjects of Communication
In theory, the more knowledgeable others
Family issues are the most talked about
already have a preexisting knowledge of these food
subjects/matters of communication within the
cultures from the other MKO’s who have passed these
households (90%).
knowledge to them, and these new MKO’s would
Sources of Food Culture Information
them pass them on to a younger generation and both
All of the generations commonly get their
generations would have interactions about the food
information about food cultures through interpersonal
cultures, developing the food cultures within their
communication (100%). In addition, findings also
families by interacting and passing of suggestions and
show that the younger generation is more exposed to
ideas with each other.
mass media, particularly the internet, in terms of food
cultures information source.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Socio-demographic Characteristics
3. Food Cultures in the Family
Age
Below are lists of Kapampangan food cultures
Most of the respondents belonging to the first
gathered from the household including recipes,
generation were mostly between the ages of 73-82
cooking procedures, cooking techniques, and cooking
(40%) and 83-92 (40%), half of the respondents from
equipment.
the second generation were between the ages of 39-45
Traditional Kapampangan Recipes
(50%), and majority of those from the third generation
Table 1. Traditional Kapampangan recipes
were between the ages 16-20 (80%).
Sex RECIPE NAME DESCRIPTION
SIDE DISHES/CONDIMENTS
Majority of those from the first (100%), Atsara Pickled green papayas
second (90%), and third (90%) generations were with bell peppers,
females. carrots, ginger,
Educational Attainment onions, and raisins
Almost all of the first generation respondents pickled with vinegar
weren’t able to finish elementary school (90%), most and brine. Often
of the second generation respondents were able to paired with fish-based
reach but not finish high school (40%), and most of the dishes.
third generation respondents had just finished high Burung Asan Fermented white rice
school (40%) and the rest are undertaking college with fish. Often left to
studies (30%) and have graduated (30%) Annual ferment in a clay pot
Household Income for 5 days to one 1
The households mostly belong to the week. It is then
PhP36,000.00-71,999.00 annual income bracket, sautéed with garlic,
whereas these households gain their income from onions, ginger, and
being local cooks or owning an eatery or a carinderia. tomatoes before
serving.
MAIN DISHES
Asado A pork and chicken
dish with tomato-

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based sarsa (sauce)
flavored with vinegar,
laurel leaves, and
tomato sauce. Often
added with atsuete oil
or water for added red
color. Sometimes
cooked with potatoes
Bringhe as well.rice cooked in
Sticky
coconut milk and
turmeric (luyang
dilaw) with slices of
chorizo, chicken,
shellfish, carrots, and
bell peppers. Often
cooked for special
occasions.
Callos Tenderized beef tripe
in tomato sauce with
bell peppers, carrots,
chorizo slices,
garbanzos, and green
peas.
Embutido Sausage-like dish
made of ground pork,
carrots, bell peppers,
cheese, luncheon
meat, and bound with
bread crumbs and
eggs. These are
shaped into logs and
wrapped with
aluminum foil covered
with butter or
margarine then
steamed and reheated,
depending on one’s
preference.
Guisantes Native chicken with
garbanzos and green
peas. Cooked until the
native chicken is
tender and has
flavored through its
sauce.
Hamonado Pork cooked in a
sweet sauce flavored
with soy sauce,
pineapple juice, brown
sugar, whole
peppercorns, and
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laurel leaves. It is left
to simmer until the
pork is tender and the
sauce has reduced
until thick.
Kare-kare Beef tripe and oxtail
cooked in a peanut-
based stew. Ground
roasted peanuts are
used in making the
sauce (in modern
recipes, the roasted
peanuts are substituted
by peanut butter).
Vegetables such as
eggplants, string
beans, and banana
hearts are also
included. It is then
served with bagoong
as its condiment.
Kilawin Pork meat and innards
cooked in vinegar
with turmeric (luyang
dilaw) and bay leaves.
Lutong Patis na Bangus Milkfish cooked in
vinegar with ginger
and flavored with fish
sauce or patis.
Commonly served on
ordinary days or after
special occasions.
Lutung Malutu Chicken cooked in
tomatoes and atsuete
for coloring.
Morcon Beef roll stuffed with
bell peppers cheese,
carrots, hard boiled
eggs, sausage or
hotdogs. The beef
flank is first marinated
in soy sauce,
kalamansi, and sugar,
then the roll is braised
in the same marinade.
It is then fried for
better texture and
flavor.
