Lesson 3: Social Inequality

Social Inequality Based on Gender and Sex

- Sex and gender inequality is not just about placing or
designating gender labels, it is asl a form of negative
socialization in a stratified society.
- Sex roles dictates gender role.
- Gender inequality occurs mostly in a patriarchy, or male
dominated society.
- Gender and Development - development of perspective and
process that is participatory and empowering equitable,
sustainable, free from violence, respectful of human rights.
- UN Women Agency - dedicated to gender inequality. Established
to accelerate progress on meeting women's needs across the
world.
- Association for Women's Rights in Development (AWID) -
international organization who work for gender inequality and
women's right across the world. Accountable to tax injustice and
wealth distribution.

Social Inequality Based on Race and Ethnicity

- Biological feature of people was used as a basis of their social
status.
- Diversity and Inclusion Program (DIP) - national program of the
government. Consolidate effort and implement existing laws and
insurances against the discrimination of a person, age, disability,
and origin.

Social Inequality Based on Disability

- Disability results from the interaction between persons with
impairment and attitudinal and environmental barriers that
hinders their full and effective participation in society on an
equal basis with others.
- They experience inequality because some societies do not cater
to their needs.
Man and Society
Society
- Society refers to a large, independent, and organized group of
people living in the same territory and sharing a common culture
and heritage.
- People within society impart to each other knowledge, skills,
and behaviors through their various everyday interactions.
- These interactions are often governed by written and unwritten
rules that reflect the shared ideas, views, and values of the
members of society.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF SOCIETY
1. Hunting-and-Gathering Societies
- The simplest and earliest societies.
- Adopt a lifestyle dependent on resources readily available from
their surroundings.
- These societies are often described as “primitive” since they
utilize the simplest technology.
2. Agricultural Societies
- Those who engaged primarily in agricultural activities such as
farming, fishing, and livestock-raising as a primary way of life.
3. Industrial Societies
- Are centered on mechanized production and the exchange of
goods and services.
4. Modern Societies
- Are technologically advanced societies characterized by
industry, mass production, and advanced communication and
transportation.
- Advances in technology, meanwhile, have enabled people to
establish “virtual societies” that are not confined by territory and
are composed of individuals coming from various social
backgrounds.
Social Philosophy
- Focuses on studying society and its influence on the human
person.
- It applies philosophical concepts in a social context and looks
into how social interactions shape people’s perception,
experience, ideas and values.
- Topics related to social philosophy include social ontology,
social ethics, democracy, human rights equality, and justice.
HOW SOCIETY IS FORMED
- During the Enlightenment, social philosophers pondered on the
natural laws that govern human societies, and in their
discussions, several philosophers put forth their ideas regarding
the formation of societies.
- Enlightenment philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John
Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau were among the most
prominent social theorists who tackled the origins of human
society.
- In order to fully understand the true character of society, they
imagined humans as living in a so-called “natural state,”
removed from modernity and civilization.
- Examining humans in their natural state afforded these
philosophers an opportunity to discuss the origins of society and
relate them to other concepts such as man’s intrinsic nature and
liberty.
- Various views emerged to explain the developments that brought
about the emergence of human society.
Thomas Hobbes
- For Thomas Hobbes, man in his natural state is governed by his
desires and these often lead to conflict with his fellowmen.
- Society, therefore, is the means by which mean seek to control
their natural tendencies and impose order.
- Individuals who establish societies enter into a “social
contract”– an agreement where individuals sacrifice some of
their wants and submit to a higher authority.
John Locke
- Proposed his own ideas on the social contract with a different
assumption. Unlike Hobbes, Locke considered man in his
natural state as more cooperative and reasonable.
- And that society is formed through the consent of the individuals
that organized it, a concept known as the consent of the
governed.
- Locke’s social contract is a covenant among individuals who
cooperate and share the burden of upholding the welfare of
society.
- Also, the authority established to run society should reflect the
ideals of the people who organized it.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
- His ideas on the social led him to advocate the concept of the
“general will.” Rousseau believed that even if the people are the
ones who organized society and established an authority or
government, in extreme cases, the government is able to impose
its will on the people.
- This is based on the assumption that the people have empowered
the government to act on their behalf, and that it is considered to
be the best judge of what is most beneficial for society.
John Rawls
- Redefined the social contract and explained that human beings
approach social cooperation in a rational manner in order to
meet their individual self-interests.
- Rawls introduced a version of the natural state which he called
the original position to explain social formation.
- He imagined humans as having a “veil of ignorance” or no
knowledge of one’s own characteristics such as gender, race, and
social status. Humans would naturally seek a society that is fair
for their own interests.
David Gauthier
- Described man’s self-interest as a significant factor in building
and maintaining societies.
HOW DOES SOCIETY INFLUENCE THE PERSON
- Socialization - Process by which an individual learns the
prevailing behaviors, attitudes, and values within his or her
society, a person adopts a set of ideals and behavior considered
appropriate withing his or her own society.
- Through socialization, becoming part of a group can often result
in significant changes in the prevailing behavior of an
individual.
- Various social institutions such as the family, community,
school, government, church, and even mass media are agents of
socialization that mold the personality of the individual.
Standford Prison Experiment
- A classic psychological experiment conducted in 1971 in
Stanford University wherein Twenty-four male volunteers who
are mentally stable and have no history of violence, were made
to participate in a simulated prison territory in order to
determine the factors that led to prisoner abuse in actual prisons.
- Participants were divided into two groups – first group was
assigned to play the role of prison guards while the second group
was assigned to be the prisoners.
- The participants were then housed in a facility which closely
resembled a prison and were told to act out their assigned roles.
- Over a few days, both groups became fully invested in their
assigned roles and their behavior began to change.
- And six days into what was supposed to be a two-week
experiment, researchers had to stop it because of the
increasingly violent behavior of the guards as well as the
rebellious actions of the prisoners.
Social Roles
- Entails a set of expected behaviors that must be performed by a
person. People who belong to a social group with continuous
interaction may reinforce certain behaviors.
- A prison environment, however, is only a possible society. Other
societies may have positive effects on individuals. For example,
living under a democratic society.
Normative democratic theory
- Is a perspective which considers a democratic society as morally
desirable. Philosophers point out that living within a democratic
society can result in positive changes in behaviors of
individuals.
- Cultural influences in society also affect individual behavior. For
example, Westerners are more likely to be seen as assertive and
direct in response with the Western society which is recognized
to be individualistic.
HOW DOES OUR SOCIETY DEFINE OUR IDENTITY AS
FILIPINOS?
- Our own Filipino society has a set of social values that govern
our everyday interactions and define our character as uniquely
Filipino. Evident in Filipino society is the great importance
attached to harmonious relationship.
- Community relations are also defined by the desire to establish
and maintain smooth interpersonal relationships.
- Anthropologists and sociologists identify pakikisama,
pakikipagkapwatao, utangnaloob, damayan, and bayanihan as
traditions that contribute to harmonious relationships.
Religion
- Influences Filipino ethics and morality which are considered to
be family centered and conservative.
- Majority of the Filipinos profess Christian faith, celebrating
religious feasts like Christmas and Holy Week.
Increased interaction with foreign nations
- Introduced new changes in our society which resulted in the
transformation of certain aspects of Filipino life.
- The influx of Western ideas changed views on marriage,
relationships, and the role of women in society.
On Happiness
Happiness, and the means to achieve it, has been an important topic
of discussion in Philosophy since ancient times. various views have
