SRI KRISHNA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING

MODULE 1
Session: Braking forces

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SESSION OBJECTIVES

❑ On the completion of this session, the students might be

able to understand,
▪ Forces during braking of the vehicle

▪ Factors contributing to the braking of the vehicle

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Topics

❑ Rolling resistance

❑ Aerodynamic drag

❑ Driveline drag

❑ Grade

❑ Brake factor

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Braking forces

❑ The braking forces arise due to a number of additional factors other than
the brakes itself.

Braking forces

Rolling Aerodynamic Driveline Grade Brake factor

resistance drag drag

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 Rolling resistance

❑ Rolling resistance aids in braking as it

opposes vehicle motion

𝑅𝑥𝑓 + 𝑅𝑥𝑟 = 𝑓𝑟 𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑟 = 𝑓𝑟 𝑊

Fr – rolling resistance coefficient

❑ Nominally equivalent to 0.01 g

deceleration

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Aerodynamic drag

❑ The drag due to air resistance

depends on the dynamic pressure

❑ It is proportional to the square of

the velocity of the vehicle

❑ Negligible at low speeds

❑ Normal highway speeds – 0.03g

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Driveline drag
❑ Engine, transmission and the final drive contribute to both inertia effects
and braking action
❑ Due to friction b/w the bearings, gear friction in the transmission and
differential and engine braking
❑ Engine braking is equivalent to the “motor torque” arising from internal
friction and air pumping losses
❑ Driveline drag depends on rate of deceleration
❑ Vehicle slows down faster – drive wheel brakes pick up extra load to
decelerate
❑ Vehicle decelerates slowly – driveline components contribute to
braking effort

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Grade
❑ Road grade – positive uphill

and negative effect downhill

❑ Grade – “rise” over the ‘run”

𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑅𝑔 = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≅ 𝑊𝜃

𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒/𝑅𝑢𝑛

❑ For 4% grade – deceleration of

0.04g can be observed

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Brakes
❑ Commonly used types – Drum brake and disk brake
❑ Brake factor is a mechanical advantage that can be utilized in drum
brakes to minimize the actuation effort required
❑ Drum brakes - high brake factor and easy incorporation of parking brake
❑ Disc brakes – low brake factor – higher actuation forces – integral parking
brake features
Drum brake Disk brake

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 Brake factor
❑ Taking moments about pivot of shoe A

𝛴𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒𝑃𝑎 + 𝑛𝜇𝑁𝐴 − 𝑚𝑁𝐴 = 0 ①

Leading shoe
Pa ❑ Also, friction develop by each shoe
μNB
B A

NB NA
𝐹𝐴 = 𝜇𝑁𝐴 𝐹𝐵 = 𝜇𝑁𝐵 ②
e
Drum
rotation μNA m ❑ From 1 & 2, we get

Pivots 𝐹𝐴 𝜇𝑒 𝐹𝐵 𝜇𝑒
n = =
Trailing shoe
𝑃𝑎 𝑚 − 𝜇𝑛 𝑃𝑎 𝑚 + 𝜇𝑛

Moment produced by the friction force of leading shoe increases the friction
force. This “self servo” action yields a mechanical advantage called “Brake
factor”
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Brake factor
❑ The torque normally increase linearly with
Sagging
increase in load up to the levels that vary with
speed and the energy absorbed
𝑇𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑃𝑎, 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
❑ The torque produced by the brake acts to
generate the braking force

(𝑇𝑏 − 𝐼𝑤 𝛼𝑤)
𝐹𝑏 =
𝑟
❑ During wheel lock up process, the wheel
acceleration and inertia forces can be combined
with vehicle mass 𝑇𝑏
𝐹𝑏 =
𝑟
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 Brake proportioning
❑ Relationship b/w the front and rear brake
forces determined by the pressure applied
Front Brake Force(lb)

and the gain of each

❑ To achieve all performances, proportioning
design must pass through all the triangles
❑ Solution: Proportioning valve to provide
equal pressure
❑ Primary factor: gain of the brakes
Rear Brake Force(lb)
1st effectiveness 𝑇𝑏 𝑃𝑎
2nd effectiveness 𝐹𝑏 = =𝐺
𝑟 𝑟
3rd effectiveness
0.3, lightly loaded
0.3, GVWR
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Braking efficiency
❑ Ratio of actual deceleration achieved to the best
𝐷𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝜂𝑏 = performance possible (friction factor) on the given road
𝜇𝑝
surface
❑ Determined by calculating brake forces, deceleration,
axle loads and braking coefficient
❑ Braking coefficient – ratio of brake force to load
❑ Ideally, efficiency should be 1
❑ But due to diverse loading conditions and load transfer
during braking efficiency falls below 1

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 END

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