CARBHOHYDRATES, PROTEIN, PURINES, AND LIPID

METABOLISM

Oleh

Putu Defri Githayani (P07120219062)

Ni Wayan Sri Wahyuni (P07120219067)

Ni Kadek Tika Diyanti (P07120219072)

Kadek Melinda Sukmadewi (P07120219073)

Kadek Fransiska Sintya Dewi (P07120219074)

Ni Made Winda Permatasari (P07120219076)

Ni Luh Putu Marsela Dewi (P07120219077)

Vena Herlina Harmin (P07120219084)

S.Tr Keperawatan / I B

KEMENTERIAN KESEHATAN RI

POLITEKNIK KESEHATAN DENPASAR

JURUSAN KEPERAWATAN

2019/2020

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 FOREWORD

         Our praise and gratitude for the presence of God Almighty because of His
blessings and gifts we can complete a Biochemical paper entitled
"Carbohydrate, Protein, Purine, and Fat Metabolism". For the favors that are
given also we can learn and know knowledge that we do not know yet. We
thank the ladies and gentlemen for giving us this task. Hopefully this paper can
be understood by anyone who sees and reads it.

          We fully realize that the task of this paper is far from perfect, it still has
many shortcomings, for that we are very receptive to criticism and suggestions,
for future improvements and as a means to build a perfection. Hopefully this
paper we make can be something very useful and useful for the people who
read it and for ourselves to make it. We, as the authors of this paper, apologize
if there are errors

words that are less pleasing.

Denpasar, 25 January 2020

Team

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
FOREWORD...............................................................................................................2
TABLE OF CONTENT...............................................................................................3
CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY...................................................................................4
1.1. Background..................................................................................................4
1.2. Problem formulation....................................................................................4
1.3. Purpose of writing.............................................................................................5
CHAPTER II. DISCUSSION......................................................................................6
2.1. Metabolism, Carbohydrate, and Carbohydrate Metabolism....................6
2.2. Protein Metabolism....................................................................................22
2.3. Purines metabolism....................................................................................24
2.4. Lipid Metabolism.......................................................................................28
CHAPTER III. CLOSING........................................................................................36
1.1. Conclusions.................................................................................................36
REFERENCES............................................................................................................38

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 CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY

1.1. Background
One of the main needs of living things is food. Food is the main
ingredient that we need to produce energy to carry out all life activities. The
change of food into energy, naturally occurs in the cell as the smallest
functional and structural unit that makes up the body of living things.
In living things, cells are the smallest constituent units. Inside the cell is
the activity of changing reactions to produce the energy needed by humans.
Metabolism is a process of changing chemical reactions that occur in the body.
Metabolism consists of the formation of food (anabolism) and also the
breakdown of food into simpler compounds (catabolism). The importance of
metabolic processes in the body has an important effect on health. Because it
involves organs which are used as machines to help break down complex
compounds (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) such as the stomach, small
intestine, liver, and pancreas.
Based on the description above, this is what drives the author to create a
paper entitled "metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins".

1.2. Problem formulation

The formulation of the problem in writing this paper is as follows:
1. What is meant by metabolism?
2. What is the reaction of carbohydrate meatabolism?
3. What is the reaction of fat metabolism?
4. What is the reaction of protein metabolism?
5. what is the reaction of purin metabolism?

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1.3. Purpose of writing
The objectives of writing this paper are as follows:
1. To find out the meaning of metabolism.
2. To find out the reaction of carbohydrate metabolism.
3. To find out the reaction of fat metabolism.
4. To know the reaction of proten metabolism.

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 CHAPTER II. DISCUSSION

2.1. Metabolism, Carbohydrate, and Carbohydrate Metabolism

2.1.1. Definition of Metabolism
Metabolism comes from the word "metabole" from the Greek which
means to change. In the science, metabolism is simply defined as a chemical
process that takes place in the body of living things that aims to produce
energy. In humans, the main sources of energy are carbohydrates, protein, and
fat.
Metabolism includes the process of synthesis (anabolism) and
decomposition (catabolism) of compounds or components in living cells. All
metabolic reactions are catalyzed by enzymes and assisted by hormones.
To obtain energy, metabolic pathway can be classified into 3 categories:
1. Anabolic pathway (unification / synthesis)
This is the pathway used in the synthesis of body building compounds
and machinery. One example of this category is protein synthesis.
2. Catabolic pathway (decomposition)
This pathway includes various oxidation processes that release free
energy, usually in the form of high-energy phosphates or reducing
equivalent elements, such as respiration chains and oxidative
phosphorylation.
3. Amphibolic passage (crossing)
This pathway has more than one function and is present at the metabolic
junction so that it works as a link between the anabolic pathway and the
catabolic pathway. An example of this pathway is the citric acid cycle
(krebs).
2.1.2. Definition of Carbohydrates