emerged to describe a "happy life", and the steps a person can take to
achieve a state of happiness or contentment in life.
What does it mean to be happy?
Happiness can be defined in two ways:
- One, it can be interpreted as a state of mind. Based on this view,
one can still maintain his or her happiness even if he or she is
experiencing difficulties in life.
- Two, it can be an evaluation of one's experience in life. In this,
case being happy mean having a satisfying life that goes well for
the person living it.
Eudaimonia in Ancient Greek refers to a person's state of well-being
or happiness.
For Greeks, happiness is something to be achieved and a happy life
is a good life.
Plato equates happiness with living a moral life, practicing virtues,
fulfilling personal duties, and controlling one's desire.
For Aristotle, happiness is the primary reason for human action, and
one becomes happy through the practice of virtues and the
accumulation of achievements.
For the Epicureans, happiness means a life of peace that is free from
fear and discomfort.
Religious philosophers such as St. Augustine and St. Thomas
Aquinas define happiness as a union with God.
Utilitarianism proposes a view on happiness based on the greatest
happiness principle. The Greatest Happiness Principle states that a
person's actions are considered moral or desirable when they produce
the greatest happiness for the other people.
Contemporary philosophers approach happiness in terms of whole
life satisfaction, where a person is able to evaluate his or her life
experience and determine his or her level of satisfaction with how he
or she has lives life.
Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz defines happiness as satisfaction with one's
life as a whole.
Rachard Brandt traces a person's happiness based on a total life
pattern-a person would not only be satisfied with the life he or she
has lives but must also feel constant joy and enthusiasm in life.
Wayne Sumner approaches happiness in two ways:
- From cognitive perspective, one must be able to look back at
past experiences and have a positive evaluation of his or her
condition.
- On the emotional or affective side, happiness is brought about
by a sense of well-being in having lived a life that is enriching
and rewarding.
ELEMENTS OF HAPINESS
Happiness as well-being is considered to have three distinct elements.
1. Contentment - satisfaction with one's life.
2. Welfare - satisfaction of a person's wants and desires.
3. Dignity - ability to control and define one's own destiny, and the
freedom to life a life of one' choosing.
Each element of human well-being is independent of each other, and
persons often determine their happiness by prioritizing one element
over another. One may be contented despite not having enough
money or may have all the money in the world but still feel
unsatisfied in life. A prisoner, who is without freedom, may choose to
accept his or her fate and find contentment in the situation.
Psychologists define happiness as a balance between a person's
emotions. moods, and feelings. aside from internal factors, a person's
social environment also plays a role in maintaining his or her well-
being through interpersonal relations and existence of support system.
Economists use socioeconomic data to define happiness and well-
being in numerical terms, giving rise to the statistics such as the
Gross National Happiness Index and Gross National Well-being
Index which measures the over-all and well-being of countries.
In 2011, the United Nations recognized happiness as "a fundamental
human goal and universal aspiration” and has been issuing a World
Happiness Report since 2012.
HOW CAN ONE LIVE A HAPPY LIFE?
Ethics plays a significant role in discussing happiness and the means
to achieve it. The morality or appropriateness of human actions often
revolves around the question of personal satisfaction and the general
welfare.
Various philosophers throughout history have presented their ideas on
how a person can achieve happiness in life.
Aristotle
- He approaches that to achieve happiness, a person must plan his
or her activities, and from a set of life goals to achieve a
worthwhile life. A person must set worthwhile goals that will
benefit society. However, in his view, the goals that will lead to
true happiness is the pursuit of knowledge.
Epicureans
- Believed that happiness is possible if one enjoys the simple
pleasures of life and commits to a life of virtue. For them the
desire of wealth and status are merely artificial goals and should
not define one's happiness
St. Augustine
- Believes that happiness can be found in the afterlife when the
spirit reunites with God. It is, therefore, important for a Christian
to live a life of virtue because it sets us on a road toward
achieving happiness.
Jeremy Bentham
- A utilitarian philosopher who believes that happiness is achieved
through wise decision-making. One must exercise careful
through in engaging in activities and should only pursue those
that are most worthwhile to society.
Immanuel Kant
- For him, achieving happiness is impossible because of the ever-
changing nature of man's desires. Our wants are so varied and
changing that what could satisfy us today might no longer
satisfy us tomorrow.
- For him, human actions should not be defined by happiness but
rather goodwill. A person promotes goodwill fi he or she fulfills
his or her duties toward others.
Another equally important aspect of living a happy life is being able
to deal with unhappiness:
 Psychologists emphasize examining and understanding one's
thoughts, feelings, and experiences to avoid negative thoughts
and reevaluate negative experiences.
 Having a support system such as a family and friends can also
help in getting through difficult experiences.
 Maintaining balance between daily activities, career, and leisure
can also ensure a person's emotional stability.
 Finally, having a sense of purpose and engaging in meaningful
activities can reaffirm one's sense of personal worth and
contribute toward achieving a sense of fulfillment and
satisfaction.
The Person and Others
Interpersonal relationships
- Refer to social and emotional interactions between two or more
individuals in an environment.
- Defined as a close association between individuals who share
common interests and goals.
Existentialism and Phenomenology
- Two major philosophical branches that devote much discussion
on the concept of interpersonal relationships.
- These philosophies relate the concept of interpersonal relations
to self-awareness and transcendence.
- These philosophies also suggest that the individual is primarily
aware of himself or herself, and it is this egocentric perspective
that defines how he or she perceives and relates to reality. This
awareness of individuality is called the “self.”
Phenomenological Perspective
- It studies structures of conscious experience as experienced from
a subjective or first-person point of view, along with its
"intentionality" (the way an experience is directed toward a
certain object in the world). It then leads to analyses of
conditions of the possibility of intentionality, conditions
involving motor skills and habits, background social practices
and, often, language.
Existential Perspective
- Defines interpersonal relations as the “self” being aware of the
“other”. The “other” generally refers to objects outside of
personal experience, while it is often used by most philosophers
to refer to other individuals apart from the “self”.
- The interaction between the “self” and the “other” is related to
the philosophical concept of intersubjectivity, which is the
shared awareness and understanding among persons.
- Intersubjectivity is evident in everyday social interactions, the
ability of humans to agree and cooperate, the existence of shared
or “common” knowledge and consensus, and in shared emotions
such as grief, joy, and love.
LEVELS OF SELF-OTHER INTERACTIONS
1. Simple awareness of the existence of the “other”.
2. Awareness of the “self” as being seen by others.
Human Gaze
- A unique phenomenon that is considered a defining
characteristic which sets apart human interaction from the
interaction of other species.
- Also, the awareness of the “self in the other” is an important
element in all other aspects of interpersonal interactions. The
way we act with other people is often influenced by our ideas of
how these people see us.
Seeming
- Where an individual presents himself or herself in a certain way
when dealing with others. Martin Buber describes persons as
taking on “roles” or characters when dealing with certain people
 or in certain situations. This is considered as an unconscious,
natural act on the part of humans. However, there may be
instances when people have a certain way in order to
intentionally deceive or manipulate other people.
Dialogue
- Refers to a genuine relationship established among individuals.
A dialogue is made possible when the self realizes that the other
is genuine and unique individual. When two individuals begin to
view each other as an “other” – that is, truly acknowledging
each other’s presence - then that is the beginning of an authentic
relationship and a dialogue.
 Carol Gilligan is a psychologist who proposed a theory of
moral development that emphasizes an ethics of care. The ethics
of care, emphasizes the moral dimension of relationships and
interactions. This moral perspective encourages individuals to
see to the needs of other people, most especially the vulnerable.
All in all, the human person is regarded by Philosophy as a “being-
with-others” and that seeking and maintaining meaningful and
harmonious relationships with others is necessary for personal
development.

How does Christianity Define Interpersonal Relations?

