Circuit Theorems

• Thevenin's Theorem
• Norton's Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer

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 Thevenin's Theorem
In many applications we want to find the response to a particular element which may, at
least at the design stage, be variable.

+ Each time the variable element changes we

Linear have to re-analyze the entire circuit. To avoid
Circuit Variable
V this we would like to have a technique that
R
replaces the linear circuit by something simple
- that facilitates the analysis.
b

A good approach would be to have a simple equivalent circuit to replace everything in the
circuit except for the variable part (the load).

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 Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal resistive circuit can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh,
where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals, and RTh is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are all turned off.

i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

Rin Rin
3
 Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that the two circuits given below are equivalent as seen from
the load RL that is the same in both cases.

i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

Rin Rin

VTh = Thevenin’s voltage = Vab with RL disconnected (= ) = the open-circuit voltage = VOC

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 Thevenin's Theorem
i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

Rin Rin

RTh = Thevenin’s resistance = the input resistance with all independent sources turned off
(voltage sources replaced by short circuits and current sources replaced by open
circuits). This is the resistance seen at the terminals ab when all independent sources
are turned off.

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 Example. Find the Thevenin equivalent of the given circuit.

  a

DC
10V 2
 vOC  10V  5V  VTh
22 VTh 5
RTh    2
iSC 2.5
b
  a RTh  2 a

10 2 10
DC
10V iSC    2.5A

2
23 4 DC
VTh  5V
3

b
  a
b

2 2
 RTh  1   2
22

6
b
Circuit Theorems
• Thevenin's Theorem
• Norton's Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer

7
 Norton's Theorem
Norton’s equivalent circuit can be found by transforming the Thevenin equivalent into a
current source in parallel with the Thevenin resistance. Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit is
given below.

i a

VTh RL
IN  RN  RTh
RTh

Formally, Norton’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal resistive circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a
resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals, and RN is the input
or equivalent resistance at the terminals when all independent sources are all turned off.

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Circuit Theorems
• Thevenin's Theorem
• Norton's Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer

9
 Maximum Power Transfer

In all practical cases, energy sources have non-zero internal resistance. Thus, there are
losses inherent in any real source. Also, in most cases the aim of an energy source is to
provide power to a load. Given a circuit with a known internal resistance, what is the
resistance of the load that will result in the maximum power being delivered to the load?

Consider the source to be modeled by its Thevenin equivalent.

i a

RTh
RL
DC
VTh

b
10
 i a

RTh
RL
DC
VTh

The power delivered to the load (absorbed by RL) is

 RTh  RL  
2
p  i RL  VTh
2
RL

This power is maximum when p RL  0

p
 VTh  RTh  RL   2 RL  RTh  RL    0
2  2 3

RL  

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 dp
 VTh  RTh  RL   2 RL  RTh  RL    0
2  2 3

dRL  
RTh  RL  2 RL

RL  RTh

Thus, maximum power transfer takes place when the resistance of the load equals the
Thevenin resistance RTh. Note also that

 RTh  RL 
2
pmax  VTh RL RL  RTh

 Th   Th Th 4 RTh
2
pmax  VTh 2 R  R  V 2

Thus, at best, one-half of the power is dissipated in the internal resistance and one-half
in the load.

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