1

MATHEMATICS
IN THE
MODERN WORLD
LEARNING LOG
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Learning Log
Table of Contents

Section Page

1 Mathematics in Our World 3

1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature
1.2 Fibonacci Sequence 4
1.3 Mathematics helps organize patterns 7
And irregularities in the world
1.4 Mathematics helps predict the behavior
of nature and phenomena in the world 8

2 Mathematical Language and Symbols 9

2.1 Characteristic of Mathematical language,

Precise, concise and powerful

2.2 Expression Vs. Sentence

2.3 Conversion in Mathematical Langugae 11

2.4 Four basic concepts: sets, functions,

relations, binary operation

3 Problem Solving and Reasoning 23

3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

3.2 Intuition, proof and certainty 25

3.3 Polya’s 4 step of Problem Solving

Strategies

References 28
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Section 1. Mathematics in our Modern World

Mathematics is the science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity and
arrangement. Math is all around us, in everything we do. It is the building block
for everything in our daily lives, including mobile devices, architecture (ancient
and modern), art, money, engineering, and even sports.

Since the beginning of recorded history, mathematic discovery has been at

the forefront of every civilized society, and in use in even the most primitive of
cultures. The needs of math arose based on the wants of society. The more
complex a society, the more complex the mathematical needs. Primitive tribes
needed little more than the ability to count, but also relied on math to calculate
the position of the sun and the physics of hunting.

1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics is a tool. Play with it any way you want and see if you can make
something. Don’t worry if you break the tool, we’ll rebuild it, together.

Some scientist make some proof and understanding on which is

mathematics was present on nature. Early Greek philosophers attempted to
explain order in nature, anticipating modern concepts. Pythagoras, an ancient
Greek philosopher, explained patterns in nature like the harmonies of music as
arising from number, which he took to be the basic constituent of existence. On
the other hand, Empedocles a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher, to an extent
anticipated Darwin's evolutionary explanation for the structures of organisms.
Plato argued for the existence of natural universals. He considered these to
consist of ideal forms of which physical objects are never more than imperfect
copies. Thus, a flower may be roughly circular, but it is never a perfect circle.

One of the things about Mathematics that we love the most is it’s uncanny
ability to reveal hidden beautiful patterns in our everyday life, the nature around
us. These patterns can be sequential, spatial, temporal, and even linguistic.
There are connections between things that don’t seem connected, but can be
observed with the intellect of math. Patterns in nature are visible regularities of
form found in the natural world. These patterns recur in different contexts and
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can sometimes be modelled mathematically. Natural patterns include symmetries,

trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes.

In short, we can say mathematics is the science of patterns.

Symmetries, means that one shape becomes exactly like another when you
move it in some way: turn, flip or slide. For two objects to be symmetrical, they
must be the same size and shape, with one object having a different orientation
from the first. Examples: butterfly, number 8, circle, square, honey comb. Trees
and fractals, like many other things in nature, the shapes of trees exhibit
striking mathematical patterns. In fact, the verb "branch" describes
the mathematical process that produces the shapes. I notice that branches are
formed by a step-by-step process of splitting into smaller and smaller parts.
Examples of fractals are, snowflakes, trees branching, lightning, and ferns.
Spirals, a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of circular
shapes that revolve around it. Examples of spirals are pine cones, pineapples,
hurricanes and galaxies. The reason for why plants use a spiral form like the
leaf picture above is because they are constantly trying to grow but stay secure.
Meanders, one of a series of regular sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or
windings in the channel of a river, stream, or other watercourse. It is produced
by a stream or river swinging from side to side as it flows across its floodplain
or shifts its channel within a valley. Examples. The meander of order 1
intersects the line twice: The meanders of order 2 intersect the line four times.
Waves, a disturbance that transfer energy through matter or space with little or
no associated mass transport. Example of it was mechanical wave like sound,
ocean waves. Tessellation is the tilting of a plane using one or more geometric
shapes with no overlaps and gaps. Examples of it are art, architecture, and
origami. Cracks and Fracture occur due to the development of certain
displacement discontinuity surface within the solid. Stripe is series of bonds or
strips, often the same width or color along the length. Numbers are involved in
nature especially on the petals of a flower.