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 Carbohydrate is organic compound consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
and oxygen (O). With the ratio of 1 atom of C, 2 atoms of H, 1 atom of O.
Carbohydrates are one source of energy and energy reserves that are processed
through metabolic processes.
How many foods that we eat everyday is a source of carbohydrates such as
rice, cassava, tubers, oats, sago, corn, potatoes, and several other fruits.
The general formula of carbohydrate is (CH 2O)n, while the most famous are
glucose with the formula C6H12O6, sucrose with the formula C12H22O11, cellulose
with the formula C6H10O5.
2.1.3.  Carbohydrates Fuction
   Carbohydrates have a very important function for the body, including
a. As a source of energy
b. Source of body glycogen
c. Source of parts of the carbon skeleton for protein synthesis
d. The source for glucose levels in the blood         
2.1.4. Carbohydrates Classification
Based on the number of sugar units in the chain, carbohydrates are
classified into 4 main groups, namely:
a. Monosaccharides: consisting of 3-6 C atoms and these substances can`t be
hydrolyzed anymore by acidic solutions in water into simpler carbohydrate.
The simplest monosaccharides are glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone.
While monosaccharides that are important for the body are glucose, fructose,
and galactose.
b. Disaccharides: The compounds are from two different or similar
monosaccharide molecules. Disaccharides can be hydrolyzed by acidic
solution in water so that it breaks down into 2 molecules of monosaccharides.
Examples of disaccharides are maltose (glucose + glucose), lactose (glucose +
galactose), and sucrose (glucose + fructose).
c. Oligosaccharides: compounds that consisting of combination 3 - 10
monosaccharides. For example trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides.

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d. Polysaccharides: compounds consisting of combination of more than 10
monosaccharide molecules, these compounds can be hydrolyzed into many
monosaccharide molecules. Polysaccharides are types of carbohydrates that
have both straight and branched chain structures. For example starch,
glycogen, dextrin, and cellulose.
2.1.5. Carbohydrates Digestion
The purpose is to convert carbohydrates into smaller bonds, mainly in the
form of glucose and fructose, so they can be absorbed by blood vessels through
the intestinal minor wall. The steps of carbohydrates digestion are as follows:
1. Mouth
The enzyme salivary amylase begins breaking down starch into shorter
polysaccharides.
2. Stomach
Salivary amylase is inactivated and no further carbohydrate digestion
occurs.
3. Small Intestine
Majority of starch digestion and breakdown of disaccharides occur here.
The enzyme pancreatic amylase breaks down starch into monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and oligosaccaharides.
4. The digestion of carbohydrates is completed by enzymes attached to the
brush border of the small intestinal villi. Here, the disaccharides and
oligosaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides.
5. Large intestine
Fiber and other indigestible carbohydrates are partially broken down by
bacteriato form short chain fatty acids and gas. The remaining fiber is
excreted in the feces
2.1.6. Metabolisme Karbohidrat
The process of carbohydrate metabolism consists broadly of two scopes
namely

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a. A breakdown reaction or catabolism, which consists of aerobic respiration
(requires oxygen) and anaerobes (not using oxygen).
b. Formation reaction or anabolism. For example: carbohydrate formation
occurs in the process of plant photosynthesis.
In humans, the most important in the process of carbohydrate
metabolism are:
a. Glycolysis, which is the oxidation of glucose or glycogen to pyruvate and
lactic acid through Embden-Meyerhof Pathway (EMP).
b. Glycogenesis, which is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose.
c. Glycogenolysis, which is the breakdown of glycogen, in the liver the end
result is glucose, whereas in muscle it is converted to pyruvate and lactic
acid.
d. The Krebs cycle (the tricarboxylic acid cycle / citric acid cycle) is a joint
pathway from the oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins through
acetyl-Co-A and will be oxidized completely to CO2 & H2O.
e. Hexose Monophosphate Shunt or pentose phosphate cycle is another way of
glucose oxidation in addition to EMP and the Krebs cycle.
f. Gluconeogenesis, which is the formation of glucose or glycogen from non-
carbohydrate substances.
g. Oxidation of pyruvic acid to acetyl Co-A, which is a continuation of
glycolysis and a link between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
2.1.7. Carbohydrate Metabolism Process
1. Glycolysis
Aerob
This stage is the beginning of cell respiration. Glycolysis is the process
of changing molecules of energy sources, namely glucose which has 6 C
atoms into simpler compounds, namely pyruvic acid which has 3 atoms C.
This reaction takes place in the cytosol (cytoplasm). Glycolysis reaction has
nine reaction steps which are catalyzed by certain enzymes. From the nine
stages of the reaction can be grouped into two phases, namely the energy

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 investment (endergonic) phase, namely from stage 1 to stage 4, and the
energy expenditure (exergonic) phase, namely from the phase 5 to stage 9.

