Topic 2: Molecular Biology

2.3 Carbohydrates
Condensation reactions make bonds.
Hydrolysis bonds break these bonds.

Watch the following animation and make a

generalisation about the processes:
- function, roles of enzymes, roles of water

http://is.gd/MaltoseGIF
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Monosaccharide Glucose has the formula C6H12O6

#1 It forms a hexagonal ring (hexose)

Glucose is the form

of sugar that fuels
respiration
Glucose forms the
base unit for many
polymers

5 of the carbons form

corners on the ring
with the 6th corner
taken by oxygen
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glucose_crystal.jpg
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Monosaccharide #2 Galactose is also a

hexose sugar
Spot the difference
It has the same
formula C6H12O6
but is less sweet

Most commonly
found in milk,
but also found
in cereals
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Galactose-3D-
balls.png

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alpha-D-glucose-3D-
balls.png
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Fructose is another
Monosaccharide #3 pentose sugar

Commonly found in
fruits and honey

It is the sweetest
naturally occurring
carbohydrate
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Ribose is a pentose
Monosaccharide #4 sugar, it has a
pentagonal ring

It forms the backbone

of RNA

Deoxyribose differs as
shown in the diagram,
and forms the
backbone of DNA
N.B. the above monosaccharides are included for continuity from statement
“2.1.S2 Identification of biochemicals such as sugars, lipids or amino acids from
molecular diagrams.”. They are not referred to in the formation of the following
disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Original owner of image
unknown
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
Disaccharides form via condensation reactions
producing a water molecule
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Disaccharide #1
Maltose (C12H22O11) is a dimer
of glucose

Gosh! Isn’t it sweet?! The two glucose

molecules are holding hands.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maltose_syrup.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maltose_Haworth.sv
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Disaccharide #2 Lactose (C12H22O11) is most

commonly found in milk
(Literally “two sugars”)

The two subunits that

make up lactose are
glucose and galactose,
our friends from a
couple of slides ago.

http://www.flickr.com/photos/vermininc/2764742483/
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alpha-lactose-from-xtal-3D-
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.

Disaccharide #3 Sucrose (C12H22O11) is also

known as table sugar

Themonosaccharides
The two two subunits
thatthat
makemake
it upupare
sucrose
glucose arefructose
and glucose
and fructose.
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation
reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
2.3.A1 Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and
glycogen in humans.
• Cellulose is made by linking together β-glucose
Polysaccharide #1 •
molecules.
Condensation reactions link carbon atom 1 to carbon
atom 4 on the next β-glucose.
• The glucose subunits in the chain are oriented
Cellulose alternately upwards and downwards.
• The consequence of this is that the cellulose
molecule is a straight chain, rather than curved.

• Cellulose molecules are unbranched chains of β-glucose.

• Hydrogen bonds link the the molecules together.
• The linked molecules form bundles called cellulose microfibrils.
• They have very high tensile strength.
• The tensile strength of cellulose (the basis of cell walls) prevents plant
cells from bursting, even under very high (water) pressure.
2.3.A1 Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and
glycogen in humans.
Amylose and
Polysaccharide #2 Amylopectin are both
forms of starch and
made from repeating
glucose units

• Starch is made by linking together α-glucose molecules

• Condensation reactions link carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 4 on the next α-
glucose
• all the glucose molecules in starch can be orientated in the same way
• The consequence of this is that the starch molecule is curved, rather than straight.
• Size of the molecule is not fixed

http://www.flickr.com/photos/caroslines/5534432762/
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amylose3.svg
2.3.A1 Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and
glycogen in humans.
• In amylose the chain of α-glucose
Polysaccharide #2 molecules is un-branched and forms a helix.
• Typically amylose is made up of 300-3,000
glucose units
• In amylopectin the chain is branched, so
has a more globular shape.
• Due it’s branched nature amylopectin can
be much larger consisting of 2,000-
200,000 units

• Starch is only made by plant cells.

• Molecules of both types of starch are hydrophilic but are too large to be soluble in water.
• Starch does not affect the osmotic balance of cells, i.e. cause too much water to enter them
• It is easy to add or remove extra glucose molecules to starch
• Therefore starch is useful in cells for glucose, and http://www.flickr.com/photos/caroslines/5534432762/
consequently energy, storage.
2.3.A1 Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and
glycogen in humans.
Polysaccharide #3 • Glycogen (C6H10O5)n is a polymer made
from repeating glucose subunits
• Glycogen is not just a simple chain, it • The molecule varies in size, typically it
branches many times consists of 30,000 units
• Condensation reactions link carbon
atom 1 - 4 on the next α-glucose.
Branches occur where a condensation
reaction instead links carbon atom 1 – 6.
• As a result the molecule is compact

• Glycogen is made by
animals and also
some fungi.
• It is stored in the liver
and some muscles in
humans.
• Glycogen does not affect the osmotic balance of cells, i.e. cause too • It is used in cells
much water to enter them where large stores of
• It is easy to add or remove extra glucose molecules to starch dissolved glucose
• Therefore glycogen is useful in cells for glucose, and consequently would cause osmotic
energy, storage.
Polysaccharides – Starch and Cellulose

Starch Cellulose

• α-D-glucose • β-D-glucose (unbranched)

• Helical shaped (branched and • Microfibrils formed by hydrogen
unbranched) bonding
• Insoluble storage of glucose in • Great tensile strength
plants • Make up plant cell walls
Polysaccharides – Starch

Amylose Amylopectin

http://www.azaquar.com/sites/default/files/doc/en_images/chemistry/ca_glucides9.gif
Polysaccharides - Glycogen

• Glucose storage in mammals (insoluble)

• 1-4 and 1-6 linkages of α-D-glucose

http://www.agsdus.org/assets/images/autogen/a_glycogen-structure.jpg
Glycogen
is an insoluble storage molecule in the
liver. When blood glucose is high, the
pancreas releases insulin, telling the
liver to capture blood glucose and
combine molecules of glucose to
make the polysaccharide glycogen,
through condensation reactions.

This stores energy for later.

When blood glucose drops,

the hormone glucagon causes
the glycogen to be broken down
(hydrolysis reactions) to glucose and
then released back into the blood. blood glucose blood glucose
too high too low

Liver from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leber_Schaf.jpg

 Lactose is a disaccharide produced in mammal mothers.
Lactose It consists of glucose and galactose and is easily digested by the lactase
enzyme in the young animal’s digestive system.

By producing a small disaccharide that

can be broken down by lactase, the
mother can provide her young with a
source of energy that can be quickly
digested after feeding and then readily
used in respiration.

Breastfeeding logo from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Breastfeeding-icon-med.svg

 Carbohydrates

Form Description Example

Monosaccharide • Monomer • Glucose, galactose, fructose
Disaccharide • Polymer • Glucose + glucose  maltose
• Two monomers linked together by + H 2O
a glycosidic bond • Glucose + galactose  lactose
+ H 2O
• Glucose + fructose  sucrose
+ H 2O
Polysaccharide • Polymer • Starch
• Long chains of 40-1000 • Glycogen
monomers linked together by • Cellulose
glycosidic bonds
Jmol: molecular visualization software

1. Download at
http://sourceforge.net/projects/j
mol/files/latest/download?source
=files
2. Open “Jmol.jar”
3. Go to File/Get MOL
4. Type in either glycogen, starch or
cellulose
5. Manipulate the molecules so you
will be able to identify them

Refer to textbook page 75/6 and answer questions 1-7