1.2The Fibonacci Sequence

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The Fibonacci sequence is one of the most famous formulas in mathematics.

Each number in the sequence is the sum of the two numbers that precede it. So,
the sequence goes: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on. The mathematical
equation describing it is Xn+2= Xn+1 + Xn.

The Fibonacci sequence exhibits a certain numerical pattern which originated as

the answer to an exercise in the first ever high school algebra text. This pattern
turned out to have an interest and importance far beyond what its creator
imagined. It can be used to model or describe an amazing variety of phenomena,
in mathematics and science, art and nature. The mathematical ideas the
Fibonacci sequence leads to, such as the golden ratio, spirals and self- similar
curves, have long been appreciated for their charm and beauty, but no one can
really explain why they are echoed so clearly in the world of art and nature.

The story began in Pisa, Italy in the year

1202. Leonardo Pisano Bigollo was a young man in
his twenties, a member of an important trading
family of Pisa. In his travels throughout the Middle
East, he was captivated by the mathematical ideas
that had come west from India through the Arabic
countries. When he returned to Pisa he published
these ideas in a book on mathematics called Liber
Abaci, which became a landmark in Europe.
Leonardo, who has since come to be known
as Fibonacci, became the most celebrated
mathematician of the Middle Ages. His book was a
discourse on mathematical methods in commerce,
but is now remembered mainly for two
contributions, one obviously important at the time
and one seemingly insignificant. Leonardo Fibonacci came up with the sequence
when calculating the ideal expansion pairs of rabbits over the course of one
year. Today, its emergent patterns and ratios (phi = 1.61803...) can be seen from
the microscale to the macroscale, and right through to biological systems and
inanimate objects. While the Golden Ratio doesn't account for every structure or
pattern in the universe, it's certainly a major player.
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The Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it.

• The 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1)

• The 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
• And the 5 is (2+3),
• and so on!
Examples of Fibonacci patterns are flower petals, seed heads, pinecones,
tree branches, shells, spiral galaxies, hurricanes, faces, animal bodies, fingers,
animal body etc.
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1.3 Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the World

Mathematics is everywhere and its function is to help organize pattern

and regularities in the world. For example, in the animal world (humans
including) symmetrical animals are regarded as the most attractive by both
sexes. Another example is the Fibonacci numbers are found in almost any
flowers. Sunflowers have the seeds in perfect Fibonacci order. 1 seed then 2
seeds 3 seeds 6 seeds 12 seeds 24 seeds and so on in the flowers. This
arrangement ensures maximum sunlight to each little seed in the flower.

Pi has a great contribution in the formation of the nature and human

invention. A river flowing through a landscape has Pi in it. The straight distance
from start to end relates with Pi which measure the actual distance. The big
pyramids have Pi in them. The Egyptians didn't know Pi, but learned from
experience. The formula is the height multiplied with 2xPi. Divide the result with
4 which result to the length of the sides. It gives the base you need to build as
high as You can on a solid base with the given angle. Other invention of human
that uses mathematics is Google. The search engine of google is based on an
algorithm.
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1.4 Mathematics
Helps Predict the Behavior of Nature and Phenomena in the World

Using mathematical tools we can create models which correspond to what we

can measure and observe in the world of reality. Models that work really well,
that predict behaviors in the counterpart to the model which have not yet been
observed, these are taken as “laws of describing nature”. Occasionally, the
mathematics of laws describing phenomena not considered related reveal
surprising unanticipated relationships. Mathematics provide the framework
within which our observations of the physical world can be encoded. It goes
beyond being merely descriptive when it exposes relationships that integrate
disparate subjects.

Mathematics can be used to explain how something recurs in nature.

Mathematics is used to explain why the Sun Set, where it went, and why it
returned because it was easier to count these events in numbers than put them
into words. Similarly, formulas became a way of using numbers to show how
things in nature happen together or opposite one another. Mathematics is helpful
especially when seeking to explain the limitless feeling one gets when
contemplating the natural world that exists outside ourselves. The logic of any
idea that can be explained in words can be reinforced mathematically to reach
and persuade a larger audience about its concurrency with natural phenomena,
its economic applicability and its business potential.