Pepalukluk Chicken cooked in a
palayok; the chicken

is placed in an upright
position, giving its
name (pepalukluk in
Tagalog is pinaupo)
Rellenong Bangus Milkfish stuffed with
ground pork, milkfish
meat, carrots, raisins,
and eggs. The fish
skin and head are
marinated in soy sauce
and kalamansi then
filled with the stuffing
and fried. It may be
served cold or refried
to warm it.
Sisig Pork innards, ears, and
liver which is cooked
beforehand by
grilling, then seasoned
with kalamansi, soy
sauce, pepper,
chopped onions, siling
labuyo, and served on
a sizzling plate.
Usually served on
special occasions, or
as pulutan.
DESSERTS
Yema A custard-based desert
made with egg yolks,
milk, and dayap (local
limes) which is stirred
until stiff; these are
then rolled into little
balls and dipped in
kiping, a sugar
caramel, then left to
harden.
KAKANIN
• Bibingka A rice cake made of
galapong or rice flour,
sugar, eggs, and milk.
It is then cooked in a
clay bowl lined with
banana leaves over a
charcoal stove with a
metal covering which
also has charcoal
sitting atop the clay
bowl. It is often
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topped with cheese,
salted eggs, margarine
or butter, and coconut
shavings. Commonly
served or sold every
Christmas.
Sticky rice cooked in
coconut milk, then
sweetened with brown
sugar and cooked with
• Bikong softened squash
Kalabasa (kalabasa). It is often
topped with latik
(cooked coconut milk
with sugar which is
left to simmer until it
forms solid curds).
Rice cake made of
little balls of sticky
rice which is ground
on a stone mill, boiled
individually, then
packed together on a
• Pesalubung bilao. It is topped with
margarine and sugar
then stirred together.
The rice cake is then
topped with latik.
Cooking Procedures
Table 2. Kapampangan cooking procedures
PROCEDURE DESCRIPTION
Pagsasangkutsa Acts as a meat flavoring
and preserving
procedure. The meat is
first cooked in vinegar,
whole peppercorns, salt,
garlic, and bay leaves.
This helps tenderize the
meat and preserve it
with the use of vinegar
Meat Preservation The meat used for
cooking is fried first
before cooking as a dish
to help preserve it.
Sautéing Basic flavoring of a dish
by cooking garlic and
onions first in oil before
putting any other
ingredient.
Kapampangan Cooking Techniques
Table 3. Kapampangan cooking techniques
TECHNIQUE DESCRIPTION
Meat Tenderizing • Putting a spoon, a
fork, a matchstick
(with its head cut off),
or a toothpick while
the meat is boiling
helps in tenderizing
meat.
• After the boiling meat
hits a rolling boil, the
flame is lowered and
the meat is left to
simmer for a long
time.
Removing lansa Adding laurel leaves
(fishy smell) help remove the
fishiness of fish (lansa
in Filipino).
Making kiping (sugar Instead of just letting
caramel) sugar caramelize, neutral
flavored sodas such as
Sprite are added to
prevent the sugar from
burning.
Cooking on charcoal Cooking over wood or
or wood charcoal gives a better
flavor on the dish being
cooked.
Use of Seasonings Seasonings such as soy
sauce, fish sauce (patis),
pepper, vinegar, laurel
leaves, vetsin, and other
condiments such as
mustard, ketchup, and
other flavorings are
heavily used in dishes.
Degutting of Fish The handle of a sandok
is inserted through the
fish’s mouth and
towards its belly. The
sandok is then twisted
several times before the
guts are pulled out of its
mouth without having to
cut the fish’s belly.
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Cooking Equipment
Table 4. Kapampangan cooking equipment
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION
Batirol A long kitchen tool with a
beehive-shaped head used for
mixing hot cocoa or chocolate.
It is used by twisting its handle
rapidly to mix the chocolate.
Charcoal and Often made with clay or
Wood Stoves cement and uses wood or
charcoal as its source of
heat/flame for cooking.
Kaldero A metal pot with a thick steel
bottom which is heavier than a
kaserola. Often comes in
bigger sizes and used in
cooking larger amounts of
dishes.
Kaserola A metal pot which is thinner
than a kaldero, and is
commonly used in cooking
everyday dishes. Food cooks
quicker in a kaserola because
of its thinness.
Kawa A large wok used in cooking,
frying, boiling, or stewing
large amounts of food. It is also
used in cooking rice cakes or
kalamay.
Sandok A long-handled equipment
with a spoon-like head used in
stirring food while it is being
cooked. It could either be made
from metal or wood.
Paleta A large, oar-like equipment
used to mix large amounts of
kalamay or other desserts such
as halaya (dessert made from
yam or ube)
Palayok A pot made of clay used in
cooking as well. Often used for
the unique flavor, it gives the
food being cooked in it.
