Project Report On: "Variation in Intrinsic Viscosity by Ostwald Method - A Study

PROJECT REPORT ON
“VARIATION IN INTRINSIC VISCOSITY BY OSTWALD METHOD

-A STUDY”
Submitted for Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of
Master in Industrial Chemistry, CVM University, Vallabh Vidyanagar.
A.Y. 2021-22
Under the Guidance of

‘DR.PRAVIN M. PATEL’
Department of Industrial Chemistry,
ISTAR, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Anand.
Submitted By:
1. Aftab F. Mansuri (20IC03) 4. Dhruti M. Patel (20IC25)
2. Chirag R. Valand (20IC19) 5. Dhruv S. Patel (20IC27)
3. Dhrupal P. Ram (20IC24) 6. Dhruv V. Bhadja (20IC28)
7. Parul A. Rathva (20IC71)
1
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that Mr. Aftab F. Mansuri (20IC03) has successfully completed

his work incorporated in this dissertation entitled “VARIATION IN INTRINSIC
VISCOSITY BY OSTAWLD METHOD A-STUDY” submitted towards partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Master of Science in Industrial
Chemistry (101310401) of the Charutar Vidya Mandal University, Vallabh-
Vidhyanagar.
The results embodied in the dissertation are to the best of my knowledge and
have not been submitted to any University/Institute for the award of any
degree.
The work is carried out by him is under my supervision and guidance.
Dr. Pravin M. Patel Dr. Rohit H. Dave

Project Guide &, HOD Of, Head & Assistant
professor professor. Dept. of
Dept. of Industrial Chemistry, Industrial chemistry
V.P. & RPTP College ISTAR College
V.V. Nagar. Anand. V.V. Nagar. Anand.
2
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that Mr. Chirag R. Valand (20IC19) has successfully completed

Vidhyanagar.
degree.

3
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that Mr. Dhrupal P. Ram (20IC24) has successfully completed his
work incorporated in this dissertation entitled “VARIATION IN INTRINSIC
fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Master of Science in Industrial
Vidhyanagar.
degree.

4
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that Mrs. Dhruti M. Patel (20IC25) has successfully completed his
Vidhyanagar.
degree.
Dr. Pravin M.Patel Dr.Rohit H.Dave

5
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that Mr. Dhruv S.Patel (20IC27) has successfully completed his
Vidhyanagar.
degree.

Project Guide &, HOD Of, Head &Assistant
6
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that Mr. Dhruv V. Bhadja (20IC28) has successfully completed his
Vidhyanagar.
degree.

professor professor.dept.of
7
CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that Mrs. Parul A. Rathva (20IC71) has successfully completed

Vidhyanagar.
degree.

8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are extremely thankful to Charutar Vidyamandal and authorities of

ISTAR for granting us permission to perform our project work and
providing us excellent facilities.
We express our sincere thanks to Dr. Pravin M. Patel, Head and

Associate professor of Industrial Chemistry Department, V.P &
R.P.T.P. College Vallabh Vidyanagar, and Mrs. Vidhi Patel,
Associate Professor, V.P. & RPTP College, Vallabh Vidyanagar for
guiding us throughout this project work. We would also like thank our
professors for constantly guiding us and helping us throughout the
project.
We are also thankful to the Mr. Minesh Patel, laboratory assistant, store
keeper and Mr. Naveen Patel, peon of Industrial Chemistry Department
for their co-operation.
At last, but not the least, we extent our heartfelt thanks to our colleagues
for giving us support during course of this project work.
9
INDEX
Sr. No. Title Page
number
1 Aim of the project 11
2 Abstract 12
3 • Introduction 13
• What is polymer?
• Classification
• Application
4 • Polyvinyl Alcohol 20
• Preparation
• Use
5 • What is Validation? 22
• Types of Validation
6 • What is Viscosity? 25
• Types of Viscosity
• Intrinsic viscosity
• Types of Viscometer
7 • Experimental Parts 30
• Apparatus
• Ostwald viscometer
• construction
• Procedure
• Statistical Analysis
8 Result 43
9 Conclusion 44
10 References 45
10
Aim of project work
To Determine the Intrinsic Viscosity of Given Sample of Polyvinyl