Example:

Cloud seeding weather prediction

Business forecast
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Section 2. Mathematical Language and Symbols

Mathematics is written in a symbolic language that is designed to express

mathematical thoughts. English language is a source of knowledge, but it is not
designed for doing mathematics. This article describes how mathematical
thoughts, methods, and facts are expressed
in symbolism. That is, it emphasizes how to

read and write mathematics.

2.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts

that mathematicians like to express. It is: • precise (able to make very fine
distinctions); • concise (able to say things briefly); • powerful (able to express
complex thoughts with relative ease). The language of mathematics can be
learned, but requires the efforts needed to learn any foreign language. In this
book, you will get extensive practice with mathematical language ideas, to
enhance your ability to correctly read, write, speak, and understand
mathematics.

2.2 Expression vs Sentence

Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining these
words into complete thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no exception. As a
first step in discussing the mathematical language, we will make a very broad
classification between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics (used to name mathematical
objects of interest) and the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state complete
mathematical thoughts).

Expression is a sentence fragment that stands for a single numerical value. On

the contrary, an equation is a sentence showing equality between two
expressions. The expression is simplified, through evaluation where we
substitute values in place of variables. Conversely, an equation is solved.
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Expression

An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object
of interest.

An expression does not state a complete thought;

it does not make sense to ask if an expression is true or false.

The most common expression types are numbers, sets, and functions.

Numbers have lots of different names: for example, the expressions

55 2+32+3 102102 (6−2)+1(6−2)+1 1+1+1+1+11+1+1+1+1

all look different, but are all just different names for the same number.
This simple idea—that numbers have lots of different names—is extremely
important in mathematics!

Sentence

A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought.

Sentences have verbs.

In the mathematical sentence ‘3+4=73+4=7’ , the verb is ‘==’.

A sentence can be (always) true, (always) false, or sometimes true/sometimes

false.
For example, the sentence ‘1+2=31+2=3’ is true.
The sentence ‘1+2=41+2=4’ is false.
The sentence ‘x=2x=2’ is sometimes true/sometimes false: it is true
when xx is 22, and false otherwise.
The sentence ‘x+3=3+xx+3=3+x’ is (always) true, no matter what number is
chosen for xx.

EXAMPLES:

22 is an expression
1+11+1 is an expression
x+1x+1 is an expression
1+1=21+1=2 is a (true) sentence
1+1=31+1=3 is a (false) sentence
x+1=3x+1=3 is a (sometimes true/sometimes false) sentence
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2.3 Conversion in the Mathematical Language

MATHEMATICS DICTIONARY

Mathematical
Word or Phrase Operation

Sum, sum of, added to, increased by, more than, and, plus +

Difference, minus, subtracted from, decreased by, less, less

than –

Product, the product of, of, multiplied by, times, per ⋅

Quotient, divided by, ratio, per ÷

Equals, is equal to, is, the result is, becomes =

A number, an unknown quantity, an unknown, a quantity x (or any symbol)

1.Twelve more than a number. 5.Two ninths of a number is eleven.

SOLUTION SOLUTION

12+x 2/9x=11

2.Eight minus a number. 6.Three more than seven times a

number is nine more than five times
SOLUTION
the number.
8−x
SOLUTION
3.An unknown quantity less fourteen.
3+7x=9+5x
SOLUTION
7.Twice a number less eight is equal
x−14 to one more than three times the
number.
4.Six times a number is fifty-four.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
2x−8=3x+1 or 2x−8=1+3x
6x=54

2.4 Four Basic Concepts: Sets, Function, Relation, Binary Operation

SET

A set is a collection of well defined distinct objects, considered as an object in

its own right. For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 are distinct objects when
considered separately, but when they are considered collectively they form a
single set of size three, written {2, 4, 6}.

Some standard notations to represent sets :

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N : the set of natural numbers

W : the set of whole numbers

Z or I : the set of integers Other frequently used symbols are :

Z+ : the set of positve integers Î : 'belongs to'

Z- : the set of negative integers Ï : 'does not belong to'

Q : the set of rational numbers $ : There exists, $ : There does not

exist.
R : the set of real numbers

C : the set of complex numbers

REPRESENTATION OF A SET

There are two methods to represent a set.

