Man is a social animal and society is an

ever-developing organisation.
dialectical materialism' as a living social organism
which
1S
to Chesnokov: "Sociely could be defined of
According and whose vital functions are based
on the deveopment

in continuous development, that society is composed ot

tree
(1966: 8). Liberalism assumes
its mode of procduction, consist of individuals, but expresses
the sum

individuals. But
tortheMarx; Society does not 1977: 17-
which these individuals stand (Miliband
ofinter-relations, relations within
formulates the scientific laws of social development. Engels
18). Unlike liberalism, Marxism
as Darwin discovered the law of development of organic nature, so Marx
said: "Just funeral
discovered the law of development of human history." (At the speech at Marx's
view, is not an abstract or
to the Marxian organisation.
artificial
in 1883). Society, according to
produce
of social life is that people should associate together
"The condition of any kind
1968: 25-26). Society has originated because or
their material m e a n s of life." (Cornforth
man/woman's daily material needs like bread, shelter, clothing,
security and other cultural
and
needs. In order to fulfil these needs, man/woman produces insociety
and educational relations of Production is regarded as an important basiS
detinite
enters into production.
of society and important part of it. In every society, of
labour is the most
on the
basis or
determined and this mode production
relations of production, a mode of production is
cultural, moral and ideological
is the substructure upon which the social, political, it IS
superstructures of society rest.
In order to understand the mode of production,
labour, instruments of
objects-of labour, Howeve, neo
labour, etc.
necessary to understand
Marxism refutes this aspect of Marxism as deterministic and refuses to accept 1
1.6.2.1. Labour :
There are three main requirements of production labour, means
is the most fundamental among these. Nafure
of labour and instruments of labour. Labour and man/woman has to make them
has not provided mankind with readymade things animals
nature are consumed by the
Luseful working upon these. The things given by
by them through labour.
in a rawform but man/woman consume them after improving upon
Fngels wrote a beautiful article, "The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from
Ape
 2. Society is a crowd of alienated individuals. It is a market society and here an
individual serves his own personal interest through competition, free contract
and exchange. society thus is a free society and man/woman becomes the member
of any social group only for his/her own personal interest for choice.
3. Because of the conflict of various interests, there is disorder in society and politics
is required to resolve the conflict, maintain unity, cooperation and order in society
by coordination and reconciliation of diverse interests.
4. Politics serves the general interest of sociely.
5. Politics is a
process to bring about peaceful change in society.
6. Politics and the State do not belong to any single class. These are essential O
establish unity in diversity
and social stability.
7. There is a difference between the State and society. The State is more limited
it society. Politics
than
only
society
a
and
dimension of
is there to serve the
the social
general interests of is

process.
On the basis of the above main points, the liberal view of politics can be understood
and can be
its detinition framed:
Politics is a dimension of the social process, a human activity
to resolve social conilict, maintain law and order and peace, serve the general interest, facilitate the
in contribute to the socio-economic and ethical development of human
peaceful social change society,
personality and safeguard the rights and liberties of man/twoman.

1.6. MARXIAN VIEW OF POLITICSs

Broaclly speaking, the presentw orldgot dividedinto two in the 20thcentury on the
basis of ideologiesliberal and socialist world, States or societies, The socio-economic,
political, cultural, moral structures and values of socialist countries are quite different from
those of liberal countries or societies. Socialist States are based on Marxian ideologyand
known as the "Red World". All these States and societies are assumed to work in the
direction of bringing an end to the exploitation of man/woman by man/woman and
establish a classless society Duzing the past decade and a half with disintegration of the
Soviet Union and partial introduction of marketeconomy in China, this assumption is very
cloudednow. The classicalmarxian notionofmanwöman, society and politics is guite
different from the liberal views of these. Marxism claims to study societyand politics by
understanding the laws of soCial development and scientifically, with the method of
dialectical materialism. The meaning of polities is understood in the context of these laws
of social
development and politics is regarded as an aspect.of political.economy rather than
as a distinct discipline. Now,the Marxian view of man/woman, society and politics will
be examined in detail.