Alcohol in Various Capillray Size Ostwald Viscometer and to validate
the Ostwald Viscometer.
11
ABSTRACT
Two different grades polyvinyl alcohol and three different size capillary's
ostwald viscometer looking to the intrinsic viscosity there is no significant
difference observed.
12
INTRODUCTION:
What is Polymer?
Polymer, any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large
molecules, called macromolecules that are multiples of simpler chemical units
called monomers. Polymers make up many of the materials in living organisms,
including, for example, proteins, cellulose, and nucleic acids. Moreover, they
constitute the basis of such minerals as diamond, quartz, and feldspar and such
man-made materials as concrete, glass, paper, plastics, and rubbers. [1]
 HISTORY:
Polymers are the base of important artificial goods. Their rapid-fire growth in
product is caused, beside social factors, by the necessity to replace classical
accoutrements. The word “polymer” was introduced by the Swedish druggist J.J.
Berzelius. He considered, for illustration, benzene (C6H6) to be a polymer of
ethyne (C₂H₂). Latterly this description passed a subtle revision. Polymer wisdom
is a fairly new discipline which deals with plastics, natural and synthetic
filaments, rubbers, coatings, bonds, sealants, etc.; all of these materials currently
have come veritably common.
The conception of polymers is one of the great ideas of the 20th century. It came
into existence in the 1920s amid prolonged contestation and its acceptance is
nearly associated with the name of H. Staudinger who received the Nobel Prize
in 1953. Numerous exemplifications of synthetic polymers can be mentioned;
some every day, like polyesters or nylons, others less known, like the bones used
for medical operations for organs, degradable sutures, etc. [2]
PLASTICS:
The first plastic material was based on nitrocellulose and was obtained by Parkes
in 1862 and Hyatt in 1866. The addition of camphor to nitrocellulose led to the
first thermoplastic (a modified natural polymer) known as celluloid. By 1900 this
material was used for movie film. In about 1897, galalith (gala = milk, lithos =
stone) was produced in Germany by reacting casein (a milk protein), with
formaldehyde.
The first synthetic thermoset polymer (a phenol-formaldehyde (PF)), known as
Bakelite, was obtained in 1907 by Baekeland through the polycondensation of
phenol with formaldehyde. Bakelite was commercialized in 1909–1910. The
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commercial development of this PF material is considered to be the beginning of
the truly synthetic plastic era and of the plastic industry, although cellulose nitrate
(semi-synthetic) had been known and in use for some time. The successful use of
PF resin catalyzed the development of other polycondensation products based on
formaldehyde (F) with urea (U) and melamine (M), known as amino resins,
aminoplasts or aminoplastics. Such polymers were first described by Tollens in
1884 and were patented by John in 1918. Aminoplasts, contrary to phenoplasts,
can be made translucent or in light colors. In 1926 Rossiter produced aminoplasts
based on formaldehyde and mixture of urea and thiourea. The production of MF
resins began in the mid-1930s. Unsaturated polyesters (uPES) were discovered in
1933 by Ellis and commercialized around 1942. These polycondensation
products are known as alkyds, name which appears to have been derived from
alcohol (alk) and acid (yd); they are used primarily as coatings. From the same
family, glycerophthalic (Glyptal) coatings involve glycerol and phthalic
anhydride. [3]
FIBERS:
The defining characteristic of a fiber is its thread-like form, without restriction on
chemical composition. Fibers can be metallic, mineral or organic. Nearly all
nonmetallic fibers are polymeric materials, either natural, artificial (modified
natural) or synthetic. Natural fibers such as wool and cotton have aspect ratios in
the order of 103 or greater. The organic fibers are carbon or heterochain polymers;
the major mineral fibers like glass and asbestos are macromolecular silicates.
Organic synthetic fibers are mostly thermoplastic, some are elastomeric and very
few are thermosets. Their history covers less than 75 years. In the beginning,
textile fibers came from nature: animal skins, hair, wool, silk from silkworms,
and plants like flax, cotton, hemp, etc.
The utility of flax and hemp twines was recognized even in the Stone Age. Flax
fabrics were used in pre-dynastic Egypt (fine linen cloth being woven in 3800
BC) and in Neolithic lake dwellings in Switzerland. References to hemp and
ramie (fibers cultivated in temperate latitudes, and unknown to ancient Egyptians
and Hebrews or to early Greeks) occur in Chinese writings dating 2800 BC and
in early Sanskrit literature. Jute appears to have been cultivated in Bengal from
the most ancient times.
Traditionally the culture of silk began in 2640 BC in China, where for many
centuries its origin and the art of manipulating it were kept secret (it did not reach
Japan until AD 300). There are Sanskrit records dating from 1000 BC that refer
to the working of silk in ancient India. [4]
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ELASTOMER (RUBBER):
The first mention of rubber trees is to be found in De Orbe Nuovo by Pietro
Martire d’Anghiera, published in Latin in 1516. The outstanding source of natural
rubber, the large forest tree Heveea Brasiliensis, occurs in the southern equatorial
region, mainly in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Ceylon, India, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Brazil, Africa and some other countries from Asia and South America.
Such trees were called “Cau-uchu” or “weeping wood” in South-America. The
name was derived from the use of the material as an eraser, “rub off pencil
marks”, an application introduced by Priestley in 1770. The original name of
caoutchouc is still used to denote rubber in many languages other than English,
where it is reserved for the rubber hydrocarbon.
Until 1823, when Macintosh patented the use of coal tar, the lack of a satisfactory
solvent delayed the progress of rubber utilization and the natural rubber remained
little more than an academic novelty. In 1839 Goodyear found that heating rubber
with sulfur and white lead gave it far superior properties. Hancock exploited this
process, termed vulcanization by Brockeden, to provide an elastic material
insoluble in common solvent, from the initial thermoplastic one. The so-called
cure, namely treatment with sulfur chloride, which is now obsolete, was
discovered by Parkes in 1840. Page reported the results of his studies on natural
rubber in 1847. This endeavor may well represent the onset of interdisciplinary
research activity involving macromolecules.[5]
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS:
 Classification based on source of availability:
1) Naturally occurring Polymers: These occur in plants and animals and are
very essential for life. These include starch cellulose, proteins, nucleic acids
and natural rubber. Starch is a polymer of glucose, cellulose is also a polymer
of glucose, and proteins are polymers of amino acids. Natural rubber consists
of repeat units of isoprene (2-Methyl-1, 3 Butadiene).
2) Semi-synthetic Polymers: These are mostly derived from naturally occurring

polymers by chemical modifications. Cellulose on acetylation with acetic
anhydride in presence of sulphuric acid forms cellulose diacetate used in
making threads and materials like films, glasses etc. Vulcanized rubber has
much improved properties and is used in making tyres etc. Gun-cotton, which
is cellulose nitrate, is used in making explosives.
15
3) Synthetic Polymers: The polymers which are prepared in the laboratory are
called synthetic polymers. These are also called man made polymers. These
include fibres, plastics and synthetic rubbers and find diverse uses as clothing,
electric fittings, eye lenses, substitute for wood and metals.
 Classification based on mode of polymerization:

1) Homopolymers: and Copolymers: Polymers when made by polymerisation
of single monomeric chemical species are known as homopolymers.
Polythene formed from ethylenes is a homopolymer.
When the polymers are synthesised by polymerisation of two or more than two
different monomers, they are called copolymers. When styrene and butadiene
are polymerised, it gives the copolymer called styrene-butadiene rubber.
2) Addition and Condensation Polymers:

(a) Addition Polymers: A polymer formed by the direct repeated addition of
monomer is called addition polymerisation. In this type of polymers, the
monomers are unsaturated compounds and are generally derivatives of
ethene.
(b) Condensation Polymers: Condensation polymerisation involves a series of
condensation reactions generally involving two different monomers. Each
monomer normally contains two functional groups. During these reactions,
there is a loss of small molecules usually water. Some of the condensation
polymers are; nylon, terelene, alkyd resins, bakelite.
 Classification based on structure:

(a) Linear chain Polymers: These are polymers in which monomeric units are
linked to form linear chains. These linear polymers are well packed and
therefore have high densities, high tensile strength and high melting points.
For example, polythene, nylon and polyesters are linear chain polymers.
(b) Branched chain Polymers: These are polymers in which monomers are
joined to form long chains with branches of different lengths. These
branched chain polymers irregularly packed and therefore, they have low
tensile strength and melting points than linear polymers. For example, low
density polyethene, glycogens etc.
(c) Cross-linked Polymers: These are polymers in which monomer units are
cross-linked together to form a three-dimensional network. These polymers
16
are hard, rigid and brittle because of network structure. For example
melamine formaldehyde resin bakelite etc.
 Classification based on Molecular Forces:
(a) Elastomers: In these polymers, the chains are held together by weakest
intermolecular forces which permit the polymers to be stretched. A few
'cross-links' are introduced between the chains which help the polymers to
regain its original position, when the force is released. e.g., vulcanized
rubber.
(b) Fibers: These polymers possess high tensile strength and are used in making
fibers.
This is due to the strong inter nuclear forces like hydrogen bonding
which operate, for example in nylon-66(a polyamide). These forces also
lead to close packing of chains and thus give crystalline nature. Because
of that, these polymers show sharp melting points.
(c) Thermoplastics: These are polymers in which the intermolecular forces of

attraction are mid-way between those of elastomers and fibres. Due to that,
these can be easily moulded by heating. In thermoplastic polymers, there
exists no cross-linking between chains. Examples of these polymers are
polyethylene, polystyrene etc.
(d) Thermosetting polymers: These are prepared from low molecular mass
semifluid substances. When heated in a mould, they get highly cross linked
to form hard infusible and insoluble products. The common example is
bakelite.[6]
Application:
1. In space
 It is used in construction material in aerospace and aircraft due to their light
weight, high strength and relatively better mechanical, thermal, electrical and
thermo-optical properties than other material.
 The polymer are also used to construct vehicle components such as body
panel, vision window, adhesive, instrument parts etc.
 The NASA also developing silicon nanocomposite coating for airbags to be
used to marsh exploration rovers. Because of silicon polymer reduced the
weight of the airbag.
17
 Boron-fiber reinforced polymer composite are used in military aircraft
components and helicopter rotor blads.
 Silicon carbide and aluminium oxide fiber-reinforced polymer are used in
making rocket nose cones.
2. In agriculture
 Polymer are widely used in the field of agriculture to improve physical
properties of soli and productivity.
 Polymer used in agriculture preventing soil erosion.
 Polymer used in agriculture reducing irrigation frequency.
 Polymer used in agriculture increasing water used efficiency.
 Polymer used in agriculture increasing plant performance especially in
drought.
3. In ocean
 Polymer are used as a metal alternative in sea application because of their
excellent properties such as light weight, no corrosion, high strength etc.
 There are used in making boat hulls, gas mask, life boats etc.
 PVC is used for making sea water pipes also fresh water.
 PMMA used as an optical fiber for making optical glass which is used under
sea.
 Neoprene is used for making life saving jacket which are used in marine life.
 Glass/Epoxy composite are used for cargo line.
 Nylon and fiber reinforced polymer are used in propeller for ships.
 Epoxy resin reinforced with keblar fiber are used in making the ull of ship
because of this composite is used light weight and provide high impact
strength and tear resistance
4. In electronics
 In general polymer have a poor electrical conductivity, but new polymer
material has been synthesized which process electrical conductivity
 Such polymer are called conducting polymer this process transforming
polymer to its conductive form via a chemical oxidation and reduction called
doping.
 Organic solar sail produced electricity from sunlight using polymer.
 Conducting polymer are used in making organic light emiting diodes which
are used in television screen, mobile, digital camara and watches.
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 Conducting polymer led polymer are used for rechargeable batteries it is
alternative to lead-acid batteries.
 Integrated circuit encapsulation is the design and manufacturing of
protective packages for circuit.
 LCP’s are use in LCD on digital watches, television and other digital display
5. In medical
 In 19th century, gutth-percha was used for filling
 In 1909 PMMA was used as an artificial teeth filing.
 In 1930 polyamide, polyester, polyethylene were prepared in different form
(rigid, soft, fiber, adhesive etc.) for several application filing, in plant,
sutures etc.
Sr no. Polymer Application

1. Nylon Used in sutures
2. Polyethylene Disposable syringe
3. Polypropylene Heart valve, blood filter
4. Silicon adhesive Covering burns and making artificial skin
5. PMMA Making dentures because it can be colour
matched to the patient teeth and gum tissue
6. Acrylic hydrogels Grafting
7. PVC Also in disposable syringe
8. PHEMA Contact lenses
9. Polyurethane Artificial heart, heart valves, blood filters
10. PMMA Used in cosmetic surgery for reducing
wrinkles and scares
6. In automobile
 Use of polymer in automobile manufacturing Instrument panel, Windows,
Engine, Tires, Body panels.
 Polymer widely used in structural component in automobile due to some
advantages they offer, which are not found in other material.
 The advantages are good specific strength and stiffness, part integration,
easy of processing, low density, light weight, relatively low cost, flexibility.
 Elastomer in tires natural rubber (NR), polyisoprene rubber (IR), styrene
butadiene rubber (SBR)
7. In civil engineering
 On road and sports surface
 Building reinforced
19
 Bridge building
 PVC with stabilizer and additive has been developed for roller shutters,
gutters, fences
 Polystyrene are used extensively in insulation application.
 Composite material are being used for local bearing construction
application.
 Recycle plastics are also being used in cement material.
 Polymer fiber also used to reinforce cement.
 Polymer mortars and concereted are used in application such as protective
coating [7]
 Polymer which we used in our project

Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVOH, PVA, or PVAl) is a water-soluble synthetic
polymer. It has the idealized formula [CH2CH(OH)]n. It is used in papermaking,
textile warp sizing, as a thickener and emulsion stabilizer in PVAc adhesive
formulations, in a variety of coatings, and 3D printing. It is colourless (white) and
odorless.
It is commonly supplied as beads or as solutions in water.[3][4] Without an

externally added crosslinking agent, PVA solution can be gelled through repeated
freezing-thawing, yielding highly strong, ultrapure, biocompatible hydrogels
which have been used for a variety of applications such as vascular stents,
cartilages, contact lenses, etc.. [8]
• Preparation
Unlike most vinyl polymers, PVA is not prepared by polymerization of the
corresponding monomer, since the monomer, vinyl alcohol, is
thermodynamically unstable with respect to its tautomerization to acetaldehyde.
Instead, PVA is prepared by hydrolysis of polyvinyl acetate,[9] or sometimes
other vinyl ester-derived polymers with formate or chloroacetate groups instead
20
of acetate. The conversion of the polyvinyl esters is usually conducted by base-
catalysed transesterification with ethanol
[CH2CH(OAc)]n + C2H5OH → [CH2CH(OH)]n + C2H5OAc
The properties of the polymer are affected by the degree of transesterification