1.  Glucose enters the cell through the process of diffusion. Glucose is

phosphorylated into glucose-6 phosphate by catalyzing the enzyme
hexokinase or glucokinase. ATP is needed as a phosphate donor and reacts
as a Mg-ATP complex. One high-energy phosphate is used, so the result is
ADP. (-1P).
Mg2+
Glucose + ATP   →    Glucose 6-phosphate + ADP

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2. Glucose 6-phosphate is converted to Fructose 6-phosphate with the help
of the enzyme phosphohexose isomerase. This enzyme only works on
anomers -glucose 6-phosphate.
-D-glucose 6-phosphate  -D- Fructose 6-phosphate

3. 3. Fructose 6-phosphate is converted to Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate with

the help of the enzyme phosphofructokinase. ATP becomes a phosphate
donor, so the result is ADP. (- 1P)
-D-fructose 6-phosphate + ATP   D-fructose 1,6-biphosphate

4. 4. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate is broken down into glyceraldehyde 3-

phosphate and dihydroxy acetone phosphate. This reaction is catalyzed
by the enzyme aldolase (fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase).
D-fructose 1,6- bisphosphate  glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate  +
dihydroxy acetone phosphate

5. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate can turn into dihydroxyacetone phosphate

and vice versa (interconversion reaction). This reversible reaction gets
the catalyst enzyme phosphotriose isomerase.
D- Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate  dihydroxyacetone phosphate

6. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is oxidized to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate with

help of by enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate can be converted to glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate then it is also oxidized to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
D- Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate + NAD⁺ + Pi    1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate + NADH + H⁺

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 7. At 1.3 bisphosphoglycerate, position 1 phosphate reacts with ADP to
ATP assisted by the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase. The remaining
compound produced is 3-phosphoglycerate.
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2) + ADP  3-phosphoglycerate (2) + ATP

8. 3-phosphoglycerate is converted to 2-phosphoglycerate with the help of

the enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase.
3-phosphoglycerate (2)  2-phosphoglycerate (2)

9. 2-phosphoglycerate is converted to phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) with the

help of the enzyme enolase. Enolase is inhibited by fluoride. This
enzyme depends on Mg2 + or Mn2 +.
2-phosphoglycerate (2)  phosphoenol pyruvate (2) + H2O

10.  Phosphate in PEP reacts with ADP to ATP with the help of the enzyme
pyruvate kinase. The pyruvate enol formed is spontaneously converted to
keto pyruvate.
phosphoenol pyruvate (2)+ ADP → pyruvate (2) + ATP

Each breakdown of 1 glucose molecule in the glycolysis reaction will

produce a dirty product in the form of 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, 2 molecules
of NADH, 4 molecules of ATP, and 2 molecules of water. However, at the
beginning of this reaction 2 ATP molecules were used, so the net result of this
reaction was 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (C3H4O3), 2 molecules of NADH, 2
molecules of ATP, and 2 molecules of water. Although four ATP molecules are
formed at the glycolysis stage, the overall reaction product is two ATP
molecules. There are two ATP molecules that must be given in the initial phase
of glycolysis. The glycolysis stage does not require oxygen.

Anaerobic

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 Anaerobic metabolism is pursued when human muscles do hard work and
insufficient oxygen supply. The reaction is as follows

2.      Oxidative Decarboxylation
Each pyruvic acid produced will then be converted into Acetyl-CoA
(coenzyme-A). This pyruvic acid will lose the carboxyl group as CO2 and
diffuse out of the cell. The two remaining carbon groups will then undergo
oxidation so that the hydrogen group is removed and captured by the NAD +
electron acceptor. This process takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.

The formed clusters are then added coenzyme-A to become acetyl-CoA.

The end result of this oxidative decarboxylation process will produce 2 acetyl-
CoA and 2 NADH molecules. Formation of acetyl-CoA requires the presence
of vitamin B1.
2. Krebs Cycle
Every 1 acetyl-CoA will experience 1 krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
which takes place in the mitochondrial matrix. In this process it will change
into several forms so that many acceptors are produced. Hans A. Krebs was

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 the first person to observe and explain this phenomenon in 1930. Each stage
in the citric acid cycle is catalyzed by a special enzyme. The following are
the stages that occur in the citric acid cycle.

 Acetyl-CoA will donate acetyl groups to oxaloacetate to form citric acid.

Coenzyme-A will be removed and replaced by the addition of water
molecules.
 Changes in the formation of citric acid to isocitric acid will be accompanied
by the release of water.
 Isocitric acid will release a group of atom C with the help of the enzyme
isositric dehydrogenase, forming α-ketoglutaric acid. NAD + will get an
electron donor from hydrogen to form NADH. The α-ketoglutarate acid is
then converted to succinyl CoA.
 Succinic acid thiokinase helps release CoA groups and ADP gets phosphate
donors to ATP. Finally, succinyl-CoA turns to succinic acid.
 Succinic acid with the help of succinic dehydrogenase will turn into fumaric
acid with the release of an electron group. At this stage, electrons will be
captured by the FAD acceptor into FADH2.