How do Relationships Define the Human Person? The Christian Perspective considers human relations in the context
Different philosophical thoughts have different views on human of community. Humans naturally seek fellowship with each other, to
relationships: love one another, support each other, and minister to one another.
1. Existentialists consider human relationships as a defining Among The strongest bonds are those that involve parents and their
influence on human life. children, friends, and the bond between man and wife.
2. Constructivist Theory of Knowledge, human relations
shape knowledge and truth within a certain society. Even greater still is the relationship between God and man which is
3. Phenomenologists argue that shared experience between defined as a fellowship and covenant. In the Old Testament, God's
persons can shape the perception of reality. People often relationship with mankind began with the Creation, when God
remember events more vividly when they are shared with established man's ideal relationship-the union between man and
other people, and in many cases, the views of a person woman. This initial relationship, however, was frustrated with Adam
regarding an event can be shaped by the views of people he and Eve's disobedience and the killing of Abel by Cain-acts which
or she is with. violated the covenant of fellowship.
But despite mankind's tendency to sin and defy God's
DIFFERENT PHILOSOPHERS’ VIEWS ON HUMAN commandments, God has at numerous times reiterated his original
RELATIONSHIPS covenant. Noah's salvation from the Great Flood, Abraham's journey
to the Promised Land, the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt,
 The existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre considers
the Ten Commandments, and God's promise to David are among the
human relationships as frustrating and are often inauthentic and
great covenants established between God and His chosen people.
ambiguous. According to him, humans tend to view others as a
means to achieve certain desires. This view gives rise to feelings In the New Testament, Jesus Christ has redefined God's covenant
of alienation. Alienation is where the individual ceases to view through his death and resurrection. Christ's teachings also emphasize
the other as a distinct and authentic person and considers him or the importance of fellowship among men. This is embodied in his
her as a mere object. preachings where He encourages His followers to “love your
 Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher and economist neighbor as yourself” (Mark 12:31) and “do unto others what you
who developed a theory of social change (Marxist Theory) based would have them do unto you” (Matthew 7:12).
on the concept of alienation. He argued that under capitalism,
The Christian Perspective on relations compels us to be sympathetic
workers are alienated from their own labor, from the products
most especially to the least of our brethren. The marginalized in
they produce, and from their fellow human beings. Marx
society, particularly the poor and the disabled, are among those who
believed that alienation gives rise to exploitation, inequality, and
should be considered as deserving of assistance, kindness, and care.
class conflict, and that only a socialist revolution can overcome
it.
 St. Edith Stein was a German philosopher and Catholic saint
who wrote extensively on the nature of human relationships. She
defined the self-other relationship as being driven by empathy -
the awareness that the other is a person with thoughts and
feelings.
 Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, developed a
theory of intersubjectivity that explores how we experience and
understand the reality of others. believes that intersubjectivity is
more than just shared understanding, but is the capability to put
oneself “in the place where the other is."
 Gabriel Marcel was a French philosopher, dramatist, and critic
who was one of the main figures of Christian existentialism in
the 20th century. He defined genuine relationships based on
availability or the willingness of a person to be present and be at
the disposal of another.
 Martin Buber considers human existence as a continual
dialogue with the other, and that the self becomes whole through
interaction with nature, with other people, and with God.
Social Relationship
Social Relationship
- The sum of the social interactions between people over time.
This can be a positive or a negative relationship.
- Involves dynamics of social interactions, bounded and regulated
by social and cultural norms, between two or more people, with
each having a social position and performing a social role.
- A relation between living organisms (especially between people)
- Tend to be less intimate, with lesser self-disclosure involved, but
may still be exclusive, and may demand certain levels of loyalty
as in fraternities or religious organizations, and to a lesser extent,
loosely knitted social clubs like practitioners of certain
specialized professions.
GOLEMAN’S SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE THEORY
- Goleman's Social Intelligence Theory Emotional Intelligence
author, Daniel Goleman, explained in his book, Social
Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships (2006),
how our brains are wired to connect with other people, and how
part of the human brain located just above the eyes called the
orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is connected directly to the three(3)
major regions of the brain: the cortex, the amygdala, and the
brain stem.
- Goleman pointed out that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)
provides an immediate connection between thought, emotions,
and behavior. It immediately calculates our feelings and thought
about a person and how that other person feels and thinks about
us, and what actions we take after this quick assessment.
THREE VARIETIES OR TYPES OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE
- Compliance
Is when a person seems to agree and follows what is requested
or required of him or her to do or believe in, but does not
necessarily have to really believe or agree to it.
- Identification
Is when a person is influenced by someone he or she likes or
looks up to, like a movie star, social celebrity, or a superhero.
- Internalization
Is when a person is able to own a certain belief or act and is
willing to make it known publicly and privately.
OTHER TYPES OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE
- Conformity
It involves a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to be like
others. It is the most common and pervasive form of social
influence.
- Conversion
It occurs when an individual whole-heartedly changes his or her
original thinking and beliefs, actions, and attitudes to align with
those of the other members of a group.
- Minority Influence
Happens when a bigger number of people are influenced by
much smaller number of people and when the minority’s way of
looking at and doing things are accepted.
- Reactance
This is also known as anti or non-conformity. Reactance is a
reverse reaction to some social influence that is being imposed
by a person or a group on another.
- Obedience
Another form of social influence wherein a person follows what
someone tells him or her to do, although it may not necessarily
reflect the person’s set of beliefs or values.
- Persuasion
Is used by one person or group to influence another to change
their beliefs, action, or attitudes by appealing to reason or
emotion.
Leadership
- The action of leading a group of people or an organization.
Chester Barnard (1983) defined leadership as the ability of a
person in person in position of authority to influence others to
behave in such a manner that goals are achieve.
Leader
- Often typecast as someone who is the head of a group of people
by virtue of having great strength and wisdom or may have
inherited a position of power even if strength and wisdom were
not part of his person’s virtues. Influence plays a major role in
leadership.
Power
- Also an annexed to leadership as espoused by French and Raven
(1960) who said that a leader may obtain power through various
means and sources, such as position, giving rewards, expertise,
respect, or coercion.
SIX THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
 Trait Theory
This theory defines leadership based on certain personality traits
which are generally suited for all leaders, such as decisiveness
(“Katiyakan”), persistence (“Pagtitiyaga”), high level of self-
confidence (“Kumpiyansa sa sarili”) and assertiveness
(“Pagpipilit”), among others.
 Behavioral Theory
This theory pre-supposes that leadership is a learned behavior,
and that leaders are defined according to certain types of
behavior they exhibit.
 Participative Theory
The opposite of an autocratic leader (“Diktador na leader”), the
participative leader involves other people to make common
decisions.
 Situational Theory
This theory assumes that there is no one style of leadership and
that leadership behavior is based on the factors present in a
situation, and usually takes into consideration how followers
behave.
 Transactional Theory
This theory states that leadership involves a transaction or
negotiation of resources or position, usually employs reward and
punishment.
 Transformational Theory
This theory involves a vision, which a leader uses to rally
support from followers, and the role of the leader is in
motivating others to support the vision and make it happen.
TWELVE ROLES OF AN EFFICIENT LEADER THATN CAN
INFLUENCE PEOPLE
1. Set example. A good leader sets the best example. It is the first
rule. Walk the talk. Do not compromise anybody in the
organization or team integrity. Never take shortcuts.
2. Assume and do responsibility you should be guided by your Career
own duties and responsibilities. Be proactive in guiding, - Defined as the combination and sequence of roles played by a
teaching, and developing excellence in everyone. person during the course of a lifetime (Super,1980).
3. Show Initiative. Find out what needs to be done. do not wait for - It also includes unpaid work and hobbies. Part of managing
anyone to tell you what to do. career means that you think about what you need to do to
4. Life-long learner. Capacitate yourself. Learn everything you improve or move up. You stay current in your skills and
need to know about the current job. knowledge.
5. Show enthusiasm if you come to work happy and cheerful, it - A journey that lasts your whole life. Sometimes, it is called a
provides motivation. Enthusiasm is contagious. Never let “career path.” As you work in jobs, you build skills,
personal issues affect your performance. knowledge, and experiences. Your career includes education,
6. Willing to serve. This quality is known of a servant leader. training, work experience, and community involvement.
Showing this kind of characteristics can inspire thought and
action of your own constituents. Your career basically dictates a lot of things in your life:
7. Active listener. To become an active listener, you must maintain 1. it can determine the kind of lifestyle that you will be
an eye contact. Pay attention to facial expressions and body leading
language and start a sentence with "I" instead of "You. This will 2. the kind of balance you will be able to keep with your life
enhance a good communication and understanding. and your responsibilities
8. Show empathy. Try to understand where people are coming 3. the quality of relationships that you have with people
from and their point of view. Put yourself in the other people's around
shoes.
9. Be sensitive to the need of others. As a good leader, you must
CONCEPTS OF CAREER
be the one who should know and feel the needs of your
Job
constituents.
- A position an individual holds doing specific duties.
10. Delegate work. Sharing work among members at the
- A specific position or work for which you get paid.
organization should be divided into a manageable task. Explain
Occupation
completely what you are asking the person to do.
- Defined as the similar work for which people have similar
11. Learn to appreciate. If someone has done great with the
responsibilities and for which they develop a common set of
assigned tasks, be sure to let them feel they are appreciated.
skills and knowledge.
Simply saying thanks will do. This will motivate them to work
- A type of job with the same job duties. People who work in an
hard.
occupation do similar tasks and need similar training.
12. Be patient. Do not get easily annoyed if untoward incident
happens, hold your temper. This might require constant practice.
WHAT IFLUENCES YOUR CAREER CHOICE?
 Skills and Abilities
SEVEN ROLES OF AN EFFECTIVE FOLLOWER THAT
LEADERS NEED You can identify activities you enjoy and those in which you
1. Courage to do responsibility. Effective follower feels a have a level of competency though a formal assessment. Trait
sense of personal responsibility and ownership for his or and Factor theories is still used today.
her own behavior in the organization. Trait Factor Theories
2. Courage to challenge. If the leader's actions contradict the o Realistic
best interest of the organization, effective follower takes a o Investigative
stand. Do not sacrifice your own integrity or the good of o Artistic
the organization just to maintain harmony. o Social
3. Courage to participate in transformation. Effective o Enterprising
followers view the struggle of change and transformation as o Conventional
a mutual experience shared by all members, support the  Interest and Personality Type
leader and does not afraid to confront the changes. Holland's Career Typology is a widely used to connect
4. A can-do attitude. A leader's job becomes smoother when personality types and career fields. It help describe a wide range
he or she has followers who are positive and self- of occupations.
motivated, can get things done, accept responsibility, excels John Holland’s 6 personality /career types
in required tasks, and willingly accept difficult assignment. o Realistic
5. A collaborative approach. Each follower is a part of the o Investigative
leader's larger system and should realize that his or her o Artistic
action affect the whole. Work effectively as a team member. o Social
6. Courage to serve and subservient. Effective follower o Enterprising
understands needs of the organizations and seek to serve
o Conventional
those who need.
 Life Roles
7. The passion to drive personal growth. Leaders want
followers who seek to enhance their own growth and Being a worker is just one of your life roles. How we think
development rather than depending on the leader to do it. about ourselves in these roles, their requirements of them, and
the external forces that affect them, may influence how we look
at careers in general and how we make choices for ourselves.
Donald Super’s Lifespan Theory