Worldwide consumption of polyvinyl alcohol was over one million metric tons
in 2006.[10] Large producers include Kuraray (Japan, Europe, and US) and
Sekisui Specialty Chemicals (US), while mainland China has installed a number
of very large production facilities in the past decade[clarification needed] and
currently accounts for 45% of world capacity.
• Structure and properties
PVA is an atactic material that exhibits crystallinity. In terms of microstructure,
it is composed mainly of 1,3-diol linkages [−CH2−CH(OH)−CH2−CH(OH)−],
but a few percent of 1,2-diols [−CH2−CH(OH)−CH(OH)−CH2−] occur,
depending on the conditions for the polymerization of the vinyl ester
precursor.[9]
Polyvinyl alcohol has excellent film-forming, emulsifying and adhesive

properties. It is also resistant to oil, grease and solvents. It has high tensile
strength and flexibility, as well as high oxygen and aroma barrier properties.
However, these properties are dependent on humidity: water absorbed at higher
21
humidity levels acts as a plasticiser, which reduces the polymer's tensile strength,
but increases its elongation and tear strength.
• Uses
Polyvinyl alcohol has excellent film-forming, emulsifying and adhesive
properties. It is also resistant to oil, grease and solvents. It has high tensile
strength and flexibility, as well as high oxygen and aroma barrier properties.
However, these properties are dependent on humidity: water absorbed at higher
humidity levels acts as a plasticiser [11]
What is validation?
The action of checking or providing the validity or accuracy of something
Or
The action of making or declaring something legally or officially acceptable
Types of validation
 Prospective validation
 Concurrent validation
 Retrospective validation
 Revalidation(periodic and after change)
 Prospective validation
Prospective validation is carried out during the development stage.
It includes the division of the production process into separate steps, and the
analysis of potentially critical points in the manufacturing process e.g. mixing
times, or temperature.
This particular type of process validation is normally carried out with the
introduction of new products and manufacturing processes.
Before this validation can take place, the following requirements need to be
satisfied:
 The facilities & equipment must be qualified
22
 The operators running the validation batches must have an understanding of
the process
 The design and optimization must be completed
 The pilot laboratory batches must be completed
 Product stability information is available
 At least one pilot batch has been completed which shows no significant
deviations from the expected performance of the process.
Establishing documented evidence prior to process implementation that a

system does what it proposed to do based on pre-planned protocols. This
approach to validation is normally undertaken whenever the process for a new
formula (or within a new facility) must be validated before routine
pharmaceutical production commences. In fact, validation of a process by this
approach often leads to transfer of the manufacturing process from the
development function to production
 Concurrent validation
Concurrent validation is used for establishing documented evidence that a facility
and processes do what they purport to do, based on information generated during
actual imputation of the process. This approach involves monitoring of critical
processing steps and end product testing of current production, to show that the
manufacturing process is in a state of control.
Concurrent validation is carried out during normal production. It requires a full

understanding of the process based on prospective work.
It involves very close and intensified monitoring of all the manufacturing steps
and critical points in at least the first three production-scale batches [12]
Examples of in-process testing include:
 pH Value
 Tablet Hardness
 Weight Variation
 Dissolution Time
 Content Uniformity
 Viscosity or Density
 Colour or Clarity
 Particle Size Distribution
 Average Unit Potency
23
 Retrospective validation
Retrospective validation is used for facilities, processes, and process controls in
operation use that have not undergone a formally documented validation process.
Validation of these facilities, processes, and process controls is possible using
historical data to provide the necessary documentary evidence that the process is
doing what it is believed to do. Therefore, this type of validation is only
acceptable for well-established processes and will be inappropriate where there
have been recent changes in the composition of product, operating processes, or
equipment.
This approach is rarely been used today because it’s very unlikely that any
existing product hasn’t been subjected to the Prospective validation process. It is
used only for the audit of a validated process.
Retrospective validation is the analysis of accumulated results from past

production batches manufactured under identical conditions to assess the
consistency of a process.
It includes trend analysis on test results and a close examination of all recorded
process deviations and their relevant investigation reports.
This type of validation is applied to establish products who are considered stable
where prospective validation programs cannot be justified.
Using either data-based computer systems or manual methods the following

method can be used to perform
retrospective validation:
 Gather the numerical data from completed batch records

 Organise this data in sequence i.e. Batch Manufacturing Date
 Include the data for at least 20-40 batches, if the number is less than 20 include
all of the data available
 Lean the data by eliminating all of the non-critical numerical information
 Subject this data to statistical evaluation
 Analyse the state of control of the manufacturing process
 Generate a report of all findings
24
 Revalidation
Revalidation means repeating the original validation effort or any part of it, and
includes investigative review of existing performance data. This approach is
essential to maintain the validated status of the plant, equipment, manufacturing
processes and computer systems. Possible reasons for starting the revalidation
process include:
 The transfer of a product from one plant to another.

 Changes to the product, the plant, the manufacturing process, the cleaning
process, or other changes that could affect product quality.
 The necessity of periodic checking of the validation results.
 Significant (usually order of magnitude) increase or decrease in batch size.
 Sequential batches that fail to meet product and process specifications.
 The scope of revalidation procedures depends on the extent of the changes and
the effect upon the product.
Periodic revalidation offers the opportunity to check that the systems are still
operating as originally validated and that no unintended changes have affected
the process, system or piece of equipment and the end result. [13]
Conditions requiring revalidation can be summarised into 5 main categories:
 A change to a critical raw material involved with the drug make-up