1.6.1. Marxian View of Man/Woman

The liberal view of man/woman regards man/woman to be asocial, above society,
an atomised, alienated and egoistic individual. But Marxism views man/woman from a very
Democracy

nothing but the rule of

bourgeoisie and, in fact, it was nothing but the dictatorship of
capitalist class over the working class)Lenin writes, "Bourgeois States are most variedthe in

form, but theiressenceis the same: all hese States, whatevertheirform, in the final analysis
are inevitably the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie." (Ibid.). He further writes: "In capitalist
democracy is always hemmed in by the narrow limits set
society
...

by capitalist exploitation, and

consequernuy always remain, in effect, a democracy for the minority, only for the propertiea
classes, ony for the rich.. Owing to the conditions of capitalist exploitation, the modern
wage slaves are so crushed by want and poverty that 'they cannot be bothered with
democracy, cannot be bothered with politics' the majority of the population is debarrea
...

from participation in public and political life...

Democracy for an (Tbid.). Exposing
democracy tor the rich-that is the democracy of capitalist socíety."insignificant minonythe

reality of elections in liberal

democracies, Lenin wrote that the essence of
is".
capitalist democrdey
. that the opPpressed are allowed once every few years to decide which particular

representatves otthe representatives of the oppressing class shall represent and repress
them in parliament." (Tbid.).
n a capitalist. society the poor people are exploited and oppressed, and they have
to sell themselves in order to avoid starvation. In such a society how can these poor people
be the rulers and if, for the sake of argument, it is accepted that they are really so, then
the-question arises, as to why. they are the poor in their own regime and whey are they
oppressed under their own government? In answer to these questions, liberalism maintains
that these people are "incapable" of getting rid of their poverty, though society provides
with ample opportunities. Even if this argument of 'incapability' is accepted, the
them
question arises as to how these "incapable" people, who are unable to make both ends meet,
can rule over themselves. The argument of "incapability"_is a mischievous one, and the
reality is that poverty is there not because of incapability, but because of the capitalist mode
ofproduction, which is based on the exploitation of the working.class. Capitalist democracies
are confined to the political sphere only, and the working class very limited role to
haa a
play in these democracies. This role is confined merely to voting,which means that they
must cast their vote for this or that party of the capitalist class and give their approval
to the oppressive rule of this class. Explaining the achievements well limitations of
as as
this bourgeois democracy, Stojanovic writes, "Although it has made a significant contribution
to the treasury of freedom, bourgeois democracy has been limited mainly to pluralism of
political parties, which has to this day largely remained 'democracy without the people"
(1973: 99).
For the sake of clarity of discussion, Marxist views on bourgeois democracy can be
sub-divided as follows:
1. Basis of bourgeois democracies.
2. The reality of the main features of bourgeois democracies.
3. The use of bourgeois democracy for the working class.
4. democracies are unreal.
Why bourgeois
3.4.3.1. Basis of Bourgeois Democracies: The basis of bourgeois democracy is the
 28 Introduction to
tical
Thee
bring about agreement in disagree
in disagreement, Con
institutionalised by politics which
can

in contlict, unity in diversity and order in disorder

economic are most fun,
causes of contlict
Liberals do not agree that the
poor-capitalists and workermental
the interests of the rich and
they maintain that ln brief, as Miller Saudal
na peasants- can be reconciled by political power.
with onflict and disagreement..
were
it there general agreements Polti
Concerned we
diversity... Politics sho
ot need politics..is The origin of politics lies in social
not going to stop" (lbid:
288). ontinu
Decause diversity of politics and he
Duverger
Since men have beenfurther clarifed the liberal meaning
has reflecting on politics, they have oscillated between two writes:
diam, Eve

OPposed interpretations. According to one, politics

1s
contlict, a struggle in whicha
allows those who possess it to ensure their hold on society and to profit by it. Ac
to the other view, politics is an effort to bring about the rule of order and justice, in
power guarantees the general interest and common good against the pressure of private
interest.. organised power in any society is always and at all times both the instrum
by which certain groups dominate others, an instruments used in the interest of the nl
and to the disadvantage of the ruled, and also a means of ensuring a particular social orde
or achieving some integration of the individual into the collectively for the general interes
The two elements always co-exist...." (1966 : xii-xiii).