Career Development  Previous Experiences

 Having positive experiences and role models working in specific
careers may influence the set of careers we consider as options
for ourselves.
 Culture- Racial and Ethnic Background
Our culture often shapes our values and expectations as they
relate to many parts of our lives, including jobs and careers.
 Gender
Gender is a factor included in multiple career development
theories and approaches. Studies of gender and career
development are ongoing as roles of men and women in the
workforce, and in higher education, evolve.
 Social and Economic Conditions
All of our career choices take place within the context of society
and the economy. Events that take place in our lives may affect
the choices available to us and even dictate our choices to a
certain degree. Changes in the economy and resulting job market
may also affect how our careers develop.
Albert Banduras’ Social Cognitive Theory
o Behavior
o Cognitive Factors
o Situational Factors
 Childhood Fantasies
What do you want to be when you grow-up? You may remember
this question from your childhood, and it may have helped shape
how you thought about careers then, as well as later in life.
 Parents’ Desire/ Parental Pressure
Choosing a career just live up to the parents’ expectation is the
most common decision taking by students from business
families are by default expected to choose commerce career
course. Some who resists submit to the parental pressure leading
to an unsuccessful career choice.
 Peer Influence
Follow your friends is the most trending exercise visible during
the selection of university or college. Majority choice is the best
choice.
 Affordability
This is the purchasing power of individual who dares to dream.
 Earning Potential
Your chosen profession is likely to be a factor that influencing
your career path. Your personal financial needs are also likely to
influence the career choices you make.
 Location
Geography can have an influence on career path decision in a
number of ways. You may choose a job that requires living in a
certain region.
 Financial Rémunération
It is identified as the most influential extrinsic factor in career
choice decision. Income was considered as an important
component of life, particularly among youth who had higher
level of individualism.
 Teachers and Educators
They are significant figures in the process of youth’s career
decision-making, are seen as significant figures that are agents
of development and could have been influence on students’
decision making.
CAREEER DEVELOPMENT STAGES
Each stage correlates with attitudes, behaviors, and relationships we
all tend to have at that point and age. As we progress through each
stage and reach the milestones identified, we prepare to move on to
the next one.
Keep in mind that your career development path is personal to you,
and you may not fit neatly into the categories described above.
Perhaps your socioeconomic background changes how you fit into
the schema. Perhaps your physical and mental abilities affect how
you define the idea of a “career.” And for everyone, too, there are
factors of chance that can’t be predicted or anticipated. You are
unique, and your career path can only be developed by you.
 Growing
This is a time when you begin to have a sense about the future.
You begin to realize that your participation in the world is
related to being able to do certain tasks and accomplish certain
goals.
Characteristics:
- Birth to 14
- Development of self-concept, attitudes, needs, and
general world of work
 Exploring
In this stage you find that you have specific interests and
aptitudes. You are aware of your inclinations to perform and
learn about some subjects more than others. You may try out
jobs in your community or at your school. You may begin to
explore a specific career.
Characteristics:
- 15 to 24
- Trying out through classes, work hobbies. Tentative
choice and skill development.
 Establishing
In this period, you are selecting or entering a field you consider
suitable, and you are exploring job opportunities that will be
stable.
Characteristics:
- 25-44
- Entry-level skill building and stabilization through
work experience.
 Maintaining
In this stage, you may be in an upward pattern of learning new
skills and staying engaged. But you might also be merely
“coasting and cruising” or even feeling stagnant. You may be
taking stock of what you’ve accomplished and where you still
want to go.
Characteristics:
- 45-64
- Continual adjustment process to improve position.
 Reinventing
In this stage, you are likely transitioning into retirement. But
retirement in our technologically advanced world can be just the
beginning of a new career or pursuit—a time when you can
reinvent yourself.
Characteristics:
- 65+
- Reduced output, prepare for retirement.
JOHN HOLLAND
- John Holland is primarily identified as a counseling
psychologist whose main theoretical and practical contributions
have been focused in the field of career choice and adjustment.
- His theory and practical contributions apply most directly to
people throughout their working years, but are also relevant to
school-age persons who are choosing colleges and selecting
major areas of concentration.
- From his observations, he proposed six types (RIASEC) that
described both the personality styles and work environments that
provided the best person-job match.

6TYPES OF JOBS/CAREER WORK

 Realistic – DOERS
People high on the realistic theme tend to enjoy creating things
with their hands and working with tools and objects rather than
working with people and ideas. Realistic people tend to be
rugged and practical, enjoying work outdoors.
 Investigative – THINKER
Occupations high in investigative characteristics tend to focus
on scientific activities. People high on this theme would often
rather work alone than with other people and are usually seen as
idea-oriented and creative in scientific areas such as research.
They are analytical, abstract, intellectual and task-oriented.
 Artistic – CREATOR
People who score high on the artistic theme are artistically
inclined, and usually describe themselves as independent,
imaginative, creative, and unconventional, They enjoy situations
that allow them freedom to be original, prefer to work in an
unstructured environment, and are usually dissatisfied if they are
forced to follow many rules and procedures. They enjoy
activities related to language, art, music, drama, writing, etc.
 Social – HELPERS
People high on the social theme are usually seen by others as
sociable, popular, and responsible. They prefer social interaction
and social presence. They are often interested in the problems
and concerns of others, and like activities that allow them to
teach, inform, train, develop, cure and help others.
 Enterprising – PERSUADERS
Occupations that are primarily enterprising in nature usually
involve situations where the person is in a position of leading or
convincing others to achieve team/organizational goals or
economic gain. People high on this theme are often seen as
enthusiastic, dominant, impatient.
 Conventional – ORGANIZERS
High conventional people tend to prefer jobs where they are
given firm structure and know exactly what is expected of them.
People who rank high on this theme often describe themselves
as conscientious, efficient, and calm. They enjoy activities that
involve the precise, ordered use of data such as keeping and
filing records, organizing data, computing, printing, etc.