 A change or replacement of a critical piece of equipment
 A change to the facility
 A significant increase or decrease in batch size
 Sequential products that that fail to meet product and process specifications
What is Viscosity?
Viscosity is property of liquid that is closely related to the resistance to flow. It is
also defined as shear stress divided by rate of shear strain.
 History
Jean-Louis-Marie Poiseuille was a French physicist and physiologist whose

interest in the circulation of blood in the human body led him to discover
viscosity. Poiseuille discovered viscosity by setting up experiments where he
would test the flow of liquids through different sized narrow tubes in the year of
1829
25
Types of Viscosity
• Relative viscosity
• Specific viscosity
• Reduced viscosity
• Inherent viscosity
• Intrinsic viscosity
a) Relative Viscosity (ηrel):- The ratio of the viscosities of the polymer

solution (of stated concentration) and of the pure solvent at the same
temperature. Also known as SOLUTIONSOLVENT VISCOSITY RATIO.
b) Specific Viscosity (ηsp):-The relative viscosity of a polymer solution of

known concentration minus 1; usually determined at low concentration of the
polymer; for example, 0.5 gram per 100milliliters of solution, or less.
c) Reduced Viscosity (ηred):-The specific viscosity (ηsp) divided by the

concentration, expressed in g/ml. Also known as VISCOSITY NUMBER.
d) Inherent Viscosity (ηinh):- The quotient of the natural logarithm ofrelative

viscosity and the concentration
e) Intrinsic viscosity of polymer

• It is defined as the ratio of the increase in relative viscosity by polymeric solute
to its concentration in limit of infinite dilution.
• It is useful to the determination of polymer viscosity
• Intrinsic viscosity determination is used in the field of polymer chemistry, a
chemistry subdiscipline which deals with the synthesis of polymers as well as
the analysis of a polymer’s structure and properties.
• The intrinsic viscosity is used to classify polymers and helps to identify the
applications that specific polymers can be used for.
• Polymers are macromolecules which are composed of small repeating units

called “monomers” (Figure 1).
• Depending on the type of monomer, the size and molecular structure of the
polymer molecule, polymers show unique properties.
26
• Many different techniques for polymer characterization are available. One of
those is “dilute solution viscometry” by which parameters such as the intrinsic
viscosity can be determined.
• Various types of glass capillary viscometers, especially Ubbelohde-type glass
capillary viscometers, are used for the determination of the intrinsic viscosity.
• Falling-ball- and rolling-ball viscometers are suitable alternatives.
• The rolling-ball viscometer in particular offers several advantages in
comparison to Ubbelohde viscometers. It has a smaller footprint and energy
consumption as well as lower solvent and sample consumption.
• Furthermore, the system is closed and can be automated which makes
handling much safer, efficient, and convenient for the users.[14] [15]
 Types of viscometers:
1. Orifice viscometer
An orifice viscometer usually consists of a cup with a hole, through which the
fluid flows. Viscosity is determined by timing how long it takes the cup to empty,
and is measured in cup seconds. Orifice viscometers are easy to use manually,
thanks to the fact that they’re simply dipped into the fluid being worked with
making them popular in painting industries. They include Zahn Cups, Ford Cups,
and more.
2. Capillary viscometers
27
Also known as U-tube viscometers, capillary viscometers include the Ostwald
and Ubbelohde variations. They’re straight-forward and simple to use,
consisting of a U-shaped glass tube with two bulbs (one higher and one lower).
Fluid passes from the higher bulb to the lower bulb through a capillary, and
viscosity is measured by timing how long it takes the fluid to pass through the
tube.
3. Falling piston viscometers

According to Wikipedia, falling piston viscometers were invented by Austin
Norcross, which is why they’re also called Norcross viscometers. They function
by drawing the fluid being measured into the piston cylinder while the piston is
raised; the time it takes the piston to fall (time-of-fall seconds) due to the
resistance of the fluid is used to determine viscosity. Falling piston viscometers
are easy to use and simple to maintain, and offer long product life.
4. Rotational viscometers
28
Rotational viscometers measure viscosity by immersing a rotating spindle in the
fluid to be tested. The amount of power (torque) required to turn the spindle
indicates the viscosity of the fluid, and because rotational viscometers do not use
gravity to function, their measurements are based on the fluid's internal shear
stress.
5. Falling ball viscometers