• Roster method (Tabular form)

In this method a set is represented by listing all its elements, separating

these by commas and enclosing these in curly bracket.

If V be the set of vowels of English alphabet, it can be written in Roster form as

:

V = { a, e, i, o, u}

If A be the set of natural numbers less than 7.

then A={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, is in the Roster form.

Note : To write a set in Roster form elements are not to be repeated i.e. all
elements are

taken as distinct. For example if A be the set of letters used in the word
mathematics, then

A = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}

• Set-builder form

In this form elements of the set are not listed but these are represented by
some common

property.

Let V be the set of vowels of English alphabet then V can be written in the set
builder form as:

V = {x : x is a vowel of English alphabet}

(ii) Let A be the set of natural numbers less than 7.

then A = {x : x Î N and 1 x £ <7}

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Note : Symbol ':' read as 'such that'

Example:

(a) A={--- 3, 2, 1,0,1,2,3} (b) B = {3,6,9,12}

Solution : (a) A = {x : xÎ Z and3x3 -££ }

(b) B = {x : x = 3n and n Î £ N,n 4 }

• CLASSIFICATION OF SETS

Finite and infinite sets

Let A and B be two sets where

A = {x : x is a natural number}

B = {x : x is a student of your school}

As it is clear that the number of elements in set A is not finite (infinite) while
number of elements in

set B is finite. A is said to be an infinite set and B is said to be is finite set.

A set is said to be finite if its elements can be counted and it is said to be infinite

if it is not possible to count upto its last element.

Empty (Null) Set : Consider the following sets.

A={}

x:xÎR and x + =1 0

B = {x : x is number which is greater than 7 and less than 5}

Set A consists of real numbers but there is no real number whose square is -1.
Therefore this

set consists of no element. Similiarly there is no such number which is less than
5 and greater

than 7. Such a set is said to be a null (empty) set. It is denoted by the symbol
void, f or { }

A set which has no element is said to be a null/empty/void set, and is denoted by

f.

Disjoint Sets : Two sets are said to be disjoint if they do not have any
common element.

For example,sets A= { 1,3,5} and B = { 2,4,6 } are disjoint sets.

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SUB- SET

Let set A be a set containing all students of your school and B be a set
containing all students of
class XII of the school. In this example each element of set B is also an
element of set A. Such a
set B is said to be subset of the set A. It is written as B A Í
Consider D ={1, 2, 3, 4,........}
E = {.....-3-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .......}
Clearly each element of set D is an element of set E also \ D E Í
If A and B are any two sets such that each element of the set A is an
element
of the set B also, then A is said to be a subset of B.
Remarks
• Each set is a subset of itself i.e.A A Í .
• Null set has no element so the condition of becoming a subset is
automatically satisfied.Therefore null set is a subset of every set.
• If A B Í and B A Í then A = B.
• If A B Í and A B¹ then A is said to be a proper subset of B and B is said to
be a super set of A. i.e. A B Ì or B A É .

POWER SET

Let A = {a, b}

Subset of A are f , {a}, {b} and {a, b}.

If we consider these subsets as elements of a new set B (say) then

B = {f,{a},{b},{a,b}}

B is said to be the power set of A.

Notation : Power set of a set A is denoted by P(A).

Power set of a set A is the set of all subsets of the given set.

UNIVERSAL SET

Consider the following sets.

A = {x : x is a student of your school}

B = {y : y is a male student of your school}

C = {z : z is a female student of your school}

D = {a : a is a student of class XII in your school}

Clearly the set B, C, D are all subsets of A.

A can be considered as the universal set for this particular example.

Universal set is generally
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denoted by U.

In a particular problem a set U is said to be a universal set if all the sets in

that problem are

subsets of U.

Remarks

• Universal set does not mean a set containing all objects of the universe.
• A set which is a universal set for one problem may not be a universal set
for another problem.

VENN DIAGRAM

British mathematician John Venn (1834-1883 AD) introduced the concept of

diagrams to

represent sets. According to him universal set is represented by the interior

of a rectangle and

other sets are represented by interior of circles.