HERE ARE REASONS TO PICK THAT MATCHES YOUR

INTEREST:
1. You will be happier doing a job you like.
2. You may not enjoy every part of your job, but you should
enjoy most of it.
3. Not everything you enjoy doing will provide you with a
good income.
Youth
Youth
Defined differently by various groups:
The Youth in Nation-Building Act of 1995 (RA 8044), which
established the National Comprehensive Youth Development, defines
youth as the critical period in a person's growth and development
from the onset of adolescence toward the peak of mature, self-reliant,
and responsible adulthood comprising the considerable sector of the
population from the age 15 to 30 years old.
The World Health Organization, on the other hand, defines youth
to be those between 15 to 24 years old.
From the psychological perspective, youth is defined as those within
the adolescence and early adulthood phase. In the adolescence stage,
the youth have already an integrated image of themselves as unique
persons and are in the process of constructing their personal identity.
Also, this is the stage when they cling to a peer group. In the early
adulthood stage, the youth form close relationships with others.
(Philippine Medium-Term Youth Development Plan 2005-2010)
In a study undertaken by YAPS, it was revealed that many young
people do not go through the expected course as many get side-
tracked by family life. Youth are mostly concerned with issues related
to sexual-risk behavior and drugs. Often this is connected to a
dysfunctional family and society. Among the other issues that the
youth face include:
 limited access to quality education and training
 increasing number of out of school youth
 lack of educational and scholarship opportunities
 low educational attainment
 high cost of education
 limited government funding
Also included are high incidence of poverty and the youth's lack of
knowledge on history and culture. (Philippine Medium-Term You
Development Plan 2005-2010)
In the same study, the youth generally feel that they are adequately
involved in decisions that affect their lives and have significant
influence in key activities that affect their lives at home, in school,
and in the organization to which they belong. Yet according to them
what they lack is involvement and influence in community and local
affairs. They may be involved in government programs and projects,
but they are not involved in the more crucial stages of project
development.
(Philippine Medium-Term Youth Development Plan 2005-2010)
THE IMPORNTANCE AND ROLE OF YOUTH IN
OCMMUNITY ACTION
The Philippine Constitution stated, "The State recognizes the vital
role of the youth in nation-building and shall protect their physical,
moral, spiritual, intellectual, and social well-being (Article II,
Section 13)"
The youth are a vital resource of the community. They are not only a
dynamic foundation of the community force by are also considered as
community change agents. Thy are considered as forerunners of
social transformation and remain as an essential asset of the
community because of their creativity, resourcefulness, and keenness.
Because the youth are important, it is necessary to provide them with
the essential support for knowledge enhancement and capacity
building. However, the youth need more than just knowledge and
skills.
There are four integrated strategies that were formulated to project
their social well-being:
 building youth-caring communities
 developing community-caring youth
 reengineering the mechanism through which the youth services
are delivered
 becoming more responsive to the specific needs of the youth
The Purpose and the Approaches to Community
Action
The Social Situation
The Philippines is rich in natural resources and in culture heritage.
However, because our problems with historical and structural roots.
The country addresses from economic, political, social, and
ecological, technological issues.
Economic Issues
- There is a relatively high poverty incidence in the country.
Although, the economy has started to pick up, it fluctuates
because of environmental problems, political uncertainties, and
crime rates.
- The fluctuations affect income improvements, restrain economic
development, and negatively affect the development of the
people, especially the poor.
Ecological Issues
- The natural resources of the country have been imperiled by
unrelenting exploitation. Land degradation remains a problem of
poor families who depend on land. Man-made activities such as
logging and hand-burn that cause deforestation persist. The
quality of water continues to deteriorate, and the increase in
population results in an increase in human encroachment of the
country’s natural resources.
Political Issues
- Despite the restoration of democratic political institutions and
the development of participatory and community-oriented
development strategies, the country is still far from having a
stable, strong, and functioning democracy, corruption, nepotism,
patron clients, cronyism, and political conflict persist.
Social Issues
- The social sector still faces massive challenges in terms of
access to basic social services despite the gains in health,
education, and nutritional status. The greater challenge is how to
provide people’s access to basic education and health services.
Also, the housing issue persists. The state and magnitude
poverty affect the marginalized, the disadvantaged, and the
vulnerable sectors of the society.
Technological Issues
- Some examples include online harassment and cyberbullying,
unprotected access to personal data, lack of safety regulations
for data processing, and identification and exploitation of digital
divides. In today’s world of advancement society can be
confused on the digital information transpired.
In any analysis of our social reality, we explore a number of society’s
elements:
 historical dimensions
 structural elements
  divisions of the society
 interrelated issues.
In terms of history, the questions is: Where are coming from?
Through, a scientific moment of historical awareness, the past can be
carefully analyzed. As indicated by Holland Henriot (1984).
The Scientific Moment of Historical Awareness describes social
change according to various stages. Below is an illustration of how
the form of racism concerning blacks in the United States evolved.
1. The first stage of racism is called paternalism. The main
racial conflict occurred between the white planters and the
black slave population.
2. The second stage of racism is discrimination. With
emancipation, black citizens in the US faced a new form of
racism. They were thrown in the industrial economy where
the black labor competed with white labor, and both were at
the mercy of the white entrepreneurial class. The result was
a dual or two-tiered labor market with the black frequently
at the bottom, holding the lowest paying and menial job.
3. The third stage is marginalization. With a shrinking
industrial economy, structural unemployment is heavily
concentrated among non-white. An urban permanent
underclass is developing-a class of people who are isolated
from the economic mainstream and ignored.
Social analysis looks into the structure of our society, including
government, law, education, labor, church, and family. These
structures have to be analyzed and understood in order to address the
roots of our society’s problems. With the aid of social analysis, we
can ascertain the key working structure in a given situation and move
outside personal considerations. It is therefore important to look into
the economic, political, and cultural structures of the society.
Structure:
Economic
What to Look Into:
- The economic structure shapes the basic patterns of production,
distribution, exchange and consumption in a society.
- It is important to look into the business and commercial
institutions, as well as the industrial and agricultural sectors.
 What type of production do we have? Is it capital-intensive,
employment-generating, labor intensive?
 What are paths of distribution? Are they monopolistic or
are they widely shared?
 How is the condition of exchange?
 What are the interest rates for loans?
 How is the pattern of consumption? It is conducive to waste
or conservation of scarce resources?
Structure:
Political
What to Look Into:
- In studying political structures, we look into the institutional
concentration of power or the power within the community.
- Possible areas of study are the formal and informal structurers of
the government, interest groups, and social classes.
- Analyzing political structures would help determine where and
for whom key decisions are made, how much participation is
present, and how decisions are enacted.
Structure:
Cultural
What to Look Into:
- Cultural structures serve as the institutional bases for the myths
and symbols of society.
 What are the dominant cultural strains in the society?
 What are the less dominant strains?
 What are the psychological effects of social dynamics
 What is the connection between the political and economic
structures and the people?
 Are there efforts to preserve and recover culture?
The political, economic, and sociocultural analyses lead to a clearer
picture of the social situation of the community and country as a
whole. The clearer the picture, the more strategic the interventions
are. Viewing the situation form different angles gives community
change agents a good grasp of the social problems and issues which
lead to a deeper understanding and more appropriate action.
In the study of societal divisions, the focus of analysis is the division
of society according to class, ethnicity, religion, geography, race, sex,
and age. It is necessary to look into these divisions because they
cause societal disruption, especially in the process of social change. It
has implications on the promotions of common good. In some cases,
issues such as discrimination promote exclusivity in development
processes. More often than not, the poorer sectors of the community
are the predictable victims.
In terms of class division, the important question.