Falling ball viscometers work in a similar fashion to falling piston viscometers.
With this type of viscometer, a ball is dropped into a sample of the fluid being
measured. The dimensions of the ball are already known, so viscosity is
determined by timing how long it takes the ball (again, using time-of-fall seconds)
6. Vibrational viscometers
29
Vibrational viscometers use a powered vibrating rod to measure viscosity.
Different fluids are more or less resistant to vibrations depending on how viscous
they are. Therefore, by measuring the dampening of the vibration, or by
measuring how quickly the vibration of the viscometer degrades, viscosity can be
determined. Vibrational viscometers are very popular thanks to the fact that they
offer high sensitivity with no moving parts. [16]
 Experimental parts
We have measured the intrinsic viscosity of polyvinyl alcohol having different
grade
Below polymers is made up of different method A
 PVA GRADE 1
 PVA GRADE 2
 PVA GRADE 3
 Below polymers is made up of different method B
 PVOH GRADE 1
 PVOH GRADE 2
 PVOH GRADE 3
 Which contain Polyvinyl Alcohol-1, Polyvinyl Alcohol-2 and Polyvinyl
Alcohol-3 called sample A, B and C respectively.
 In all three grade we have measured the viscosity of each grade in different
concentration of 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0 gm polymer solution dissolved in
25 ml volumetric flask with water.
30
 We have measured it on room temperature by Ostwald viscometer
 Each reading taken for five times in three different Ostwald viscometer.
 Apparatus
Ostwald viscometer, Pipette, Volumetric, Flask, Beaker, Burette Stand, Water
for Dilution, Stopwatch &
Polymer samples:
 PVA GRADE 1
 PVA GRADE 2
 PVA GRADE 3
 PVOH GRADE 1
 PVOH GRADE 2
 PVOH GRADE 3
The Ostwald viscometer
 Construction of Viscometer
A viscometer is usually constructed in the shape of the English alphabet ‘U’.
The material used to construct a viscometer is usually preferred to be glass.
The wider limb of the viscometer is located on one side of the viscometer
capillary tube and is used as the opening from which the fluid whose viscosity
is required to be measured is poured. An Ostwald viscometer typically consists
of two bulbs that are attached to each other with the help of a U-shaped tube.
One of the bulbs is connected to the wider limb on one side and to the U-
shaped tube on the other side. . The second bulb is connected to the capillary
tube on one side and to the rubber tube on the other side. The second bulb
consists of two markings on either side. The main purpose of the two etched
marks is to track the limit of the flow of the liquids through the capillary tube.
These markings are generally denoted by upper mark-A and lower mark-B.
31
The second opening of the viscometer tube that is attached to a rubber tube is
used to suck the liquid inside. [17]
 Procedure
The working of an Ostwald viscometer is quite simple. The U-shaped glass
viscometer tube is held vertically still. The first step is to pour liquid into the
capillary tube through the wider limb or the pipette. The fluid is allowed to
flow through the tube freely. The liquid is poured into the tube till the bulb-1
gets properly filled with it. Once the bulb-1 gets filled with the liquid, it is
sucked from the other end of the tube. The liquid begins to travel from bulb-1
to bulb-2 through the U-tube. Once the liquid manages to reach bulb-2, it is
made to flow freely inside the capillary tube from the upper marking-A
towardstowards the lower marking-B. The time taken by the liquid to flow
from the upper mark to the lower mark is noted with
the help of a stopwatch. This time is then used to
determine the value of the viscosity of the liquid [17]
32
 Experimental data
Sample-
PVA G1
with Concentration T(Average) Ƞsp Ƞsp/C Ƞ Standard
different Deviation
Ostwald
Ostwald-A 1.0 13.56 0.059 0.059
t0= 12.80 0.75 13.33 0.041 0.055 0.026
0.50 13.07 0.021 0.042
0.25 12.91 0.008 0.034
Ostwald-B 1.0 46.15 0.034 0.034
t0=44.61 0.75 45.73 0.025 0.033 0.0203 0.0073
0.50 45.20 0.013 0.026
0.25 44.88 0.006 0.024
Ostwald-C 1.0 114.4 0.021 0.021
t0=112 0.75 113.2 0.015 0.020 0.0115
0.50 112.9 0.008 0.016
0.25 112.4 0.003 0.014
Sample-
PVA G2
different Deviation
Ostwald
Ostwald-A 1.0 13.65 0.066 0.066
t0= 12.80 0.75 13.43 0.049 0.065 0.037
0.50 13.13 0.025 0.051
0.25 12.92 0.009 0.037
Ostwald-B 1.0 46.67 0.046 0.046
0.0007
t0=44.61 0.75 46.08 0.032 0.043 0.0355
0.50 45.56 0.021 0.042
0.25 45.05 0.009 0.039
Ostwald-C 1.0 119.9 0.070 0.070
t0=112 0.75 117.6 0.050 0.066 0.0365
0.50 115.2 0.028 0.056
0.25 112.8 0.007 0.028
33
Sample-
PVA G3
different Deviation
Ostwald
Ostwald-A 1.0 13.75 0.074 0.074
t0= 12.80 0.75 13.45 0.049 0.065 0.0515
0.50 13.15 0.027 0.054
0.25 12.93 0.010 0.040
Ostwald-B 1.0 48.97 0.097 0.097
t0=44.61 0.75 47.52 0.065 0.086 0.051 0.0114
0.50 45.80 0.026 0.053
0.25 45.20 0.013 0.052
Ostwald-C 1.0 122.2 0.091 0.091
t0=112 0.75 119.6 0.067 0.089 0.071
0.50 116.8 0.042 0.085
0.25 114.2 0.019 0.078
Sample-
PVOHG1
different Deviation
Ostwald
Ostwald-A 1.0 13.53 0.057 0.057
t0= 12.80 0.75 13.34 0.042 0.056 0.015
0.50 13.15 0.027 0.054
0.25 12.94 0.010 0.043
Ostwald-B 1.0 46.51 0.042 0.042
t0=44.61 0.75 45.80 0.026 0.035 0.0145 0.0021
0.50 45.11 0.011 0.022
0.25 44.94 0.004 0.018
Ostwald-C 1.0 1.0 114.2 0.019
t0=112 0.75 0.75 113.2 0.010 0.011
0.50 0.50 112.7 0.006
0.25 0.25 112.3 0.002
34
Sample-
PVOHG2
different Deviation
Ostwald
Ostwald-A 1.0 13.65 0.066 0.066
t0= 12.80 0.75 13.38 0.045 0.060 0.030
0.50 13.22 0.029 0.059
0.25 12.96 0.012 0.050
Ostwald-B 1.0 47.31 0.060 0.060
t0=44.61 0.75 46.56 0.043 0.058 0.0205 0.0048
0.50 45.62 0.022 0.045
0.25 44.98 0.008 0.033
Ostwald-C 1.0 115.2 0.028 0.028
t0=112 0.75 114.3 0.020 0.027 0.024
0.50 113.5 0.013 0.026
0.25 112.7 0.006 0.025
Sample-
PVOHG3
different Deviation
Ostwald
Ostwald-A 1.0 13.65 0.066 0.066
t0= 12.80 0.75 13.38 0.045 0.060 0.042
0.50 13.22 0.029 0.059
0.25 12.96 0.012 0.050
Ostwald-B 1.0 47.54 0.065 0.065
t0=44.61 0.75 46.77 0.046 0.061 0.0375 0.0107
0.50 45.93 0.029 0.059
0.25 45.11 0.011 0.044
Ostwald-C 1.0 120.6 0.076 0.076
t0=112 0.75 118.2 0.055 0.073 0.058
0.50 115.9 0.034 0.069
0.25 113.8 0.016 0.064
35
Ostwald-A
t0=12.80 Concentration T(Average) Ƞsp Ƞsp/C Ƞ
1.0 13.56 0.059 0.059

PVA G1 0.75 13.33 0.041 0.055 0.026
0.50 13.07 0.021 0.042
0.25 12.91 0.008 0.034
1.0 13.65 0.066 0.066
PVA G2 0.75 13.43 0.049 0.065 0.037
0.50 13.13 0.025 0.051
0.25 12.92 0.009 0.037
1.0 13.75 0.074 0.074
PVA G3 0.75 13.45 0.049 0.065 0.0515
0.50 13.15 0.027 0.054
0.25 12.93 0.010 0.040
Ostwald-B
1.0 46.15 0.034 0.034

PVA G1 0.75 45.73 0.025 0.033 0.0203
0.50 45.20 0.013 0.026
0.25 44.88 0.006 0.024
1.0 46.67 0.046 0.046
PVA G2 0.75 46.08 0.032 0.043 0.0355
0.50 45.56 0.021 0.042
0.25 45.05 0.009 0.039
1.0 48.97 0.097 0.097
PVA G3 0.75 47.52 0.065 0.086 0.051
0.50 45.80 0.026 0.053
0.25 45.20 0.013 0.052
36
Ostwald-C
t0=112 Concentration T(Average) Ƞsp Ƞsp/C Ƞ
1.0 114.4 0.021 0.021

