CHAPTER TWO

Theoretical Framework & LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter is very essential part of social science research and the literature review tries

to summarize other author’s worm like books, articles, documents which is to relate to the topic.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

 Information processing theory

 Agenda Sitting theory

 Social Responsibility Theory (SRT)

 2.1.1 Information processing theory

The information processing theory approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out

of the American experimental tradition in psychology. Developmental psychologists who adopt

the information-processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturational

changes in basic components of a human’s mind. The theory is based on the idea that humans

process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective

equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from the

environment. According to the standard information-processing model for mental development,

the mind’s machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working

memory for actively manipulating information, and long-term memory for passively holding
information so that it can be used in the future. This theory addresses how as human grow their

brains likewise mature, leading to advances in their ability to process and respond to the

information they received through their senses. The theory emphasizes a continuous pattern of

development, in contrast with Cognitive Developmental theorists such as Jean Piaget that

thought development occurred in stages at a time.

Information Processing Theory is currently being utilized in the study of computer or artificial

intelligence. This theory has also been applied to systems beyond the individual, including

families and business organizations. For example, Ariel (1987) applied Information Processing

Theory to family systems, with sensing, attending, and encoding of stimuli occurring either

within individuals or within the family system itself. Unlike traditional systems theory, where the

family system tends to maintain stasis and resists incoming stimuli which would violate the

system's rules, the Information Processing family develops individual and mutual schemes which

influence what and how information is attended to and processed. Dysfunctions can occur both at

the individual level as well as within the family system itself, creating more targets for

therapeutic change. Rogers, P. R. et al (1999) utilized Information Processing Theory to describe

business organizational behavior, as well as to present a model describing how effective and

ineffective business strategies are developed. In their study, components of organizations that

"sense" market information are identified as well as how organizations attend to this information;

which gatekeepers determine what information is relevant/important for the organization, how

this is organized into the existing culture (organizational schemas), and whether or not the

organization has effective or ineffective processes for their long-term strategy.

This theory views humans as actively inputting, retrieving, processing, and storing information.

Context, social content, and social influences on processing are simply viewed as information.
Nature provides the hardware of cognitive processing and Information Processing theory

explains cognitive functioning based on that hardware. Individuals innately vary in some

cognitive abilities, such a memory span, but human cognitive systems function similarly based

on a set of memory stores that store information and control processes determine how

information is processed. The “Nurture” component provides information input (stimuli) that is

processed resulting in behaviour and learning. Changes in the contents of the long-term memory

store (knowledge) are learning. Prior knowledge affects future processing and thus affects future

behaviour and learning.

The Relevance /Link between the Theory and the Study

The justification for the use of this theory lies in the fact that the theory is based on the idea that

humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This

perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from

the environments. So the information gotten by residents or audience from television (OGTV)

will be received and responded to not just as stimuli but will be process at large have an impact

on their acceptance or behavior towards a particular message.

2.1.2 Agenda Setting Theory

The power of the media to set society’s agenda by focusing public attention on few key public

issues is an immense and well-documented phenomenon. It was McCombs and Shaw that carried

out the first systematic study of the agenda-setting hypothesis (see McCombs & Shaw, 1972).

The agenda setting theory posits that what the media finds important will eventually be mirrored

by what members of society will come to think are important. It facilitates the formation of

public opinions and the distribution of pros and cons of a particular issue. Agenda-setting shifts

the focus of attention away from immediate effects on attitudes and opinions to long term effects
on cognitions (Protess and McCombs 1991). Lang and Lang (1959) agree that not only do people

acquire factual information about public affairs from the media, readers and viewers also learn

how much importance to attach to a topic on the basis of the emphasis placed on it in the news.

Newspapers provide a host of cues about the salience of the topics in the daily news, like lead

story on page one, other front page display, large headlines, etc. Television news also offers

numerous cues about salience as well as the opening story on the newscast, length of time

devoted to the story. These cues repeated day after day effectively communicate the importance

of each topic.

. According to Ghorparde (1986), agenda setting is a relational concept that specifies a transfer

of salience from agenda primers (media) to agenda adopters (consumers). Agenda setting

research has shown that there is a correlation between what the media deems important and

salience in the public mind. The concept explains the ability of the media to tell us what to think

about. Ngoa (2006) explained that agenda setting refers to media audiences‟ acceptance as

important those issues, events and people because the media has made it so for people to think

and talk about. McQuail & Windahl (1981) observed that the media, by simply paying attention

to some issues while neglecting others, will effect on public opinion (adding that) the hypothesis

would seem to have escaped the doubts which early empirical findings had on the powerful

media effects view. Although the influence of media agenda can be substantial, the media alone

does not determine public agenda. Information and cues about object and attribute salience

provided by the news media are far from being the only determinants of public agenda. The

substantial influence of the media did not in any way nullify the basic assumption of democracy

that the masses have sufficient wisdom to determine the course of their nation, their state, and

their communities. McCombs (2005) claimed that people are quite able to determine the basic
relevance to themselves and to the larger public the topics and attributes advanced by the news

media. The media set the agenda only when citizens perceive their news stories as relevant.