For example if U= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {2, 4} and B = {1,3}, then these sets
can be represented as

Diagramatical representation of sets is

known as a Venn diagram.

DIFFERENCE OF SETS

Consider the sets

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B= {2, 4, 6}.

A new set having those elements which are in A but not B is said to be the
difference of sets A

and B and it is denoted by A-B.

\ A-B= {1, 3, 5}

Similiarly a set of those elements which are in B but not in A is said to be

the difference of B and

A and it is devoted by B - A.
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\ B - A = {6}

In general, if A and B are two sets then

A-B = { x : xÎ Ï A and x B}

B-A = {x : xÎ Ï B and x A }

Difference of two sets can be represented using Venn diagram as :

COMPLEMENT OF A SET
Let X denote the universal set and Y, Z its sub set where
X = {x : x is any member of the family}
Y = {x : x is a male member of the family}
Z = {x : x is a female member of the family}
X-Y is a set having female members of the family..
X-Z is a set having male members of the family..
X-Y is said to be the complement of Y and is usally denoted by Y' or
Yc .
X-Z is said to be complement of Z and denoted by Z' or Zc .
If U is the universal set and A is its subset then the complement of A is
a set of those elements
which are in U which are not in A. It is denoted by A' or Ac .
A' = U-A = {x : x ÎU and x ÏA}
The complement of a set can be represented using Venn diagram as :

Remarks

• Difference of two sets can be found even if none is a subset of the other
but complement of a set can be found only when the set is a subset of
some universal set.
• f = c U . (iii) Uc = f.
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INTERSECTION OF SETS

Consider the sets

A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = { 2, 4, 6}

It is clear, that there are some elements which are common to both the
sets A and B. Set of these

common elements is said to be interesection of A and B and is denoted by

ABÇ.

Here A B Ç = {2, 4 }

If A and B are two sets then the set of those elements which belong to
both the sets is said to be

the intersection of A and B. It is devoted by A B Ç .

A B Ç = {x : x ÎA and x ÎB}

A B Ç can be represented using Venn diagram as :

UNION OF SETS

Consider the following examples :

• A is a set having all players of Indian men cricket team and B is a set
having all players of

Indian women cricket team. Clearly A and B are disjoint sets. Union of these two
sets is

a set having all players of both teams and it is denoted by A B È .

• D is a set having all players of cricket team and E is the set having all
players of Hockety

team, of your school. Suppose three players are common to both the teams then
union

of D and E is a set of all players of both the teams but three common players to
be

written once only.

If A and B are only two sets then union of A and B is the set of those elements
which belong to
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A or B.

In set builder form :

A B È = {x : x ÎA or xÎB}

OR

A B È = {x : x ÎA -B or xBA Î - or xAB Î Ç }

A B È can be represented using Venn diagram as :

n(A È B) = n(A -B) +n(B -A) + Ç n(A B) .

or n(A È B) = + n(A) n(B) - Ç n(A B)

where n A B È stands for number of elements in A B È so on.

CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TWO SETS

Consider two sets A and B where

A={1, 2}, B= {3, 4, 5}.

Set of all ordered pairs of elements of A and B

is {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5)}

This set is denoted by A × B and is called the cartesian product of sets A and B.

i.e. A×B ={(1, 3), (1, 4),(1, 5),(2, 3),(2, 4),(2, 5)}

Cartesian product of B sets and A is denoted by B×A.

In the present example, it is given by

B×A = {(3, 1),(3, 2),(4, 1),(4, 2),(5, 1),(5, 2)}

Clearly A×B ¹ B×A.

In the set builder form :

A×B = {(a,b) : a Î Î A and b B}

B×A = {(b,a) : bÎ Î B and a A }

Note : If A = f or B = f or A,B= f

then A ´=´ B B A = f .
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RELATION

relation is simply a set or collection of ordered pairs. Nothing really special

about it. An ordered pair, commonly known as a point, has two components

which are the x and y coordinates.

This is an example of an ordered pair.