PVA G1 0.75 113.2 0.015 0.020 0.0115
0.50 112.9 0.008 0.016
0.25 112.4 0.003 0.014
1.0 119.9 0.070 0.070
PVA G2 0.75 117.6 0.050 0.066 0.0365
0.50 115.2 0.028 0.056
0.25 112.8 0.007 0.028
1.0 122.2 0.091 0.091 0.071
PVA G3 0.75 119.6 0.067 0.089
0.50 116.8 0.042 0.085
0.25 114.2 0.019 0.078
Ostwald-A
1.0 13.53 0.057 0.057

PVOH G1 0.75 13.34 0.042 0.056 0.015
0.50 13.15 0.027 0.054
0.25 12.94 0.010 0.043
1.0 13.65 0.066 0.066
PVOH G2 0.75 13.38 0.045 0.060 0.030
0.50 13.22 0.029 0.059
0.25 12.96 0.012 0.050
1.0 13.79 0.077 0.077
PVOH G3 0.75 13.41 0.047 0.063 0.042
0.50 13.32 0.030 0.060
0.25 12.99 0.014 0.059
37
Ostwald-B
1.0 46.51 0.042 0.042

PVOH G1 0.75 45.80 0.026 0.035 0.0145
0.50 45.11 0.011 0.022
0.25 44.94 0.004 0.018
1.0 47.31 0.060 0.060
PVOH G2 0.75 46.56 0.043 0.058 0.0205
0.50 45.62 0.022 0.045
0.25 44.98 0.008 0.033
1.0 47.54 0.065 0.065
PVOH G3 0.75 46.77 0.046 0.061 0.0375
0.50 45.93 0.029 0.059
0.25 45.11 0.011 0.044
Ostwald-C
t0=112 Concentration T(Average) Ƞsp Ƞsp/C Ƞ
1.0 114.2 0.019 0.019

PVOH G1 0.75 113.2 0.010 0.013 0.011
0.50 112.7 0.006 0.012
0.25 112.3 0.002 0.010
1.0 115.2 0.028 0.028
PVOH G2 0.75 114.3 0.020 0.027 0.024
0.50 113.5 0.013 0.026
0.25 112.7 0.006 0.025
1.0 120.6 0.076 0.076
PVOH G3 0.75 118.2 0.055 0.073 0.058
0.50 115.9 0.034 0.069
0.25 113.8 0.016 0.064
38
 Observations
Sample Ƞ
PVAG – 1 0.026
Ostwald - A PVAG – 2 0.037
PVAG – 3 0.0515
Sample Ƞ
PVAG – 1 0.0203
Ostwald - B PVAG – 2 0.0355
PVAG – 3 0.051
Sample Ƞ
PVAG – 1 0.0115
Ostwald - C PVAG – 2 0.0365
PVAG – 3 0.071
Sample Ƞ
PVOHG – 1 0.015
Ostwald - A PVOHG – 2 0.030
PVOHG – 3 0.041
Sample Ƞ
PVOHG – 1 0.0145
Ostwald - B PVOHG – 2 0.0205
PVOHG – 3 0.0275
Sample Ƞ
PVOHG – 1 0.011
Ostwald - C PVOHG – 2 0.024
PVOHG – 3 0.059
39
 Statistical Analysis :
What is statistical Analysis?
It’s the science of collecting, exploring and presenting large amounts of data
to discover underlying patterns and trends. Statistics are applied every day –
in research, industry and government – to become more scientific about
decisions that need to be made.
For example,
 Manufacturers use statistics to weave quality into beautiful fabrics, to bring
lift to the airline industry and to help guitarists make beautiful music.
 Researchers keep children healthy by using statistics to analyze data from the
production of viral vaccines, which ensures consistency and safety
 Government agencies around the world rely on statistics for a clear
understanding of their countries, their businesses and their people.[18]
 The Two Main Types of Statistical Analysis

In the real world of analysis, when analyzing information, it is normal to use
both descriptive and inferential types of statistics.
Commonly, in many research run on groups of people (such as marketing
research for defining market segments), are used both descriptive and
inferential statistics to analyze results and come up with conclusions.
 Descriptive Type of Statistical Analysis
As the name suggests, the descriptive statistic is used to describe! It describes

the basic features of information and shows or summarizes data in a rational
way. Descriptive statistics is a study of quantitatively describing.
This type of statistics draws in all of the data from a certain population (a
population is a whole group, it is every member of this group) or a sample of
it. Descriptive statistics can include numbers, charts, tables, graphs, or other
data visualization types to present raw data.
However, descriptive statistics do not allow making conclusions. You cannot
get conclusions and make generalizations that extend beyond the data at hand.
With descriptive statistics, you can simply describe what is and what the data
present.
For example, if you have a data population that includes 30 workers in a

business department, you can find the average of that data set for those 30
workers. However, you can’t discover what the eventual average is for all the
40
workers in the whole company using just that data. Imagine, this company has
10 000 workers.
Despite that, this type of statistics is very important because it allows us to

show data in a meaningful way. It It also can give us the ability to make a
simple interpretation of the data.
In addition, it helps us to simplify large amounts of data in a reasonable way.
 Inferential Type of Statistical Analysis
As you see above, the main limitation of the descriptive statistics is that it only
allows you to make summations about the objects or people that you have
measured.
It is a serious limitation. This is where inferential statistics come.
Inferential statistics is a result of more complicated mathematical estimations,

and allow us to infer trends about a larger population based on samples of
“subjects” taken from it.
This type of statistical analysis is used to study the relationships between

variables within a sample, and you can make conclusions, generalizations or
predictions about a bigger population. In other words, the sample accurately
represents the population.
Moreover, inference statistics allows businesses and other organizations to test