1. Who makes the decisions?
2. Who benefits from the decisions?
3. Who bears the cost of the decisions?
Discerning the societal situation based on the questions posed in the
historical, structural, and societal divisions’ perspectives, there is a
clear social conflict and breakage in the social fabric. The structures
and systems create a gap between those who have economic and
political powers and those who do not have. People who do not have
a voice in the economic and political processes are clearly
marginalized and excluded. This is a clear manifestation of social
inequality and social injustice.
The situation results in the further deepening and widening of
poverty, social disintegration, and environmental degradation. The
song of Joey Ayala which states that “Ang lahat ng bagay ay
magkakaugnay” captures the reality of our social situation. The
worsening of poverty means that more people are poor are poor, that
more people do not have jobs, that more people live in the slums, and
that more people are sick. The poor consequently are forced to do
criminal acts to survive and to protect their families. There are cases
when they are also forced to undertake activities, such as dynamite
fishing, which will eventually destroy the environment. The situation
calls for social change.
PEST ANALYSIS
Political
 Political stability
 Regulation and de-regulation
 Statutes, laws, codes of conduct
 Government funding, subsidies, support for specific industries
 Fiscal/ monetary policy
 Tax rates
 Trade agreements
Economic
 Economic trends
 Economic stability-inflation, wages growth, GDP, GNP
 Exchange rates
 Trade agreements
 Seasonality and economic cycles
 Consumer confidence
 Consumer purchasing power-discretionary incomes
Social
 Demographic changes - population growth, age distribution,
population density, geographic distribution
 Consumer attitudes - tastes and preferences
 Social influencers- role models, opinion leaders
 Shopping habits --preferred channels, channel switching, online
& offline shopping
Technological
 Innovation, breakthroughs or technological developments
 New product materials or ingredients, new packaging solutions
 Improved production processes or business models
 New ways of transacting business
 New machinery or software
The Models of Social Change
The situation calls for social change. According to Holland and
Henriot (1984), the work for social justice is largely a work to direct
the process toward a social situation more respectful of human rights
and dignity. It requires pastoral actions that promote justice.
Understanding change may come from different perspectives. It is
important to appreciate these perspectives for three reasons:
1. To understand the responses taken by those in position of
influence and authority to a given situation. It is important to
examine the change employed by those who protect the status
quo.
2. To help us know our strengths and weaknesses as change
agents,. This will make the agents realize that at different
situations, we all tend to preserve the system, reform the system,
or transform the system. There is a time to preserve, to reform,
and to transform.
3. To help us reflect and discern. Are we applying models of social
change that promote social justice?
Therefore, it is critical to discern the community action strategies and
approaches that we apply in the pursuit of social change. As
identified by Ford (1987), there are three models of social change.
These are the traditional model, the class conflict model, and the
interest group model. The following table provides a brief description
of each model.
THE MODELS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Traditional Structure of Patronage and Dependence
- In this model, power is concentrated at the top. Both leaders and
the followers compete for patronage and connections.
- This model preserves the status quo and continues the process of
exploitation and alienation of the people in the grass roots.
Class Conflict Model
- This model portrays a lower class-higher class relationship. The
lower class is the oppressed, and the higher class is the
oppressor.
- This model is from Marxist perspective. It presents class conflict
as inevitable. The model seeks a classless society.
Interest Group Model
- In this model, society is composed of a variety of groups and
organizations coming from the lower strata of the society, each
with its common interest and seeking to be heard to influence
policy decisions and actions.
- The interest groups come from the different sectors of women,
youth, the disadvantaged, indigenous people, and others.
THE MODELS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
The process of social change is complicated and long. It requires
systematic and personal change. Systematic change looks into
institutional systems and economic, political, and sociocultural
structures. Which structures promote social justice, and which, ones
promote injustice? What are alternative structures do we offer?
Personal change requires looking into the individual’s values and
principles. Which values of the individual are lifegiving or life
affirming? Which values contribute to the strengthening of an unjust
society?
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AS A PROCESS OF SOCIAL
CHANGE
Social Development (SD) is a key process in social change. This
concept has a wide array of descriptions as it is being used widely by
social development workers and advocates. Midgley (2013) made a
review of these definitions. The following table is a synthesis of his
review.
DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
- The process by which societies evolve from a traditional or
“primitive” state to a modern, advanced level of civilization
(Midgley, 2013, p.3)
- The adoption of social reforms that would modify the harsh
effects of social change on vulnerable people (Hobhouse, 1924).
- Meaningful social change that is achieved when the social
structures that perpetuate poverty, inequality, and oppression are
challenged by ordinary people and ultimately dismantled
(Midgley, 2013, p.2007)
- Process by which improvements in social wellbeing are brough
about through social planning, a variety of legislative mandates,
subsidies, redistributive fiscal policies ministries responsible for
education, health, housing and social services (Midley, 2013),
p.18)
- Social programs and policies which would, as one official
document put it, result in nothing less than the whole process of
change and advancement of a territory, considered in terms of
the progressive well-being of society and the individual (United
Kingdom, Colonial Office, 1954, p.14).
- Process that results in the improvement of the quality of the
people…. A more equitable distribution of resources…and
special measures that will enable marginal groups and
communities to move into the mainstream” (Pandey, 1981 p.
33).
- Human (social) development is a process of promoting
freedom by ‘enlarging people’s choices UNDP, 1990 p.3)
- A process of planned social change designed to promote the
well-being of the population as a whole within the context of a
dynamic multifaceted development process (Midgley, 2013,
p.13)
- The development of the capacity of people to work continuously
for their own and society’s welfare (Paiva, 1977 p.23)
- Planned and directed change that enables people to achieve
greater happiness, satisfaction and a peaceful life (Singh, 2008,
p.2).
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AS A PROCESS OF SOCIAL
CHANGE
Penullar (2015) captures the several elements of various definitions
and proposed the following description of Social Development:
“The process of planned and life-affirming social change
aimed toward a society where everyone is liberated and
where everyone achieves fullness of life."
In this description, life-affirming, social change infers that all
community development interventions have to be life-sustaining, so
they must forbear violent modes of realizing social change.
Liberation, on the other hand, requires the exclusion of all structures
and processes that cradle human suffering.
Fullness of life or an abundant life, as indicated by Penullar (2015)
and cited by Bufford (1991), may be viewed as “comprehensive well
being-well-being in the social, emotional, physical, and spiritual
dimensions of life.
”Penullar (2015) further pointed out that, operationally, SD means to
denounce and work toward the elimination of unjust social practices
and systems, promote participation of the underrepresented, and
implement life-giving interventions.
Methods Non-prose materials are composed of graphs, bars, tables, charts,
diagrams, illustrations, drawings, and maps.
Methods includes… Tables
 Research Design - It helps summarize and categorize data using columns and rows.
 Respondents/Subject of the Study It contains headings that indicate the most important information
 Statistical Treatment of Data about your study.
 Data Gathering Procedures - To interpret the tables, one needs to do the following:
1. Analyze the connections among the details of the headings.
Research Design 2. Check the unusual pattern of the data and determine the
- Design of the research study. reason behind these.
Respondents/Subject of the Study 3. Begin with the table number and the title.
- Respondent – for descriptive research. 4. Present the significant figures (overall results, high and low
- Describes the environment where the research is conducted. values, the unusual pattern).5. Refrain from repeating again
Statistical Treatment what’s inside the table.
- Discusses how the different statistical tools are used in the study. 5. Support your findings with literature and studies that
Data Gathering Procedure confirms or contrasts your results.
- Discusses the procedures on how data are collected. 6. Establish the practical implications of the results. This will
- Contains the detailed discussions of the step-by-step procedure add value to your research findings.
of the experiment. 7. End with a brief generalization.
- Follow a standard procedure.