In conclusion, we may say that according to the liberal view, politics is a huma
activity, a dimension of the social process, which is there on the one hand to resolve confict
maintain unity in diversity, law and order and peace in society and, on the other, to serve
the general interest or common good ofsociety, bring about peaceful change, and maintain
rights and iberties of the individuals. Thus politics has a utility, a positivity of its ow.
Liberals do not give a concrete understanding of the causes and nature of social
conflicts. "In the liberal view of politics, conflict exists in terms of 'problems' which ned
to be 'solved'. The hidden assumption is that conflict does not, or need not, run very deep
that it can be 'managed' by the exercise of reason and goodwill and a readiness to
compromise... politics is .. a constant process of bargaining and accommodation, on he
basis of accepted procedures. Conflict is not harmful but it is 'functional, a stabilising
rather than a disruptive force" (Miliband 1977 17). Their stand that social conflict can x
resolved is highly disputed because in general practice it is
by politics seen that c
struggle is fundamental and no process- political, spiritual, moral, or religious
resolve it. Apart from this, the liberal view that politics is there to serve the
general
is the least convincing, as in a class divided society generalint
it is difficult to find the
as
interests of the classesare fundamentally antagonistic. The liberal view of politics d t
on the liberal view of man/woman and
society and misunderstanding of thes nolitic po
their unscientific view of politics. In contrast to
this view, we find another ViE
-

the Marxian view- which we shall examine later

The main follows
points of liberal views on
politics are as dual
man/woman, society and politics
are as

1. Man/woman as an individual is the centre of the study indivi

becomes member of
of politics. Ea
a
society to further his own interest.
 Introduction to Poltical Theon

nor can
it end the
cuss struggle
end the class division of society,
hole T'ohtics cannot
the classes in a society
because
tne nterest
serve the common interest of a
ts interest n "
ss-aivIded
canno common
antagonistic and there
is no
terent chsses are
ne
view of society
and politics. bur axism takes
the individualistic ot class and clas
Liberalism takes the basIs
on
be understood scientifically
ViewFoitics can reconcie ndividuals
ass
may
of the 'individuals' of different classes
ations. Ihe interests the posinon of classes
not change
move to another class. This does members
towards
may
e ciass class may well feel
no antagonismm
Dana wrTites: "A member of one
classes
nevertneless
remain
mobility between
classes. But
Otner clasSes, and there may be
supports
the "contlict model instead of
econcilabiy
divided." (1977: 18). Marxism contlict ds coniict
IS Inherent
Politics cannot resolve the class
model' in politics. So politics IS neither
onsensus
of a solution within that system (lbid). of politics
theclass sy'stem, incapablenor nouon
lideral
Ihe
a welfare activity in society the comnon
contict resolving activity contlict and serves
which resolves the
poitics as a human activity,
garas
nterest of society as a whoe
betwecn classes,
Wnich are engaged
as a
study of relations
Lenin regarded politics that every
economic striuggle of theworking
He formulated the idea working class.
d
power struggle. consciousness among the