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 Fumaric acid will be converted to malic acid with the help of the fumarase
enzyme.
 Malic acid will form oxaloacetic acid with the help of the enzyme malic
acid dehydrogenase. NAD + will accept electron donations from this stage
and form NADH.
 With the formation of oxaloacetic acid, the cycle can begin again with the
contribution of two carbon groups from acetyl CoA.

3. Electron Transfer

FADH and NADH that have been obtained from the previous steps are electron
carriers (electron acceptors) that have potential energy. An energy can be
harvested through an electron transfer process that occurs in the inner
mitochondria membrane. In the inner membrane of the mitochondria there are
cytochrome complexes:

 Cytochrome I, III, and IV are integral proteins that can penetrate two
phospholipid layers.
 Cytochrome II is a porifera protein.
a) Ubiquinone Cycle (Q)
b) Cytochrome C

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Process with NADH

 Electrons in NADH will be transferred to cytochrome I

 Then it will continue to cytochrome I→ cytochrome Q→cytochrome
III→ cytochrome IV→and end when the electrons are captured by O2,
with the reaction:
2H⁺ + 1/2H2O → H2O

Process with FADH2

 Electrons in FADH2 cannot be captured by cytochrome I, therefore

FADH2 needs another protein, cytochrome II.
 After the electrons enter cytochrome II, then to cytochrome
Q→cytochrome III→Cytochrome IV.

Cytochrome I, III, and IV are protein channels. That is, the protein has canals
(upper and lower holes) so that it allows H⁺ to pass through the protein. When
electrons pass through the protein, it actively opens the channel. Then, the
protein will transfer the H luar to the outside (the space between the
membranes) which makes the PH fall (acid).

Each NADH oxidation produces about 3 ATP and approximately 2 ATP for
each FADH2 oxidation.

Total Energy Produced

No Step Place Process The result

1 Glycolysis Cytosol Glucose (6C) →2pyruvic 2pyruvic acid
acid (3C)+ 2 ATP+ 2NADH 2 ATP
2NADH
2 oxidative mitochondria 2 pyruvic acid→ 2 acetyl 2 acetyl Ko-A
decarboxylation l matrix Ko-A+ 2CO2+ 2 NADH 2CO2
2 NADH
3 kreb cycle mitochondria 2 acetyl Ko-A→ 4CO2+ 4CO2

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 l matrix 6NADH+ 2FADH+ 2ATP 6NADH
2FADH
2ATP
4 electron inner  10NADH+ 5O2→ 34ATP
transport membrane of 10NADH + 1O H2O H2O
the  2FADH + O2
mitochondria →2FAD 2 H2O
1 mol NADH = 3ATP
1mol FADH2 = 2 ATP

4. Glycogenesis
Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen formation that occurs mainly in
the liver and muscles. Excess levels of glucose in the blood will trigger the
secretion of the hormone insulin to trigger glycogenesis. This glycogen can be
broken down again into glucose when blood glucose levels decrease as in a
state of hunger or fasting.
Glycogenesis occurs by adding glucose molecules to an existing
glycogen chain (referred to as primary glycogen). The addition of glucose will
occur gradually, one by one glucose molecules will extend the existing
glycogen. The process Of Glycogenesis:

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 Glucose phosphorylation by ATP into glucose 6-phosphate, catalyzed by
the enzyme glucokinase in the liver / hexokinase in the muscles.
 Next, glucose 6-phosphate undergoes an isomerated reaction to glucose 1-
phosphate, catalyzed by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase. Glucose 1-
phosphate reacts with uridine tri phosphate (UDP) to uridyl in glucose
phosphate (UDP-glucose), catalyzed by the enzyme glucose 1-phosphate
uridyl transferase.
 UDP-glucose will then be bound to the existing glycogen chain, catalyzed
by the glycogen synthase enzyme. In this process, the first C atom of UDP-
glucose is bound to the fourth C atom that is in the primary glycogen chain
and forms a 1-4 glycosidic bond.
 Next branching enzyme will move approximately 6 glucose residues in
one of the glucose residues in primary glycogen to form branch points. The
six glucose residues will be bound to C number 6 atoms in the primary
glycogen molecule.
 Increasing glucose continues in both branches until it gets longer and
many new branches will form in various locations.
 Glycogenesis will end when the sugar in the blood has reached normal
levels.