Folarin (1998) identified four elements involved in agenda-setting to include: the amount or

frequency of reporting, the level of prominence given to the issue reported, and the degree of

conflict generated by the reports and the cumulative media-specific effect over time. Wood

(1983) in his contribution observed that virtually all communication researchers and writers seem

to agree that the media possess the power and prestige to determine for its audience what is

important. The media does this in three distinct ways, establishing materialistic goals, status

conferral and agenda-setting. Describing the concept of status conferral, Ngoa (2006) indicated

that it is closely related to the concept of agenda setting and adds that status conferral refers to

the media's ability to confer or bestow prestige as well as enhance the authority of individuals,

groups, organizations and even issues by legitimizing their status in the public's eye. As agenda –

setting on the other hand, refers generally, to the ability of the media to raise the importance of

an issue in the public's mind. Dearing & Rogers (1992) refers to agenda setting as “an ongoing

competition among issue proponents to gain attention of the media professionals, the public and

policy elites. Ngoa (2006) explained that the idea of people desiring media assistance to be able

to order their priorities, especially in determining political reality had been in existence but

without the name agenda setting. Consequently, White (1973) describes the ability of the media

to shape election campaigns as a primordial and sweeping political power unrestrained by any

law. The media sets the agenda of public discussion, and determines what people will think and

talk about; an authority usually reserved for tyrants, parties and priests in other nations. Again,

after the annulment of what most observers and participants saw as the most fair and free

election ever held in Nigeria in 1993, the media went to town agitating for the de-annulment and
revalidation of the elections. That particular media agenda appears to coincide with the agenda of

majority of Nigerians. Ngoa (2006) argues that the agenda-setting theory of mass communication

seems to have manifested in the unanimity among the media in Nigeria, with the agenda of

pursuing from office the then military ruler, Gen. Ibrahim Babangida who nullified the collective

will of Nigerians through the annulment of the election of Mr Abiola as President. Agenda-

setting as a theory of mass communication has become rather sophisticated and (McCombs &

Shaw, 1972) have also fine-tuned their hypothesis by postulating a “need for orientation” as a

crucial factor in peoples willingness to let the mass media shape their thinking; yet McQuail

(1987) insist that despite recent research on the theory, there is insufficient evidence to show

causal connection between the public's ordering of priorities and the order of importance placed

on issues by the media. He also notes that the doubts with agenda-setting as a theory stem from

not only the strict methodological demands but also from theoretical ambiguities, and as such

“agenda-setting theory remains within the status of a plausible but unproven idea. Accordingly,

agenda-setting theory is still developing and expanding both in focus and in dimension. The

latest development is a focus on a new level which McCombs and his associates referred to as

“second level of agenda- setting”. The “second-level-agenda-setting” model views an agenda as

an abstract notion and that many other things other than issues could be items on the list. Severin

& Tankard (2001) confirmed that opening up the agenda-setting concept to include the second

level has expanded the theory to now include even effective attributes or attitudes. Lang & Lang

(1983) also suggested that agenda setting as a concept expanded into the concept of “agenda

building”; a collective process in which the media, public and the government influence each

other in determining what issues to be considered important.

Critique of the Agenda-Setting Theory the order in which media agenda occur referred to as

“causal order of agenda-setting” is an important question in determining whether the media

influence public agenda or that the public influence media agenda. McCombs & Shaw (1972)

argued the whether the media influences public agenda, the result of their findings revealed a

strong correlation between the media and public agendas though it could not show which was

influencing the other. According to Severin & Tankard, (2001), there are certainly alternative

models of this relationship, of which the main one will reverse the flow and state that underlying

concerns of the public will shape both issues definition by political elites and those of the media,

a process which is fundamental to political theory and to the logic of free media. Infant et al.

(1990) argued that the media’s agenda-setting theory at least for the time being is left with the

status of a plausible but unproven idea, because it is fraught with theoretical ambiguities and

methodological inadequacies. The concept of inter-media agenda setting, calls to question who

the real agenda setters are. In other words, whose agenda is the media agenda? Besides, one of

the problems associated with agenda-setting is the monitoring of all media that an individual is

exposed to and the actual determination of how the individual has been affected.