revolution should be used to increase

lass before ot State power
Without
capturing
revolution is the capture
first ot the workers' cannot be classless and
1he stage
class cannot emancipate itselt, soCiety
state power, the working IS most important before
he cannot be
established. So politics
the social1st mode of production comes into the hands of the
State power
atter the revoliution, when the
But established, the
economic issues
CYolution. is
working class and 'dictatorship o the proletariat orn a socialist base,
of the economy
sOCialisation of means of production, reorganisafion Kevolution settles
etc.- become basic iSSLIes.
abolition of classes, control of production,
tavour of the working class.
Atter the
o n c e and tor all in
the political State power
issue of
contfronts the
the Stale, which now
he task of administering
revolution, Lenin said, "..
tor the tirst time in the history
leafure that, probably
Soviet Government,
has
this special economics rather than with politics." (1936
of civilised nations, it
deals pre-eminently vith classless
to0 end classes and establish
a
means
Vol 42 71). State and politics are the only in the internal and external
ot the Soviet Union and change
sOciety. With the disintegration contused. The Marxian view of politics
State policies in China, now everything is very
that Marxism has failed both theoretically and practically
facing hard times and is said
it
tollows
In short, Marxian views on man/woman, sociely and politics are as

withour
essence ot man/woman is
soCIality and man/woman loses humanity
ne isolation trom social circumst.nes
Man/woman cannot be understood in
it.Man/woman must be understood in the totality of his/her social relations
Maism does not see any basic contlict in man's/wonan's sell-interest and soc

interest.
Oey s an ever-growing and living organisation. The sub-structure ot soce

s mode of production. On this mode of procluction the political, legall,

 o POilical
and she
men. In
imagined a social order founded
reason, with on
equal rights o
al Th
the 19th
century, Harriet Taylor Mill (l807 -1858) and her ot
(1806 -73) in his
famous book (1869) came out in support of equal second oth wotne
The First Wave feminism (liberal feminism), political nd
decades of the 20th
the
the first successful women's
started
last decade
of nts for
in

century, was
right of voting,
equal cultural right of education, movement e 19nandd
of double
sexual standards for men and women. t was Detter working conditioneual
po
ghts to women. The Second Wave of feminism primarily a move nd ab
(radical feminism) wasent fo
movement and started with t
in 1964 and slogan of the vomen's
liberation movementa very
appeared
first in print in 1966). It (WI
aimed at cultural, social, economi
liberation and
empowerment of women. It o
maintained that it is not sex chalenged the
private-publieeolog
which is
(biological difference) but
socio-culturalde gender (a
responsible
Sex (1949), Kate Millett in
for
women's enslavement. Beauvoir (1908
86) in her bonl s
-

her book, Sexual Politics (1970), and S.

The Dialect of Sex
(1970) laid down the theoretical foundations of thisFirestone inSt
n her
emerged Third Wave in the 1990s and talk of Fourth Wave second wave.
from 2008
the cards.
Apart from these different waves, there is another wave onwards i
wave. So feminism has a known as the s
weak, long but very strong
more of a
movement-socio-economic, recent history. is less of an idel
It
cultural, political arnd
irrational domination of women
by male-dominated patriarchalpsychological-
to end u
society. Its aim
identity of women,
based on dignity, equal rights, liberty and social justice. It is a
oPposes widely prevalent domestic violence against women. very strors
8.2.3. What is Feminism?

Feminism is a theory and movement for social

justice, equal rights,
empowerment of women in
prevailing male-dominated society. Women shoulddignity
have
a
share in power, dignity and wealth in the equ-
society.
divide which keeps women confined to the domestic
Feminism is against the
private pub
and
them to have their due share in private sphere and does not alle
be redefined to include women as
political public sphere. In a way the political shoum
or

of only domestic
equal partners in political sphere. The classical nob
sphere for women which debars them from political sphere and po
is opposed by themn. Feminism
pleads that the private sphere should also be under the sie
and it should intervene in
family matters. They must have equal share in all kinds ot pone
in society. In the
private sphere women were and are dominated by men and are su
to exploitative inequality.
The basic of feminism is that the biological sex differernce
argument berwe
and women does not make them inferior to men. This
inferior status was «
patriarchy and against human
broader
reason.
Patriarchy is denounced both
in l male wit
meanings. In its narrow
meaning it is a rule of the dominant elae wa