5.  Glycogenolysis

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 Glycogenolysis is the process of breaking down glycogen into glucose
which occurs mainly in the liver and muscles. Glycogen is broken down when
blood sugar levels are low and when you are exercising. Glycogenolysis is
triggered by the action of the hormones adrenaline and glucagon, in contrast to
insulin which will affect the formation of glycogen through glycogenesis. The
process of solving glycogen involves 3 types of enzymes namely glycogen
phosphorylase, transferase, and debranching enzyme. The process of
glycogenolisis :

 The glycogen phosphorylase enzyme will add inorganic phosphate and

release glucose in the form of glucose 1-phosphate. This solution will
continue until approximately 4 glucose residues remain from the branch
point.
 Transferase enzymes will move 3 glucose residues to the other end of the
branch, this process will leave one glucose residue at the branch point
bound by α 1-6 glycosidic bonds.
 Debranching enzyme or branch-breaking enzyme (α 1-6 glucosidase) will
release glucose at the branch point and release it in the form of glucose (not
glucose 1-phosphate as in the first reaction).

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 The process of glycogenolysis ends at the above stage, but the results of the
breakdown of glycogen in the form of glucose 1-phosphate will undergo a
further process so that it can turn into glucose.

The phosphoglucomutase enzyme will catalyze the isomeration reaction of

glucose 1-phosphate into glucose 6-phosphate. In the liver and kidneys glucose
6-phosphate will experience phosphate release and turn into glucose. But in
muscle the glucose 6-phosphate will directly enter the glycolysis reaction to be
processed into energy in the form of ATP.

The glycogen broken down in the liver is used to maintain blood sugar
levels to remain normal, while the glycogen in the muscles will be used to
produce energy. The liver is able to store glycogen by 6% of the total liver
mass, while the muscle can only store less than 1% of the muscle mass.

6. Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate

compounds. This process takes place mainly in the liver and kidneys.
Gluconeogenesis meets the body's glucose requirements if carbohydrates from
food or glycogen reserves are inadequate. The goal is to maintain a balance of
glucose levels in blood plasma to avoid hypoglycemic symptomas. Substrates
of gluconeogenesis are derived from amino acid catabolism. However, lactate
produced in red blood cells and muscles in anaerobic conditions can also act as
a substrate for gluconeogenesis. In addition, other substrates which are products
of the glycolysis pathway, such as pyruvic acid, succinic acid, lactic acid,
oxaloacetic acid. The process Of Gluconeogenesis

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 Phosphoenolpyruvate is formed from pyruvic acid through the
formation of oxaloacetic acid.
- (a). pyruvic acid + CO2 + ATP + H2O → oxaloacetic acid + ADP
+ Phosphate + 2H +, catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase
(b). oxaloacetate + guanosintrifosfate → phosphoenolpyruvate +
guanosindyphosphate + CO2, catalyzed by phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxylase.
The total of reactions (a) and (b) are:
pyruvic acid + ATP + GTP + H2O → phosphoenolpyruvate + ADP
+ GDP + phosphate + 2H +
 Fructose-6-phosphate is formed from fructose-1,6-diphosphate by
hydrolysis by the enzyme fructose-1,6-diphosphatase.
fructose-1,6-diphosphate + H2O →fructose-6-phosphate +
phosphate.

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  Glucose is formed by hydrolyzing glycose-6-phosphate with the
catalyst glucose-6-phosphatase.
glucose-6-phosphate + H2O →glucose

2.2. Protein Metabolism

2.2.1. Definition of protein

Protein is an organic polymer compound derived from amino acid

monomers that have peptide bonds. The term protein comes from the Greek
"protos" which means "first and foremost".
Protein is needed for growth and repair of damaged cells. Approximately 20%
of our food must be in the form of protein.
Proteins are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (N), sometimes the
phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) elements.

2.2.2. Protein forming

Proteins are formed from amino acids, which are:

1. Essential amino acids are amino acids that cannot be formedby the body.
There are 8 essential amino acids, namely: isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, valine, tryptophan, threonine, and phenylalanine.
2. Nonessential amino acids, which are amino acids that can be synthesized by
the body. Example: alanine, asparagine, glycine, glutamine, and proline.

2.2.3. Protein Function

In our body, protein has several functions, including:
1. Enzyme material to catalyze biochemical reactions, such as trypsin.
2. Protein reserves, stored in several ingredients as food reserves, for
example in layers of aleuron (corn kernels), ovalbumin (egg whites).

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 3. Protein transport, transferring certain substances or elements, for
example hemoglobin to bind O2.
4. Contractile protein, for certain tissue contractions, such as myosin for
muscle contractions.
5. Protective protein, protecting the body against foreign substances, such
as antibodies that hold resistance to the entry of foreign molecules
(antigens) into the body.
6. Toxin, is a poison that comes from animals, plants, for example snakes.
7. Hormones, are proteins that function as regulators of processes in the
body, such as the hormone insulin, in animal hormones auxin and
gibberellin in plants.
8. Structural proteins, proteins that make up cell structure, living tissue and
body organisms, such as glycoprotein for cell walls, keratin for hair and
fur.
9. Builds damaged cells.
10. Energy sources.
11. Regulator blood acid base.
12. Balance body fluids.
13. Antibody formation.