The Relevance /Link between the Theory and the Study

The agenda setting theory posits that what the media finds important will eventually be mirrored

by what members of society will come to think are important. It facilitates the formation of

public opinions and the distribution of pros and cons of a particular issue or event in the society.

It can be said that the activities of television that is programme, materials and contents that the

audience and residents of Abeokuta are expose will mirror their main-sit and determine what

they will know and what they place important on. For instance, if OGTV keep talking and having
programmes related to the use of malaria treated net over a short period of them the residents and

audience will see to that fact that it is important and we accept it.

Social Responsibility Theory (SRT)

Press freedom and social responsibility theory work together. Social responsibility theory then

explains how media should ideally operate in a given society, and upon this standard the public

should judge media performance (Baran, 2010:407) Social responsibility theory asserts that

media must remain free from any kind of control, either from government or media proprietors.

This theory rests on the notion that free press must act responsibly, and should owe its duties to

the public (Asemah, 2011:147; Baran, 2010:407). This means that the media owes it has an

obligation to the society to maintain and sustain the social values and respect for human rights,

which must be reflected in their accurate coverage of the happenings in the society.

The core assumptions of social responsibility theory are succinctly captured by

McQuail (1987) as cited in Baran (2010:407), that:

1. Media should accept and fulfil certain obligations to society.

2. Media can meet these obligations by setting high standards of professionalism, truth,

accuracy and objectivity.

3. Media should be self-regulating within the framework of the law.

4. Media should avoid whatever material that might lead to crime or civil disorders, or

offend the minority groups.

5. Media as a whole should be pluralistic; it should reflect the diversity of culture in which

they operate, giving access to divergent points of view and rights of reply.
 6. The public has the right to expect high standard of performance, and official interventions

can be justified to ensure public good.

7. Media professional should be accountable to the society as well as their employers and

the market.

Despite all the criticisms that beset the practicability of this theory by several scholars, the views

expressed in Asemah (2011:150) can be justified; he says “one good thing about this theory is

that it reminds the journalist of his responsibility to the society”.

The Relevance /Link between the Theory and the Study

This goes to show that the tenet of social responsibility theory applies in this study, in the sense

that it impresses high standard of professionalism on both the journalists, media owners and

government in the discharge of their duties and day to day basis, television (OGTV) must at all

times give, truth, accuracy and objective information so Ogtv owns the residents and audience

that responsivity to inform them the relevants and important of using malaria treated net
2.2.1 Conceptualization of television

Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in

monochrome (black and white), or in colour, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The

term can refer to a television set, a television program ("TV show"), or the medium of television

transmission. Television is a mass medium for entertainment, sports, education, news, courtroom

drama, vintage programming, politics, gossip and advertising.

Television became available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s, but it would still be

several years before the new technology would be marketed to consumers. After World War II,

an improved form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and

Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and institutions. During

the 1950s, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion.

In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US and most other developed

countries. The availability of multiple types of archival storage media such as Betamax, VHS

tape, local disks, DVDs, flash drives, high-definition Blu-ray Discs, and cloud digital video

recorders have enabled viewers to watch pre-recorded material—such as movies— at home on

their own time schedule. For many reasons, especially the convenience of remote retrieval, the

storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first

decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity. Another
development was the move from standard-definition television (SDTV) (576i, with 576

interlaced lines of resolution and 480i) to high-definition television (HDTV), which provides a

resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats: 1080p,

1080i and 720p. Since 2010, with the invention of smart television, Internet television has

increased the availability of television programs and movies via the Internet through streaming

video services such as Netflix, Amazon Video, iPlayer, Hulu, Roku and Chromecast.( Diggs-

Brown & Barbara 2011)

In 2013, 79% of the world's households owned a television set. According to Julie Jacobson

(2012) ‘’The replacement of early bulky, high-voltage cathode ray tube (CRT) screen displays

with compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies such as LCDs (both

fluorescent-backlit and LED), OLED displays, and plasma displays was a hardware revolution

that began with computer monitors in the late 1990s. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-

panel, mainly LEDs.’’ Major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP,

plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are

expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs.[6] Also, major manufacturers have announced that

they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet

and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s.

Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered

radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers.

Alternatively, television signals are distributed by coaxial cable or optical fiber, satellite systems

and, since the 2000s via the Internet. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog
signals, but a transition to digital television is expected to be completed worldwide by the late

2010s. A standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a

tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is

correctly called a video monitor rather than a television.