Methods
- This section of the paper should describe, in logical sequence,
how the study was designed and carried out, who the
participants were, what material and method was used and how
the data were analyzed.
- The main purpose of this section is to describe precisely the
experimental design and, consequently, provide enough detail so
that an experiment could be repeated.
- This part of the material and method section usually includes
information on the sample size and sample characteristics.
- If the methods, devices, or techniques are widely known or can
be found in standard textbooks, further information is
unnecessary. Methods that are uncommon or unique should be
described fully or an adequate reference to the method should be
provided.
- Statistical analysis is often necessary, but one should feature and
discuss the data, not the statistics. The statistical method section
should describe how the data were analyzed, with specific
details of the statistical tests and the statistical computer
packages that were used. If a statistical test that is not simple or
well-known is used, a reference to the method and an
explanation of why it is used is required. Graphs
- It focuses on how a change in one variable relates to another.
Graphs use bars, lines, circles, and pictures in representing the
data.

Data Presentation and Analysis

TECHNIQUES IN DATA GATHERING

 Editing
 Coding
 Tabulation

TABULATION DIGITAL TOOLS

 Microsoft Excel
 Minitab

PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

The purpose of presenting the data in this way is to make the outlined
of the results more presentable.
Position Paper Writing Reports

Position Paper TYPES OF REPORTS

- A kind of academic writing in which the student research a  Survey Report
controversial issue and writes a paper that explains his/her stand It is written after getting data from a survey
or viewpoint on it. GOAL: To collect people’s responses or answers about a
- Presents and arguable opinion about an issue. Its goal is to particular issue or topic
convince the audience that your opinion is valid and worth  Laboratory or Scientific Technical Report
listening to. It is commonly called lab report. It is written in a formal and
organized manner.
GOAL: To present results or findings from experiments.
PARTS
Introduction  Field Report
- It consists of the introduction of the issue, explanation of the It is sometimes called trip report.
topic in order to provide the background information of the issue GOAL: To describe and analyze a systematic observation.
and the assertion of the thesis statement.
I. Introduction TYPES OF SURVEY
A. Presentation of the topic Personal Approach
B. Presentation of the background information  Face-to-face Structured Interview
C. Presentation of the thesis statement The interview is set personally, and the people involved face
each other in order to gather the necessary information.
Body Questions on the survey are asked directly to the respondent by
- It includes the summary of the claims and your arguments. the researcher.
- It is the part where you must assert your claims by giving  Telephone Survey
educated and informed opinions. The survey is done using telephone or cellular phones.
- These should be supported or proven by providing evidence
Self-Administered Approach
from various sources, preferably three.
 Paper-and-Pencil Survey
II. Body This is a traditional method wherein the respondents who are
A. Presentation of the Arguments usually not computer literate must be present in the
1. First Argument administration of the survey.
a. Evidence/Support
 Online Survey
2. Second Argument
b. Evidence/Support This is a useful technique that will cater to a big sample size
3. Third Argument coming from different locations.
c. Evidence/Support  Mail Survey
Questionnaires are mailed to individuals who are given enough
Conclusion time to read and ponder on the information asked.
- It includes the restatement of the thesis statement, arguments and
the implications. You may include plan of action but do not
introduce new information. TYPES OF SURVEY QUESTIONS
 Open-ended Questions
III. Conclusion
Do not have predetermined options or answers.
A. Restatement of the thesis statement, arguments, action plan
These questions typically ask the “how” and “why” of
something.
 Dichotomous Questions
ANALYZING AN ISSUE AND DEVELOPING AN ARGUMENT Have two possible answers, often either yes/no, true/false, or
 Select a topic. agree/ disagree.
 Do some topic research. These questions are used when the researcher wants to clearly
 Ensure well supported position. distinguish the respondent’s opinion, preference, experience or
 List pros and cons. behavior.
 Multiple–response Questions
Type of Information Type of Resources Necessitate the respondents to provide more than one answer.
 introductory information and  directories, encyclopedias,  Matrix Questions
overviews handbooks
 in-depth studies  books, government websites Are instances where a number of questions you intend to ask to
 scholarly articles  academic journals have the same set of possible answers.
 current issue  newspaper, magazines Thus, it is possible to construct a matrix of items and answers
 statistics  government agencies and for the sake of streamlining the survey.
associations Likert Scale
Assess the subject’s agreement/disagreement or approval/
disapproval on a five-point scale.
 Contingency Questions
Contingency questions are intended for certain respondents only,
depending on the provided answers.
DISSEMINATING INFORMATION FROM SURVEYS
- A simple way of recording the results is by constructing a tally
and frequency table.
- For example, a survey is carried out to test the manufacturer’s
claim that there are ‘about 36 chocolate buttons in each packet.’
The number of buttons in each of 25 packets is counted, giving
the figures below.

- Sometimes if there is a big range in the data, it is more useful to

group the data in a grouped frequency table. The groups are
chosen so that no data item can appear in two groups.

- The ages could have been grouped 71-75, 76-80, 81-85, etc. The
group size is the decision of the person collecting the data, but it
is important that the groups are all the same size and do not
overlap.