2.2.4. Protein Metabolism Process

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 Proteins that will enter the body's tissues are first processed, and this
process is what is called the protein metabolism process. In this process the rest
of the metabolism of protein has CO2 and HO2 in the form of gases to be
transported by blood plasma in the blood vessels and into the lungs to be
excreted out of the body. This comes out of the body in the form of CO2 and is
a waste from the process of protein metabolism. While H20 in liquid form is
transported to the skin and also the kidneys will be excreted or excreted in the
form of sweat, and when it arrives at the kidneys will be excreted in the form of
urine.
NH3 compounds and also NH40H are compounds that have toxic
properties and are very dangerous for cells in the body. Therefore, before this
compound is released the processing will be carried out in the day to become
urea, so it is not harmful to the body. In the form of urea, this is a waste product
which is the rest of metabolism that is transferred to the kidneys to be excreted
in the form of urine.

2.3. Purines metabolism

2.3.1. Definition purines

Purines is the main components of DNA, RNA, coenzymes (NAD, NADP,

ATP, UDPG). Purine nuclei is the nuclei of the nucleotide molecular compound
compounds of RNA and DNA nucleic acids. Examples of Purines are Adenine
and Guanine. Purines are dietically nonessential elements meaning humans can
synthesize nucleotides denovoally (from anfibolic intermediate compounds),
even though they do not consume nucleic acids.Nucleosides are named after
their basic bases: adenine nucleicides (adenosine), guanine nucleicides
(guanosin), uracil nucleosides (uridine), thymine nucleicides (thymidine),
cytosine nucleicides (cytidine).

 Purines is the main components of DNA, RNA, coenzymes (NAD,

NADP, ATP, UDPG).

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  Examples of Purines: (adenine, guanine, hypoxanthine, xanthine) →
metabolized to gout

The results of research using radioisotopes, it turns out that each

component found in the purine core framework comes from various sources
including :

1. Atom C (6) The purine nucleus is derived from the carbon atom of the
respiratory air CO2 molecule.

2. N atom (1) purine nucleus derived from the nitrogen atom of the amino
group (-NH2) aspartate molecule.

3. Atom C (2) and C (8) purine nuclei are the product of the transformational
reaction derived from the donor compound of the formal group which results in
the coenzyme FH4 (tetra hydro folate).

4. The N (3) and N (9) atoms come from the nitrogen amide group of the
glutamine molecule.

5. Atom C (4) C atom (5) and N atom (7) are glycine molecules.

2.3.2. Steps of Purine biosynthesis

1. Purine synthesis is initiated by the reaction of PRPP (5-phospho ribosil pyro

phosphate) molecules derived from ribose-5P which links ATP and Mg² + ions
as activators.

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2. Furthermore, the formation of 5-Phosphoribosilamine compounds from the
reaction of PRPP with glutamine. This reaction also produces glutamic amino
acid + Ppi
3. Next the formation of GAR compounds (glycin amid ribosil-5P) from the
results of the reaction of ribosilamin-5P with glycine which activates ATP and
Mg² + as activators and which is catalyzed by the enzyme GAR syn-thetase.
4. Then GAR performs the formulation reaction which is catalyzed by
transformylase enzyme with coenzyme FH4 (tetrahydrofolat) and formyl group
donor compound, forming the formyl glycine amid its ribosil-5P compound.
The carbon of the formal group atoms occupies the position of the C-8 purine
nucleus.

5.Then the formyl glycine compound amid ribosil 5P performs an amination

reaction (in its 4th carbon atom) with an amino donor compound (in the form of
glutamine) and the formation of the formyl-glycinamidine-ribosil-5P. The new
atomic group N atom occupies the N-3 position of the purine nucleus.
6. Then the chain closure reaction occurs and the formation of amino-
imidazole-ribosil-5P compounds, then the amino-imidazole-ribosil-5P
compounds carry out CO2 fixation with biotin as a coenzyme and the fixed
carbon atom occupies the C atom (6) purine nucleus . The reaction continued

26
with aspartate to form a 5-amino-4- imidazole-N-succinyl ribosil-5P
carboxamide compound.

7.Compounds 5-amino-4- amidazole-carboxamide-ribosil-5P, performs the

formulation reaction which is catalyzed by the enzyme transformilase with
coenzyme FH4 (tetrahydrofolate) and formyl group donor compounds, the
formation of 5- formamido-4- imidazole carboxamide-ribosil enzymes -5P.

8. Finally, the ring closure reaction takes place the second time, the first purine
derivative is formed in the form of IMP (inosin monophosphate = inosinic
acid), which is a hyposanthine derivative or 6- octipurin. Whereas AMP and
GMP are derived from IMP.