2.2.2 Conceptualization of Malaria

Malaria is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in the world, accounting for 148–304 million

cases and an estimated 235,000–639,000 deaths globally. Most deaths occurred in the World

Health Organization (WHO) African Region (92%), followed by the WHO South-East Asia

Region (6%) and the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region (2%). Between 165,000 and 450,000

deaths are estimated to have occurred in children aged under 5 years, which is equivalent to 70%

of the global total.

Malaria is a life-threatening disease. It’s typically transmitted through the bite of an infected

Anopheles mosquito. Infected mosquitoes carry the Plasmodium parasite. When this mosquito

bites you, the parasite is released into your bloodstream. Once the parasites are inside your body,

they travel to the liver, where they mature. After several days, the mature parasites enter the

bloodstream and begin to infect red blood cells.

Within 48 to 72 hours, the parasites inside the red blood cells multiply, causing the infected cells

to burst open. The parasites continue to infect red blood cells, resulting in symptoms that occur

in cycles that last two to three days at a time.

Malaria is typically found in tropical and subtropical climates where the parasites can live. The

World Health Organization (WHO) states that, in 2016, there were an estimated 216 million
cases of malaria in 91 countries. In the United States, the Centres for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC) report 1,700 cases of malaria annually. Most cases of malaria develop in

people who travel to countries where malaria is more common.

Malaria is caused by an intraerythrocytic protozoa of the genus Plasmodium transmitted by the

bite of an infective female Anopheles mosquito. Of the four Plasmodium species that infect

humans, P. falciparum is common in sub-Saharan Africa and causes severe and potentially fatal

malaria. The other 3 species include P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae. P. vivax is common in

Asia and Latin America. Malaria can also be transmitted through transfusion of contaminated

blood or during child birth.

The signs and symptoms of malaria illness vary widely. Symptoms of uncomplicated malaria

episode include fever, chills, sweats, headache, nausea, vomiting, body ache, and malaise,

whereas symptoms of severe clinical episode are organ dependent. Abnormal behaviour,

seizures, coma, or impairment of consciousness is observed in cerebral malaria. Anemia,

jaundice, and hemoglobinuria result from massive destruction of red blood cells. Other severe

symptoms include acute respiratory distress, low blood pressure, acute kidney failure, metabolic

acidosis, and hypoglycemia. Conventional diagnosis is based on examination of thin and thick

blood films stained with Giemsa’s or Field’s stain. The antigen-based dipstick tests known as

“Rapid Diagnostic Tests” (RDTs) offer a useful alternative to microscopy in situations where

reliable microscopic diagnosis is not available. PCR-based diagnostic tests for human malarias

are more applicable to large-scale surveys than to clinical diagnosis.

In addition to the human cost, the economic burden of malaria is vast. It is estimated that malaria

costs African countries more than US 12 billion every year in direct losses. This figure includes

the costs of healthcare, absenteeism, days lost in education, decreased productivity due to brain

damage from cerebral malaria, and loss of investment and tourism.

2.2.3 Symptoms of Malaria

The symptoms of malaria typically develop within 10 days to 4 weeks following the infection. In
some cases, symptoms may not develop for several months. Some malarial parasites can enter
the body but will be dormant for long periods of time.

Common symptoms of malaria include:

 shaking chills that can range from moderate to severe

 high fever

 profuse sweating

 headache

 nausea

 vomiting

 abdominal pain

 diarrhea

 anemia

 muscle pain

 convulsions

 comabloody stools

2.2.4 Causes of Malaria

Malaria can occur if a mosquito infected with the Plasmodium parasite bites you. There are four
kinds of malaria parasites that can infect humans: Plasmodium vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae,
and P. falciparum.

P. falciparum causes a more severe form of the disease and those who contract this form of
malaria have a higher risk of death. An infected mother can also pass the disease to her baby at
birth. This is known as congenital malaria.

Malaria is transmitted by blood, so it can also be transmitted through:

 an organ transplant

 a transfusion

 use of shared needles or syringes

2.2.5 How is malaria diagnosed

Your doctor will be able to diagnose malaria. During your appointment, your doctor will review
your health history, including any recent travel to tropical climates. A physical exam will also be
performed.

Your doctor will be able to determine if you have an enlarged spleen or liver. If you have
symptoms of malaria, your doctor may order additional blood tests to confirm your diagnosis.

These tests will show:

 whether you have malaria?

 what type of malaria you have?

 if your infection is caused by a parasite that’s resistant to certain types of drugs?

 if the disease has caused anemia?

 if the disease has affected your vital organs?