4. Food Culture Transmission
A. Age of Food Cultural Transmission
The age of food cultural transmission marks
the beginning of the transfer process involved in the
transmission of cultures from one generation to
another. Food cultures were taught to the respondents
largely at a young age: First generation respondents
were taught at the ages of 17-23 (70%), second
generation respondents at 12-14 (60%), and third
generation respondents at 14-17 years old (60%).
The first generation respondents were taught
these food cultures at a slightly older stage to prepare
them for the onset of family life. Apart from the
prevailing Kapampangan culture, Filipino culture’s
family gender roles were also shown in the
respondents’ households: Men are breadwinners;
women are caretakers. Younger respondents (those in
the third generation) are also taught at a young age for
the same reason (preparation for family life) as those
in the older generations.
B. Sources of Food Culture
Food culture in Kapampangan households
came from past generations. All households showed
that their food culture knowledge had come from
their mothers (100%), followed by grandmothers
(80%).
Familial sources are people who belong to a
direct kinship with each other, which includes the
grandparent to grandchild vertical lineage. Other
sources include non-familial ones such as neighbors,
other relatives, friends, and in-laws (40%).
C. Transmission of Food Cultures
Modes of Transmission
Kapampangan food cultures within the
households interviewed were mostly transmitted
through oral narration or teaching (80%) and
observation (80%). Majority of the learning process
involved in these food cultures was keen observation
of the older food culture source while in the process of
cooking. In addition, oral narration would only take
place upon the observation of a recipient.
Transmission Process
The transmission process begins with the
preexisting knowledge of these food cultures with the
first generation, who passes these to the second
generation, and then to the third generation. Food
cultures are promulgated throughout the generations in
a Kapampangan household. The model below was
devised from the results of the study:
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Figure 2. Food culture transmission process
Familial members of the family also pass
these food cultures to people of non-familial kinship.
This continues as a network process of food culture
transmission to the next generation, and for the
following generations. These food cultures are also
subject to enhancement and development with the
relaying of cultures with each other, creating a
dynamic yet traditional food culture which perpetuates
throughout generations in the community.
Food Culture Transmission Recipients
The recipients of food cultures do not only
include familial relatives, but also non-familial
recipients such as neighbors, friends and other
relatives. It is automatic that if a person belongs in a
Kapampangan household, these food cultures are
transmitted to that person as even observation
stimulates a person’s learning. Even anyone who asks
for a certain recipe would be entertained by a
Kapampangan who grew up to be knowledgeable with
the food cultures passed onto him/her. The community
also becomes a recipient as once these food cultures
are transmitted to other people of non-familial
relations, and would continually be shared on with a
network of people, the community would eventually
become aware of these food cultures, thus also
promoting the preservation of these cultures for the
next generation.
Places of Food Culture Transmission
Food cultures are mostly taught at home
(100%) where there is an everyday exposure with the
culture of home cooking. Home kitchens provide a
less-intimidating, comfortable environment to learn
these food cultures. It also makes access to practice
easier as it gives convenience to those who wish to
practice their food culture knowledge.
D. Food Culture Transmission Significance
Food culture transmission allows the culture
recipients to be familiar with the uniqueness and
identity of Kapampangan food cultures and preserves
the cultural identity brought by these cultures.
Recipients also learn how to cook and are able to
transmit these food cultures to their future children in
preparation for parenthood.
E. Food Culture Practice and Adoption
The practice of these food cultures ensures
the quality of food which the respondents serve to their
families or guests, since they have spent most of their
lives learning the essential knowledge and skills in
cooking. The adoption and constant practice of these
food cultures promote cultural preservation, and the
continual development and improvement of these
cultures
F. Food Culture Transmission Significance
On the Individual
Primarily, the transmission of food cultures is
beneficial to the respondents as individuals because
they had learned how to cook. Moreover, knowledge
of these food cultures also gives them a sense of pride
with the culture upon which they identify themselves,
with Pampanga being one of the country’s culinary
capitals. In addition, as aforementioned, knowledge of
these food cultures provides some of the families a
source livelihood or income. Individuals also gain the
knowledge which they will then pass on to their
children, continuing the network of the food culture
transmission process
On the Families
Traditional food cultures are retained in the
family through the constant transmission of these
cultures from one generation to another. It also serves
as a bonding moment for families, since family
members help each other in the kitchen. This also
makes food culture transmission within families easier
because members themselves are fully involved in the
kitchen. Another benefit is that the food cultures which
the current generations know will not vanish from the
family itself as it is continuously passed on to the
future generations.