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2.4. Lipid Metabolism
2.4.1. Definition of Lipid

These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble

only in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water because water is polar
molecules. In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver
and are and generally found in the oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried foods,
and also in some red meats.

Process Of Lipid Metabolism

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1. Lipolysis

Lipolysis is the metabolic pathway through which lipid triglycerides are

hydrolyzed into a glycerol and free fatty acids. In the first step, triacylglycerol
is hydrolyzed to make diacylglycerol and this is catalyzed by adipose
triglyceride lipase (ATGL). In the second step, diacylglycerol is hydrolyzed to
make monoacylglycerol and this is catalyzed by hormone-sensitive lipase
(HSL). In the last step, monoacylglycerol is hydrolyzed to make glycerol and
this is catalyzed by monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL).

29
 Then, glycerol enters the glycolisis cycle. But before entering glycolisis
step, glycerol must first change to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. In the first step,
glycerol gets one group fosfat from ATP to form glycerol 3-phosphate. Then,
this compound being dehidrogenated into dihidroxyacetone phosphate. After
that dihydroxyacetone phosphaet is isomerized to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.

After glycerol become glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, glyceraldehyde 3-

phosphate will enter glycolisis cycle into pyruvate.

2. Beta Oxidation
Beta oxidation is a metabolic process involving multiple steps by
which free fatty acid molecules are broken down into produce energy into
acetyl Co A. But free fatty acid before entering beta oxidation step, free faty
acid must frist be activated to Acyl Co A. In the presence of atp and
coenzym A, free faty acid activated with catalyzed by acyl enzyme ko A
synthetase (thiokinase).
Beta oxidation prosess occurs in the mithocondrial matrix. Acyl Co A to
be able to penetrate mitochondria membrane changed into acyl carnitin.
After penetrate mitochondria membrane, then changed again become acyl
Co A. After that acyl Co A entered beta oxidation step.

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Beta oxidation step

Beta oxidation takes place in four steps: dehydrogenation, hydration,

oxidation and thyolisis. Each step is catalyzed by a distinct enzyme.

1)Dehydrogenation

In the first step, acyl-CoA is oxidized by the enzyme acyl CoA

dehydrogenase. A double bond is formed between the second and third carbons
(C2 and C3) of the acyl-CoA chain entering the beta oxidation cycle; the end
product of this reaction is trans-Δ2-enoyl-CoA (trans-delta 2-enoyl CoA). This
step uses FAD and produces FADH2, which will enter the citric acid cycle and
form ATP to be used as energy. (Notice in the following figure that the carbon
count starts on the right side: the rightmost carbon below the oxygen atom is

31
C1, then C2 on the left forming a double bond with C3, and so on.)

2)Hydration

In the second step, the double bond between C2 and C3 of trans-Δ 2-

enoyl-CoA is hydrated, forming the end product L-β-hydroxyacyl CoA, which
has a hydroxyl group (OH) in C2, in place of the double bond. This reaction is
catalyzed by another enzyme: enoyl CoA hydratase. This step requires water.

3) Oxidation

In the third step, the hydroxyl group in C2 of L-β-hydroxyacyl CoA is

oxidized by NAD+ in a reaction that is catalyzed by 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA
dehydrogenase. The end products are β-ketoacyl CoA and NADH + H. NADH
will enter the citric acid cycle and produce ATP that will be used as energy.

4)Thiolysis

Finally, in the fourth step, β-ketoacyl CoA is cleaved by a thiol group

(SH) of another CoA molecule (CoA-SH). The enzyme that catalyzes this
reaction is β-ketothiolase. The cleavage takes place between C2 and C3;
therefore, the end products are an acetyl-CoA molecule with the original two

32
first carbons (C1 and C2), and an acyl-CoA chain two carbons shorter than the
original acyl-CoA chain that entered the beta oxidation cycle.

5)End of Beta Oxidation

In the case of even-numbered acyl-CoA chains, beta oxidation ends

after a four-carbon acyl-CoA chain is broken down into two acetyl-CoA units,
each one containing two carbon atoms. Acetyl-CoA molecules enter the citric
acid cycle to yield ATP. Acetyl Ko A then enters the citric acid cycle to
produce ATP.

3.Ketogenesis

Ketogenesis is a metabolic pathway that produces ketone bodies, which

provide an alternative form of energy for the body.

The process is part of the acetyl Ko A turned into aceto acetate.

Furthermore, acetate acetate will turn into hydroxy granules and acetate.
Hydroxy granules and acetate are called ketone bodies.

4.Cholesterogenesis

A portion of acetyl Ko A can be converted to cholesterol

(Cholesterogenesis) which can then be used to be synthesized into steroids
(Steroidoenesis).