a traditional kinship structure. In the broader

second

meaning, a meaning given npression

feminists like Millett (1970) and Firestone (1971), it means
all women by all men. It is a political institution' and
institutionaliseion.
form of
It net
a
primary oPP
 ot such lemocracy advocates arg
legislative policies that
encourage a stronger commitment to
public interest and a
commercial framework that facilitates servin
3.3.5.2. Alternative and independent Ving
media owner
Citizen Media : As a rsh
mainstream media,. response to the
proponents media
of shortcomings of
in
independent and alternative media, in democracy often advocate
both print and electronic supporting and engagi
documentary.
and Through citizen journalism and citizen media, forms as well as vide
opinions that are individuals
marginalised by the mainstream media. can produce informatic
3.4. MARXIAN THEORY OF
DEMOCRACY
3.4.1. Introduction
Each class has
social philosophy which
a

political,cuitural and moral values. forms the basis of its socio-economi

liberal Liberalism is the philosophy of the
On the
democracy.is the capitalist class am
political system designed to serve the class interests of this clas
contrary, Marxism is the philosophy (on world
is the outlook) of the proletariat-whic
product of the capitalist economic system itself. The
is the democratic dictatorship of the proletaria=
political system of the working class. The liberal
political system-based on the principles of philosophy and i
multi-dimensional development of man-was liberty, equality, social justice, fraternity an
century, and it was in reaction to this that emptied
of all human values during the 19
Marxian philosophy
rehabilitation of the human values so clearly cherished emerged. It aimeda
acclaimed even by the liberals. Cohen
by the French Revolution and wide
says. ". . . for Marx the French goals translas
directly: liberty means
democracy; equality means socialism and fraternity means humanism
(1965: 16). Marxism associates democracy with socialism and
individualism and negative liberty. Marxism equality rather than i t
scientifically analyses the
exploitation of the working class in the Western liberal societies and gives socio-economi
a revolutionan
theory for the replacement of this system with an exploitation-free system.The Manuan
 (which liberals may like to call disorder) in society. To resolve or minimise this conict
some social power
and
process is
required. This social power is the State and the soCial
process is called politics. Wolin says: "Thus politics is either a source of conflict and a mode
of activity that seeks to resolve conflict and promote readjustment" (Wolin 1960: 11). Sociey
cannot remain united by itself. Why? Here liberals accuse human nature, which they assume
as egoistic and say that the State and politics can establish unity and peace in society where
individuals are competing to serve their selfish interests. Politics thus is viewed as a power
a social process, a behaviour which is there to maintain peace, law and order in society
and for coordination and conciliation of diverse private interests of individuals and groups:

and
But with
the change in the liberal view of society- development
of social theory
recognition of the notion of common good or interests-one more dimension has
interest
been added to the meaning of politics. It is that politics is there to serve the general
Politics is there to contribute to the general welfare o t the
or common good in
society.
masses and development of society.

Thus, politics, according liberal view, has two dimensions-firstly, it is there

to the
and pave the wayfor peacefu,
toresolve.theconflict, to maintain lawand order and peace
orderly change in society, reconcile the various competing and conflicting interests, and
secondly,it is there to serve the common good or general interest of.society as.a whole
Gould writes: "Politics denotes those processes of human action by which conflict concerning

on one hand the common

the and, on the other, the interests of groups, is carried
good
on or settled, always involving the use of, or struggle for, power" (1964 515-16). Miller
of either the desire
writes: "Politics is about policy, first and foremost; and policy is matter
a

for change or the desire to protect something against change... Politics, then,
is about
or conflict; and political activity
is that which is intended to bring about or
disagreement
resist change, in the face of possible resistance (1962:14). Hfe further writes,"... politics
will not settle
15, in a sense, the application of government.. to social
situations which
is
oftèn to secure agreement over what
themselves.. the aim of those who
is to be done, to pacify quarrels
practise politics
and to strive for reconciliation and compromise." (Ibid:
19-21). But here some important questions arise. Why is there conflict in society? Can politics
have Ihe liberal answer to these questions is
resolve these conflicts and an
agreement
diversitiesbased on religion,
that conflict will always be there where caste, sex, class,
Colou, nationality, etcexistand they believe that these conflictscanbe checked and