Main Ideas and Ways How to Write or Represent

Relations

As long as the numbers come in pairs, then that

becomes a relation. If you can write a bunch of points (ordered pairs) then you

already know how a relation looks like. For instance, here we have a relation

that has five ordered pairs. Writing

this in set notation using curly

braces,

Relation in set notation:

However, aside from set notation, there are other ways to write this same

relation. We can show it in a table, plot it on the xy-axis, and express it using a

mapping diagram.

• Relation in table Relation in graph

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• Relation in mapping diagram

• The domain is the set of all x or input values. We may describe it as the

collection of the first values in the ordered pairs.

• The range is the set of all y or output values. We may describe it as the

collection of the second values in the ordered pairs.

So then in the relation below

our domain and range are as

follows:

When listing the elements of both domain and range, get rid of duplicates and
write them in increasing order.

What Makes a Relation a Function?

On the other hand, a function is actually a “special” kind of relation because it

follows an extra rule. Just like a relation, a function is also a set of ordered

pairs; however, every x-value must be associated to only one y-value.

Suppose we have two relations written in tables,

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• A relation that is not a function

Since we have repetitions or duplicates of x-values with different y-values, then

this relation ceases to be a function.

• A relation that is a function

This relation is definitely a function because every x-value is unique and is

associated with only one value of y.

So for a quick summary, if you see any duplicates or repetitions in the x-values,

the relation is not a function.How about this example though? Is this not a

function because we have repeating entries in x?

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Be very careful here. Yes, we have repeating values of x but they are being

associated with the same values of y. The point (1,5) shows up twice, and while

the point (3,-8) is written three times. This table can be cleaned up by writing a

single copy of the repeating ordered pairs.

The relation is now clearly a function!

Examples of How to Determine if a Relation is

also a Function

Example 1: Is the relation expressed in the mapping diagram a function?

Each element of the domain is being traced to one and

only element in the range. However, it is okay for two or

more values in the domain to share a common value in

the range. That is, even though the elements 5 and 10 in

the domain share the same value of 2 in the range, this

relation is still a function.

Example 2: Is the relation expressed in the mapping diagram a function?

Messy? Yes! Confusing? Not really. The only thing I

am after is to observe if an element in the domain is

being “greedy” by wanting to be paired with more

than one element in the range. The element 15 has

two arrows pointing to both 7 and 9. This is a clear

violation of the requirement to be a function. A function is well behaved, that is,

each element in the domain must point to one element in the range. Therefore,

this relation is not a function.

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FUNCTION

An ordered pair is a set of inputs and outputs and

represents a relationship between the two values.
A relation is a set of inputs and outputs, and a function is
a relation with one output for each input.

Some relationships make sense and others don’t.

Functions are relationships that make sense. All
functions are relations, but not all relations are functions.

Section 3. Problem Solving and Reasoning

On the surface, math may seem like it's all about numbers and formulas.
However, this versatile subject is about much more than just counting, adding,
and subtracting. Discover why math is more than numbers, and find out how it
contributes to the development of valuable skills in problem solving, critical
thinking, language, and more.

3.1 Inductive and deductive reasoning

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive and deductive reasoning are two fundamental forms of reasoning

for mathematicians. The formal theorems and proofs that we rely on today all
began with these two types of reasoning. Even today, mathematicians are
actively using these two types of reasoning to discover new mathematical
theorems and proofs. Believe it or not, you yourself might be using inductive and
deductive reasoning when you make assumptions about how the world works.

Inductive reasoning involves looking for patterns and making

generalizations. For example, students use this type of reasoning when they look
at many different parallelograms, and try to list the characteristics they have in
common. The reasoning process is enhanced by also considering figures that are
not parallelograms and discussing how they are different.
 24

Students may use inductive reasoning to discover patterns in multiplying by ten

or a hundred or in working with exponents. Learning mathematics should involve
a constant search for patterns, with students making educated guesses, testing
them, and then making generalizations.