2.2.6 Life-threatening complications of malaria

Malaria can cause a number of life-threatening complications. The following may occur:

 swelling of the blood vessels of the brain, or cerebral malaria

 an accumulation of fluid in the lungs that causes breathing problems, or pulmonary edema

 organ failure of the kidneys, liver, or spleen

 anemia due to the destruction of red blood cells

2.3 Empirical Review

The research work this study reviewed is title: The Effect of Mass Media Campaign on the Use

of Insecticide-Treated Bed Nets among Pregnant Women in Nigeria; in the work the researcher

looked at pregnant women; Malaria during pregnancy is a major public health problem in

Nigeria especially in malaria-endemic areas. It increases the risk of low birth weight and

child/maternal morbidity/mortality stated in the study. The paper addresses the impact of radio

campaigns on the use of insecticide-treated bed nets among pregnant women in Nigeria.

Methods. A total of 2,348 pregnant women were interviewed during the survey across 21 of

Nigeria’s 36 states. Respondents were selected through amultistage sampling technique. Analysis

was based onmultivariate logistic regression. Results. Respondents who knew that sleeping under
ITN prevents malaria were 3.2 times more likely to sleep under net (OR: 3.15; 95% CI: 2.28 to

4.33; 𝑃 < 0.0001). Those who listened to radio are also about 1.6 times more likely to use ITN

(OR: 1.56; 95% CI: 1.07 to 2.28; 𝑃 = 0.020), while respondents who had heard of a specific

sponsored radio campaign on ITN are 1.53 times more likely to use a bed net (𝑃 = 0.019).

Conclusion. Pregnant womenwho listened tomass media campaigns were more likely to adopt

strategies to protect themselves from malaria. Therefore, behavior change communication

messages that are aimed at promoting net use and antenatal attendance are necessary in

combating malaria.

The study was a cross-sectional and population-based survey. A systematic multistage sampling

technique was used to select pregnant women resident in the eighteen Global Fund states and

three other adjoining states. The first stage was the selection of localities/sites to form 20

clusters. All the localities in a state were arranged in their geographic order with their sizes

attached. The projected population of the localities was considered as the measure of size. A

cumulative measure of size was obtained and using a systematic sampling procedure, 20 clusters

were allocated to the localities. Pregnant women within the selected households were identified

and screened for eligibility. Data were collected by trained interviewers using validated

questionnaires to obtain information on maternal and child health with focus on malaria

control.Data from a total of 2,348 pregnant women who were interviewed were collated and

analysed. The dependant variable is based on the responses from respondents to the question on

whether the respondent slept under an ITN the night prior to the study. All analyses were

performed using SPSS 18.0 and conclusions are based on the 0.05 level of significance.

Structured questionnaires based on thematic areas were administered by trained interviewers.

The questionnaire was validated and pilot tested before use. Interviewers were
trained with a specific focus on all aspects of the interview process and questionnaires. The

questionnaires were pretested to check for comprehensibility of questions as well as procedures

for conducting interviews. The study questionnaires elicited information on key programme

indicators and the various issues related to knowledge, behaviour, and practices related to

prevention and treatment of malaria. The questionnaire also elicited information to determine

if respondents listened regularly to the radio and if they listened to specific messages presented

in radio broadcasts that focused on prevention of malaria. Approval was also received from the

State Ministries of Health and leaders of each of the communities selected for the survey.

Informed verbal consent was obtained from the heads of households and the respondents; those

who declined consent were not interviewed. All selected caregivers and pregnant women

were interviewed in their homes and confidentiality was assured. During data collection, quality

control processes were implemented by supervisors to identify and correct problems while in the

field. Data were entered using the Census and Survey Processing System (CSPro) and were

exported to, managed, and analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS 18.0). Frequency tables and cross tabulations were used to generate data tables and figures

to present results in keeping with survey objectives and analysis plan. it employed a logistic

regression technique to explore influence of factors such as knowledge about ITN, causes of

malaria, and correct ways of preventing malaria on the use of bed nets.

Specifically, we explored exposure to mass media campaigns in Nigeria under the auspices of

the National Malaria Control Programme with emphasis on messages promoting the use of ITNs.

We aimed to determine whether the use of ITNs could be attributed to exposure to this mass

media campaign. All categorical variables were dummy-coded. It explored the influence of these

determinants on the use of ITNs and later explored the influence of exposure to mass media on
the use ITNs. A binary dependent variable was created for use or nonuse of ITNs and

determinants, as well as exposure to media. Statistical significance was based on a 𝑃 value of

0.05. At an exploratory data analysis stage, several models were explored. Test of goodness-of-

fit was based on Hosmer and Leme show test.

The work only focus on pregnant women and it uses radio campaign in general but my study

uses only television and focus on citizens of Ogun State, for both children, youths and adults.
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