5. Lipogenesis

Lipogenesis is the metabolic process through which acetyl-CoA is

converted to triglyceride for storage in fat. When glucose levels are plentiful,

33
 the excess acetyl CoA generated by glycolysis can be converted into fatty acids,
triglycerides, cholesterol, steroids, and bile salts. This process, called
lipogenesis, creates lipids (fat) from the acetyl CoA and takes place in the
cytoplasm of adipocytes (fat cells) and hepatocytes (liver cells). When you eat
more glucose or carbohydrates than your body needs, your system uses acetyl
CoA to turn the excess into fat. Although there are several metabolic sources of
acetyl CoA, it is most commonly derived from glycolysis. Acetyl CoA
availability is significant, because it initiates lipogenesis. Lipogenesis begins
with acetyl CoA and advances by the subsequent addition of two carbon atoms
from another acetyl CoA; this process is repeated until fatty acids are the
appropriate length. Because this is a bond-creating anabolic process, ATP is
consumed. However, the creation of triglycerides and lipids is an efficient way
of storing the energy available in carbohydrates. Triglycerides and lipids, high-
energy molecules, are stored in adipose tissue until they are needed.

6. Esterification
The esterification process is the process of converting fatty acids from
triglycerides into esters.

2.4.2. Lipid Metabolism Pathway

1. Exogenous Pathway
After the food is broken down by the body, the resulting breakdown in
the form of triglycerides and cholesterol is repackaged in the intestine in the
form of large particles of lipoproteins, called Kilomicrons. This chylomicron
will carry it into the bloodstream. Then the triglycerides in the chylomicron
will be further decomposed by the lipoprotein lipase enzyme to form free fatty
acids and retained chylomicrons. Then the triglycerides in the chylomicron
will be further decomposed by the lipoprotein lipase enzyme to form free fatty
acids and retained chylomicrons.

34
 The free fatty acids produced will penetrate the fatty tissue under the
skin and muscle cells to be converted into triglycerides back as energy
reserves. While remnan chylomicrons will be metabolized in the liver to
produce free cholesterol. Some cholesterol that reaches the liver will
be converted into bile acids, which will be released into the intestine,
functions like a cleanser and helps the process of absorption of fat from food.
Some of the cholesterol released through
the bile ducts without being metabolized again then becomes bile acids which
the liver will distribute to other body tissues through endogenous pathways.

2. Endogenous Pathway
Foods that enter the body with a lot of carbohydrate content will be
processed by the liver into fatty acids which will eventually form
triglycerides.Triglycerides will be transported in the body in the form of a
lipoprotein called VLDL (very low density lipoprotein).This VLDL will be re-
metabolized by the body into IDL (intermeida density lipoprotein) which will
be reprocessed by the body into LDL (low density lipoprotein) which is rich
in cholesterol.

35
 CHAPTER III. CLOSING

1.1. Conclusions

Based on the results of the discussion it can be concluded as follows:

3. Glycolysis, which is: where glucose is metabolized into pyruvate (aerobes)

producing energy (8 ATP) or lactate (anerobes) producing (2 ATP). The
oxidative decarboxylation reaction produces 2 NADH and CO2. The Krebs
cycle produces 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2ATP + CO2. The final result is
energy of 38 ATP for one glucose molecule.
4. Glycogenesis, namely: the process of changing glucose into glycogen. In
the liver / liver functions: to maintain blood sugar levels. Whereas in muscle
aims: the muscle's own interest in needing energy. Glycogenolysis, namely:
the process of changing glycogen to glucose. Or the opposite of
glycogenesis. Gluconeogenesis: non-carbohydrate compounds (pyruvate,
lactic acid, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids) to glucose.
5. The end result of the breakdown of lipids from food is fatty acids and
glycerol. If the energy source of carbohydrates is sufficient, then the fatty
acids esterify by forming esters with glycerol to triglycerides as long-term
energy reserves. If at any time there is no energy source available from
carbohydrates then fatty acids are oxidized, both fatty acids from the diet
and if you have to break down the tissue triglyceride reserves. This
triglyceride breakdown process is called lipolysis. The process of oxidation
of fatty acids is called beta oxidation and produces acetyl CoA.
Furthermore, as acetyl CoA from carbohydrate and protein metabolism,
acetyl CoA from this pathway will enter the citric acid cycle to produce
energy. On the other hand, if energy needs are sufficient, acetyl CoA can
undergo lipogenesis to fatty acids and can then be stored as triglycerides.
Some non-glyceride lipids are synthesized from acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA

36
 undergo cholesterogenesis to cholesterol. Furthermore cholesterol
undergoes steroidogenesis to form steroids. Acetyl CoA as a result of fatty
acid oxidation also has the potential to produce ketone bodies (aceto acetate,
hydroxy butyrate and acetone). This process is called ketogenesis. Ketone
bodies can cause acid-base balance disorders called metabolic acidosis. This
situation can cause death.
6. Protein metabolism includes: protein degradation (food and intracellular
protein)
into amino acids, amino acid oxidation, amino acid biosynthesis, and
protein biosynthesis.

37
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