Many students use inductive reasoning more frequently than teachers realize,
but the generalizations that they form are not always correct. For example, a
student may see the examples 16/64 = 1/4 and 19/95 = 1/5 and reason
inductively that the common digits in a fraction may be canceled. The student
must realize that she needs to continue to test her conjecture before making
such a generalization, since 17/76 is not equal to 1/6, for example. Students
must also realize that while inductive reasoning demonstrates the power of
mathematics and allows great leaps forward in understanding, it is insufficient in
itself. The generalizations that are obtained by using inductive reasoning can
only be accepted by "proving" them through deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning involves making a logical argument, drawing

conclusions, and applying generalizations to specific situations. For example,
once students have developed an understanding of "parallelogram," they apply
that generalization to new figures to decide whether or not each is a
parallelogram. This kind of reasoning also may involve eliminating unreasonable
possibilities and justifying answers. Although students as young as first graders
can recognize valid conclusions, the ability to use deductive reasoning improves
as students grow older. More complex reasoning skills, such as recognizing
invalid arguments, are appropriate at the secondary level.

Understanding the power of reasoning to make sense of mathematics is critical

to helping students become self-reliant, independent mathematical thinkers.
Students must be able to judge for themselves theaccuracy of their answers;
they must be able to apply mathematical reasoning skills in other subject areas
and in their daily lives. They must recognize that mathematical reasoning can be
used in many different situations to help them make choices and reach decisions.

In summary, mathematical reasoning is the glue that binds together all other
mathematical skills. By using inductive and deductive reasoning as they learn
mathematical concepts and solve mathematical problems, students come to
recognize the extent to which reasoning applies to mathematics and to their
world.
 25

3.2 Intuition, Proof and Certainty

In the philosophy of mathematics, intuitionism or neointuitionism (opposed

to preintuitionism), is an approach where mathematics is considered to be
purely the result of constructive mental activity of human rather than the
discovery of fundamental principles claimed to exist in an objective
reality.That is logic and mathematics are not considered analytic activities
where in deep practice of objective reality are revealed and applied but
instead considered the application of internally consistent methods to realize
more complex mental construct, regardless of their possible independent
existence in objective reality.
In mathematics, a proof is inferential argument for a mathematical
statement. In argument, other previously established statements, such as
theorems, can be used. In principle a proof can be traced back to self-
evident or assumed statements, known as axioms, along with accepted rules
of inference.
Certainty is perfect knowledge that has total security from error, or the
mental state of being without doubt. Objectively defined, certainty is the
total continuity and validity of all foundational inquiry, to the highest degree
of precision. Something is certain only if no skepticism can occur.

3.3 Polya’s 4 Step Problem Solving Strategies

One of the primary reasons people have trouble with

problem solving is that there is no single procedure that works
all the time — each problem is slightly different. Also, problem
solving requires practical knowledge about the specific
situation. If you misunderstand either the problem or the
underlying situation you may make mistakes or incorrect
assumptions. One of our main goals for this semester is to
become better problem solvers. To begin this task, we now
discuss a framework for thinking about problem solving:
Polya’s four-step approach to problem solving.

George Polya was a Hungarian who immigrated to the United States in

1940. His major contribution is for his work in problem solving. Growing up he
was very frustrated with the practice of having to regularly memorize
information. He was an excellent problem solver. Early on his uncle tried to
convince him to go into the mathematics field but he wanted to study law like his
late father had. After a time at law school he became bored with all the legal
technicalities he had to memorize. He tired of that and switched to Biology and
the again switched to Latin and Literature, finally graduating with a degree. Yet,
he tired of that quickly and went back to school and took math and physics. He
found he loved math.
 26

Polya's four-step approach to problem solving

1. Preparation: Understand the problem

Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts

Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:

1. What sort of a problem is it?

2. What is being asked?

3. What do the terms mean?

4. Is there enough information or is more information needed?

5. What is known or unknown?

Rephrase the problem in your own words.

Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem.

2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan

You must start somewhere so try something. How are you going to attack the
problem?

Possible strategies: (i. e. reach into your bag of tricks.)

1. Draw pictures

2. Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns.

3. Be systematic.

4. Solve a simpler version of the problem.

5. Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test. (Guessing is OK.)

6. Look for a pattern or patterns.

7. Make a list.

Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the
problem aside for a while. Your

subconscious mind may keep working on it.

Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and
creative rather than becoming tense,

frustrated, and forced in your efforts to solve the problem.

3. Insight: Carry out the plan

 27

Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down immediately. When you
have time, try it out and see if it

leads to a solution.