DISPLAYING DATA
 Pictogram
This method uses pictures to represent the frequency.
 Bar Graph
Most common way of displaying data.
Quick and easy to draw, and straightforward to understand.
 Pie Graph
Each frequency is represented by a fraction of a circle.
Staging
Staging
- It is the process of selecting, designing, adapting to, or
modifying the performance space for a play of film. This
includes the use or absence of stage craft elements as well as the
structure of the stage and its components.
Staging Your Performance
Before you begin to set your work and rehearse in detail you should
consider the relationship between performers and audience. There are
a variety of stage shapes you can choose from to present your work.
Each provides a different experience for the audience.
 Linear Structure
Running scenes is a chronological order means that you have a
linear structure.
 Non-linear Structure
This is where the narrative doesn’t run in a straight line but
moves about in time. It’s nonchronological.
Narrative and Plot
- Your devised work may have one clear storyline, or narrative,
running throughout. (linear)
- If there are two or more story lines in your piece, you’ll need to
decide how you deal with these separate stories when structuring
your work. (non-linear)
- This is called a fractured narrative. The trick is to leave each
story at a point which keeps the audience wanting to know what
happens next. (non-linear)
CRAFTING AND STAGING A DEVISED PERFORMANCE
 Arena Stage Theater
 Thrust Stage Theater
 Proscenium Stage Theater
 Traverse Stage Theater
 Round Stage Theater
 Black-Box or Studio Theater
 Open Air Theater
Drama has become one of the effective ways of portraying life’s ups
and downs or the realities of life. Most of us, Filipinos, have
witnessed dramas which made us smile, laugh, angry, and even cry. A
drama, or a play, is a piece of writing that is presented almost
exclusively through dialogue (Jose & Larioque, 2017). Like a short
story or novel, it has a setting, characters, plot, and even symbolism.
However, unlike short story or novel, the play is meant to be
performed in front of the audience, not read.
One-Act Plays are short plays, but with complete stories. They are
similar to a short story in its limitations, and there is a complete
drama within one act. It is brief and one situation is presented for a
single purpose and effect. There are only few characters who are
quickly introduced and limitedly developed. They are plays that take
place only in one place and generally take only less than an hour to
present.
TECHNIQUES IN WRITING SCENES FOR ONE-ACT PLAY
A good one-act play focuses only on one main action or problem. As
a writer, you have to avoid complicated layers of plot as they may
take longer time in presenting on stage. The following are some
considerations and innovative techniques that you may put in mind in
writing a script with scenes for one-act play:
1. Be clear with your theme. This is one of the main
considerations that you may have in planning for scenes in a
play.
2. Develop the plot simply. In a one-act play, identify only one
significant event. You may develop the action first, then
compose the dialogue before deciding on other elements.
3. Develop the characters. You may have a character sketch first
before you bring them to life. You have to limit the characters
that you have to develop.
4. Generate the setting. The setting for one-act play will be one
scene. Thus, you have to develop the scene in order for the
audience to see everything about the story line.
5. Craft meaningful dialogues. The dialogues that you will create
need not to be terse, but concise and meaningful.
6. Add in the stage directions after you write the action. You
may write notes about how the characters should respond, what
sounds to make, and what props are needed.
7. Include other literary devices. Include some literary devices
such as foreshadowing, imagery, personification, satire, and
symbolism.
Critical Approaches
There are different perspectives we consider when looking at a piece
of literature.
They seek to give us answers to these questions, in addition to aiding
us in interpreting literature.
 What do we read?
 Why do we read?
 How do we read?
QUESTIONS TO PONDER FOR EACH APPROACH
 What are the benefits of each form of criticism?
 What are potential problems with each form?
 Is there a "right" or a "wrong" form?
 Can the mode of criticism alter the entire meaning of a text?
CRITICAL APPROACHES
Reader-response Criticism
- It asserts that a great deal of meaning in a text lies with how the
reader responds to it.
- Focuses on the art of reading and how it affects our perception
of meaning in a text. (how we deal at the beginning vs. the end)
TWO IMPORTANT IDEAS IN READER-RESPONSE
 An individual reader's interpretation usually changes
over time.
 Readers from different generations and different time
periods interpret texts differently.
Formalist Criticism
- It emphasizes the form of the literary work to determine its
meaning, focusing on literary elements and how they work to
create meaning.
- Examines a text as independent from its time period, social
setting, and author's background. A text is an independent entity.
- A formalist reading of a text focuses on symbol, metaphor
imagery, characterization, and so on.
- Formalism ignores the author’s biography and focuses only on
the interaction of literary elements within the text.
TWO MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF FORMALISM
 A literary text exists independent of any particular
reader and, in a sense, has a fixed meaning.
 The greatest literary texts are “timeless” and
“universal.”
Psychological Criticism
- It views a text as a revelation of its author’s mind and
personality. It is based on the work of Sigmund Freud.
- Also focuses on the hidden motivations of literary characters.
- Looks at literary characters as a reflection of the writer.
Sociological Criticism
- It argues that social contexts (the social environment) must be
considered when analyzing a text.
- Focuses on the values of a society and how those views are
reflected in a text.
Marxist Criticism
- It emphasizes economic and social conditions. It is based
on the political theory of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
- Concerned with understanding the role of power, politics,
and money in literary texts.
MARXIST CRITICISM EXAMINES LITERATURE TO SEE
HOW IT REFLECTS
 The way in which dominant groups (typically, the
majority) exploit the subordinate groups (typically, the
minority).
 The way in which people become alienated from one
another through power, money, and politics.
Feminist Criticism
- It is concerned with the role, position, and influence of
women in a literary text.
- Asserts that most “literature” throughout time has been
written by men, for men.
- Examines the way that the female consciousness is depicted
by both male and female writers.
Gender Criticism
- Examines how sexual identity influences the creation and
reception of literary works.
- Began with the feminist movement.
- Men’s movement: seeks to examine ideas of masculinity.
Biographical Criticism
- It argues that we must take an author’s life and background into
account when we study a text.
- As the name suggests, this type of criticism reads the text
looking for the author’s influence.
THREE BENEFITS
 Facts about an author’s experience can help a reader decide
how to interpret a text.
 A reader can better appreciate a text by knowing a writer’s
struggles or difficulties in creating that text.
 A reader can understand a writer’s preoccupation by
studying the way they apply and modify their own life
experiences in their works.
New Historicist Criticism
- It argues that every literary work is a product of its time and its
world.
- New Historicism:
1. Provides background information necessary to understand
how literary texts were perceived in their time.
2. Shows how literary texts reflect ideas and attitudes of the
time in which they were written.
Mythological Criticism
- This stance is not about mythology.
- It is about the universal elements of human life that are common
in all cultures.
- Like ancient mythology, literature is a window to creating
meaning for human life.
- Central to mythological theory are archetypes.
- Remember, archetypes are those universal elements present in
the literature of all cultures.
- Mythological Criticism seeks to understand how the story
constructs meaning in the human existence through archetypes.
Literary Criticism
- Any critic can take any approach that helps him/her explain
what they think the author is saying in his/her work.
- Once you have decided what you think the author of your novel
is saying---what his/her message is--- you can then decide on
which critical approach you think will work best to support your
opinion.
Deconstructionist Criticism
- Deconstructionism argues that since there is no single meaning
of any word, there can be no single meaning of a text.
- EVERY text, therefore, has multiple valid meanings because the
reader may interpret the words differently than the writer
intended them.
- Much literary criticism is about construction of a larger meaning
from a text.
- Emphasizes the breakdown of any meaning within a text
because of the variety of different readers.
- Idea that because there is no concrete meaning of anything, there
is no single truth applicable to all human beings.
Craft Essay
Craft Essay
- The term essay is taken from the word “essais” literally means
attempts mainly attributed to Michael De Montaigne.
- It is a composition in prose form, of enough length and is
typically intended to explain an idea, a theory, or an impression.
- It includes a variety of text like journal, diaries, letters,
newspaper editorials, reports and reviews.
- Essay share an opinion, insight, experience, or observation as
the main purpose.
- It is an essay that discusses matters of creative construction that
may include reflections on writing strategies, genre elements,
and contextual influences.
PARTS OF ESSAY
Introduction
- It is the opening paragraph of your essay.
- This sentence tells the reader the main idea, or what the
paragraph will be about.
- Thesis Statement - Tells the readers exactly what your paper
will be arguing.
Body
- An essay usually has at least three body paragraphs, and these
will be the arguments, evidence, or topics that support your
thesis.
- Transition sentences are present.
- Include substantial examples and evidence.
- Should wrapped-up your essay but should not introduce new
information or arguments.
THREE TYPES OF ORDER
 Chronological order - order of time good for narratives.
 Spatial order -good for descriptions of locations; top to
bottom.
 Emphatic order - least important to most important; most
common in college writing.

Context
- It comes from the Latin verb 'contexto' which means "to connect
or weave together".
- It is the background, environment, setting, framework, or
surroundings of events or occurrences within which a work of
writing is situated.

TWO MAJOR TYPES OF CONTEXTS

Literary Context
- Relates to the particular form a passage takes (the literary genre)
and to words, sentences, and paragraphs that surround the
passage you are studying.
Genre--Author's Purpose--Text Structure--Literary Devices
Socio-political Context
- Consists of the overlapping of social and political arena in their
influence over literary text.
- It highly influences our writing because we often write about the
current issues happening around us.
Social Issues--Politics--Religion

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ESSAYS
 Reflective essay – considers a subject which is heavily
philosophical in nature.
 Critical essay – includes viewers of books, movies, works of
art, and other forms of compositions.
 Editorial essay – it highlights the writer’s opinions about an
important issue of the day. Classifications of Essays
 Nature essay – this showcases the beauty of nature and of
outdoor life.
 Scientific essay – deals with the discussion of the explorations
and findings taken from scientific experimentations.
 Narrative essay – written in the form of story as it utilizes
events or incidents to give shape to a certain theme.
 Speculative essay – highlights contemplations which are
difficult to prove by means of posing inquiries about an
interesting topic.
 Biographical/character sketch essay – depicts the life of an
individual considered as the subject from infancy, maturity, to
one’s death; shows a description of a particular aspects of life a
certain person.
 Didactic essay – describe a serious and formal teaches a moral
lesson.
 Descriptive essay – provides information as to how something
looks like, highlights qualities of something which provides
animation, clarity, and reality to a narrative essay.