a hypothesis and come up with conclusions about the data.
One of the key reasons for the existing of inferential statistics is because it is
usually too costly to study an entire population of people or objects.
To sums up the above two main types of statistical analysis, we can say that
descriptive statistics are used to describe data. Inferential statistics go further
and it is used to infer conclusions and hypotheses. [19]
41
 Result
Y-Values
0.05
0.041
0.04
0.03
0.03
Ƞ
0.02 0.015
0.01
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Polyvinyl Alcohol Grade(PVOH)
Y-Values
0.06
0.0515
0.05
0.04 0.037
Ƞ 0.026
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Polyvinyl Alcohol Grade(PVAG)
42
 Conclusion
 As per observation as we going from grade-1 to grade-3, the

intrinsic viscosity (Ƞ) increased.
 This is also same in another polyvinyl alcohol made by different
method.
 In the measurement of intrinsic viscosity of sample PVA-G1 in
different Ostwald the range of Intrinsic viscosity is 0.011 to 0.026
which is very significant
 In the measurement of intrinsic viscosity of sample PVOH-G1 in
43
 References
1) https://www.britannica.com/science/polymer
2) J. W. Nicholson, Educ. Chem. 28, 70 (1991).
3) R. B. Seymour (Ed.), in: Pioneers in Polymer Science, pp. 81–91. Kluwer,
Dordrecht (1989).
4) 5. J. A. Charrier, Polymeric Materials and Processing. Hanser, Munich (1990).
5) 6. G. A. Russell (Ed.), in: Chemistry, Society, and Environment. A New
History of British Chemical
6) https://semesters.in/what-are-polymers-and-classification-of-polymers-notes-
pdf-ppt/
7) https://www.slideshare.net/AKSHAYAKUMAR20/aplication-of-polymer
8) Adelnia, Hossein; Ensandoost, Reza; Shebbrin Moonshi, Shehzahdi; Gavgani,
Jaber Nasrollah; Vasafi, Emad Izadi; Ta, Hang Thu (2022-02-05).
"Freeze/thawed polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels: Present, past and future".
European Polymer Journal. 164: 110974.
9) Hallensleben ML (2000). "Polyvinyl Compounds, Others". Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_743.
10) SRI Consulting CEH Report Polyvinyl Alcohol, published March 2007,
abstract retrieved July 30, 2008
11) Kawai F, Hu X (August 2009). "Biochemistry of microbial polyvinyl
alcohol degradation". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.
12) https://learngxp.com/good-validation-practices/the-four-types-of-
validation-used-in-the-life-sciences/
13) https://kneat.com/article/the-four-types-of-process-validation/
14) Tieke, B. (2005). Makromolekulare Chemie. 2nd ed. Weinheim:
WILEY_VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
15) Chanda, M. (2006). Plastics Technology Handbook. 4th ed. Boca Raton:
CRC Press
16) https://blog.viscosity.com/blog/6-different-types-of-viscometers-how-
they-work
17) https://studiousguy.com/working-principle-viscometer
18) https://www.analyticssteps.com/blogs/7-types-statistical-analysis-
definition-explanation
19) https://www.intellspot.com/types-statistical-analysis/amp
44

Project Report On: "Variation in Intrinsic Viscosity by Ostwald Method - A Study

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PROJECT REPORT ON

“VARIATION IN INTRINSIC VISCOSITY BY OSTWALD METHOD

Under the Guidance of

It is to certify that Mr. Aftab F. Mansuri (20IC03) has successfully completed

The work is carried out by him is under my supervision and guidance.

Dr. Pravin M. Patel Dr. Rohit H. Dave

It is to certify that Mr. Chirag R. Valand (20IC19) has successfully completed

The work is carried out by him is under my supervision and guidance.

Dr. Pravin M. Patel Dr. Rohit H. Dave

The work is carried out by him is under my supervision and guidance.

Dr. Pravin M. Patel Dr. Rohit H. Dave

The work is carried out by him is under my supervision and guidance.

Dr. Pravin M.Patel Dr.Rohit H.Dave

The work is carried out by him is under my supervision and guidance.

Dr. Pravin M. Patel Dr. Rohit H. Dave

The work is carried out by him is under my supervision and guidance.

Dr. Pravin M. Patel Dr. Rohit H. Dave

It is to certify that Mrs. Parul A. Rathva (20IC71) has successfully completed

The work is carried out by him is under my supervision and guidance.

Dr. Pravin M. Patel Dr. Rohit H. Dave

We are extremely thankful to Charutar Vidyamandal and authorities of

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. Pravin M. Patel, Head and

To Determine the Intrinsic Viscosity of Given Sample of Polyvinyl

2) Semi-synthetic Polymers: These are mostly derived from naturally occurring

 Classification based on mode of polymerization:

2) Addition and Condensation Polymers:

 Classification based on structure:

 Classification based on Molecular Forces:

(c) Thermoplastics: These are polymers in which the intermolecular forces of

Sr no. Polymer Application

 Polymer which we used in our project

It is commonly supplied as beads or as solutions in water.[3][4] Without an

[CH2CH(OAc)]n + C2H5OH → [CH2CH(OH)]n + C2H5OAc

The properties of the polymer are affected by the degree of transesterification

Polyvinyl alcohol has excellent film-forming, emulsifying and adhesive

Prospective validation is carried out during the development stage.

 The facilities & equipment must be qualified

Establishing documented evidence prior to process implementation that a

Concurrent validation is carried out during normal production. It requires a full

Examples of in-process testing include:

Retrospective validation is the analysis of accumulated results from past

Using either data-based computer systems or manual methods the following

 Gather the numerical data from completed batch records

 The transfer of a product from one plant to another.

Conditions requiring revalidation can be summarised into 5 main categories:

 A change to a critical raw material involved with the drug make-up

Jean-Louis-Marie Poiseuille was a French physicist and physiologist whose

a) Relative Viscosity (ηrel):- The ratio of the viscosities of the polymer

b) Specific Viscosity (ηsp):-The relative viscosity of a polymer solution of

c) Reduced Viscosity (ηred):-The specific viscosity (ηsp) divided by the

d) Inherent Viscosity (ηinh):- The quotient of the natural logarithm ofrelative

e) Intrinsic viscosity of polymer

• Polymers are macromolecules which are composed of small repeating units

3. Falling piston viscometers

5. Falling ball viscometers

determine the value of the viscosity of the liquid [17]

1.0 13.56 0.059 0.059

1.0 46.15 0.034 0.034

1.0 114.4 0.021 0.021

1.0 13.53 0.057 0.057

1.0 46.51 0.042 0.042

1.0 114.2 0.019 0.019

What is statistical Analysis?