If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try another
approach. Often the first approach does not

work. Do not worry, just because an approach does not work, it does not mean
you did it wrong. You actually

accomplished something, knowing a way does not work is part of the process of
elimination.

Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times, you will
often have a flash of insight: a new

idea to try or a new perspective on how to approach solving the problem.

The key is to keep trying until something works.

4. Verification: Look back

Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works.

1. Did you answer the question?

2.Is your result reasonable?

3. Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the problem
are satisfied.

4. Double check any computations involved in finding your solution.

• If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple
mistake. Try to fix or modify your current

attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you tried—it is likely that at least
part of it will end up being useful.

• Is there another way of doing the problem which may be simpler? (You
need to become flexible in your thinking. There usually is not one right
way.)
• Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future
problems?
 28

REFERENCES

Online Pages
Section 1
https://www.livescience.com/38936-mathematics.html
https://medium.com/math-%CF%80rates/beauty-of-numbers-and-patterns-a-
world-shaped-by-math-71d240c4ee05
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ACYBGNSv8a-dzltvF-
jJQh5BR3JVlU4YPA%3A1568427927150&ei=l098XcvoCJLr-
QbzlLzIAw&q=trees+mathematical+pattern+examples&oq=trees+mathematical
+pattern+exam&gs_l=psy-
ab.1.0.33i22i29i30.240782.244516..246639...0.2..0.258.1339.0j5j2......0....1..gws-
wiz.......0i71j35i39j0i22i30.s6kAC8Rn728
https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ACYBGNTf9k1Ucoe74ltuDVLsbomdhwD8
-Q%3A1568428175039&ei=j1B8XcaHAsTn-Aa2p4-
oAg&q=spiral+mathematical+pattern+examples&oq=spiral+mathematical+patt
ern+examples&gs_l=psy-
ab.3...138527.141250..141897...0.1..0.184.1174.0j7......0....1..gws-
wiz.......0i71j0i13.6xtWuez27ls&ved=0ahUKEwiGi-
qhos_kAhXEM94KHbbTAyUQ4dUDCAs&uact=5
https://www.google.com/search?q=meander&oq=meander&aqs=chrome..69i57j3
5i39j0l3j69i60.5234j1j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ACYBGNSeZAzdgdATGUZzj9FdQF9dLEE
3kg%3A1568428318164&ei=HlF8XcvVCdWA-
Qal1Iy4Ag&q=meander+mathematical+pattern+examples&oq=meander+mathe
matical+pattern+examples&gs_l=psy-
ab.3...62550.65108..65622...0.8..0.174.1296.0j8......0....1..gws-
wiz.......0i71j0i13.eVWXAJtq7MY&ved=0ahUKEwjL3Inmos_kAhVVQN4KHSUqAy
cQ4dUDCAs&uact=5

https://www.livescience.com/37470-fibonacci-sequence.html

https://math.temple.edu/~reich/Fib/fibo.html

https://www.quora.com/How-does-mathematics-help-to-organize-pattern-
and-regularities-in-the-word

https://www.academia.edu/37079573/MATHEMATICS_HELPS_PREDICT_THE_B
EHAVIOR_OF_NATURE_AND_PHENOMENA_IN_THE_WORLD?auto=download
 29

Section 2
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315712910_The_Symbolic_Language_o
f_Mathematics

http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf_files/LANG1.pdf

http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/algebra_book/online_problems/exp_vs_sen.h
tm

https://imathblog.wordpress.com/2013/02/20/translation-of-mathematical-
statement-in-symbols/

https://www.google.com/search?q=set&rlz=1C1AOHY_enPH714PH714&oq=set&
aqs=chrome..69i57j0l5.2563j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

http://download.nos.org/srsec311new/L.No.15-A.pdf

https://www.chilimath.com/lessons/intermediate-algebra/relations-and-
functions/

https://us.sofatutor.com/mathematics/algebra-1/functions-and-relations

Section 3

http://archive.dimacs.rutgers.edu/nj_math_coalition/framework/ch01-04/ch01-
04_s4.html

https://www.scribd.com/document/388414571/Intuition-Proof-and-Certainty
http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/M110/Worksheet/PolyaProblemSolve.pdf