On the Community
Families are able to help in community
activities which involve cooking as they have
knowledge about Kapampangan food cultures.
Neighbors are able to get help in larger cooking jobs,
creating an environment where people come together
to practice these food cultures, coming together to help
another member of the community. In addition, food
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cultures are being shared outside of the familial
transmission circle, thus creating a larger network for
food culture transmission.
On Kapampangan Culture
Preservation of Kapampangan food cultures
and traditions become easier and more efficient. These
food cultures make families proud of their heritage and
cultural culinary identity as Kapampangan. Future
generations of Kapampangans would be able to
receive and learn the same food cultures from their
families, keeping the traditions, recipes, procedures,
and techniques alive in the family and soon, perpetuate
the same food cultures to the following generations.
G. Problems Encountered on Cultural
Transmission
Loss of Young Generation’s Interest
The younger generations have lesser interest
in learning traditional Kapampangan food cultures as
they prioritize personal socio-economic and academic
success Young people pursue the things which their
predecessors were not able to attain. Additionally,
mobility from a rural to an urban place of living
deculturalizes them makes them become more
urbanized in culture.
Advent of Fast Food Culture
In addition to young generation’s lack of
interest with learning the existing Kapampangan food
cultures, the emergence of fast food restaurants have
become an issue when it comes to food culture
transmission. The promise of fast food’s quick,
effortless meals attract younger individuals.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The following conclusions were drawn from the
results of the study:
1. More women are still involved with cultural
transmission due to cultural gender bias
where women are expected to learn
household chores at a young age to prepare
them for family life.
2. Third generation respondents are less likely
to adopt the food cultures being transmitted
to them immediately compared to the past
two generations as they are more involved
with or inclined towards achieving academic
success which their successors did not have
when they were young.
3. Informal-interactive communication is the
most used and effective way of
communicating with family members as it
provides a more open, casual environment for
conversation. Moreover, it is the easiest way
 to transmit food cultures as casual
interactions provide a lighter approach to
transmission of cultures.
4. Observation and oral teaching of the practice
of these food cultures are the most effective
ways of transmission; however, due to the
lack of a more permanent form of preserving
these cultures, there is a probability that these
may eventually disappear due to the dropping
interest of younger generations in learning
these food cultures and the establishment of
the fast food culture.
5. Personal socio-economic success of younger
generations makes learning these food
cultures less of a priority and less interesting
to them, thus, creating hindrances in the
transmission of familial food cultures.
6. Celebrations and special occasions such as
fiestas/festivals, birthdays, Christmas,
baptismals, and the like are avenues for food
culture transmission as such celebrations
bring opportunities for learning how to cook
traditional Kapampangan cuisine and a
chance to be taught by local cooks on these
food cultures.
7. Moving to a more urban area such as Manila
deculturizes Kapampangans who move from
their province, thus, making them strive
harder to reach higher socio-economic
success projected to them by cities, making
them put lesser importance on Kapampangan
food cultures.
8. Communication plays an important role in
the preservation of cultures
9. Culture promotes development, and in the
case of the results of the study, it promotes
the community’s social development. These
Kapampangan food cultures have created a
social identity for the respondents to be
known for something. Moreover, community
participation is evident in the transmission of
food cultures.
The following were the recommendations of the study:
1. Create a study with a broader range of
respondents throughout several other
communities in the province; creating a
collective study can provide the prevention of
the loss of these food cultures.
2. Create a research about the cultural gender
bias and gender roles presented in the study,
particularly about the bias towards women
automatically becoming recipients of these
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food cultures as this has been the society’s
expectation of them. Devise a study which
could deeply analyze the roots of such
rendered gender roles, particularly in a
Kapampangan society.
3. Devise a more comprehensive interview
guide for the data collection process and use
a more ethnographic approach to the study to
better observe the transmission of these food
cultures within families.
4. Provide more time in the collection of data
for the study and, as much as possible, make
the study more extensive to create a deeper
and broader analysis of these food cultures
and its transmission inside and outside the
households they belong in.
5. Write a study which will look for an
alternative way of preserving these food
cultures as oral transmission, though
effective in the transmission of food cultures
as seen in the study, is fleeting.
6. Write a study on how to fully utilize new
media forms such as social media in the
transmission of Kapampangan food cultures
and how to preserve them.
7. Study the effects of the growing fast food
cultures in rural areas and its impact on
traditional food cultures and the rural
communities.
8. Look further into the effects on a person’s
culture due to moving from a rural to an
urban environment.
9. Study on the problems which arose from the
interviews as well, in addition to further
studies on the same topic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3759449