1.1.

British Theories

Science and technology in the United Kingdom has a long history, producing many important figures and
developments in the field. Major theorists from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland include Isaac Newton whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a
keystone of modern science and Charles Darwin whose theory of evolution by natural selection was
fundamental to the development of modern biology, possibly influenced by the Dashavatara.

 The laws of motion and illumination of gravity, by physicist, mathematician, astronomer,

natural philosopher, alchemist and theologian, Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727).

Sir Isaac Newton is not just one of the great British scientists, but he’s also one of the most prominent
scientists ever to have walked this planet. A true polymath, the Lincolnshire-born Newton was an expert
mathematician, physicist, astronomer, and alchemist.

Newton is best known for his (likely apocryphal) 'eureka' moment when he saw an apple fall from a tree
— an epiphany that supposedly inspired his most-celebrated work, Principia. More than just a thesis,
Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation which are still relevant, cited, and
form the basis of empirical research today.

Aside from his contributions to classical mechanics, Newton worked extensively in optics and formulated
his theory of colour, which attributed colour as a property of light. If that's not all, he also invented the
field of calculus (Gottfried Leibniz, the prominent German polymath and contemporary of Newton,
developed the idea independently around the same time).

When paired with his mathematical breakthroughs, Newton’s work has formed the basis of hundreds of
years of scientific discovery — giving us the empirical toolkit to compare apples with apples. Much more
than just a titan of science, Newton's continued legacy was underscored when he was voted the sixth-
greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 BBC poll.

 Evolution by natural selection, by Charles Darwin (1809–1882).

In 1859, Charles Darwin set out his theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for
adaptation and speciation. He defined natural selection as the "principle by which each slight variation
[of a trait], if useful, is preserved".The concept was simple but powerful: individuals best adapted to
their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce. As long as there is some variation between
them and that variation is heritable, there will be an inevitable selection of individuals with the most
advantageous variations. If the variations are heritable, then differential reproductive success leads to
the evolution of particular populations of a species, and populations that evolve to be sufficiently
different eventually become different species.

 Theories in cosmology, quantum gravity and black holes, by Stephen Hawking (1942–2018).

The theoretical physicist and cosmologist Stephen Hawking was one of the greatest scientists of the
20th century and arguably one of the greatest thinkers of all time. Hawking's scientific works included a
collaboration with Roger Penrose on gravitational singularity theorems in the framework of general
relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes emit radiation, often called Hawking radiation.
Initially, Hawking radiation was controversial. By the late 1970s and following the publication of further
research, the discovery was widely accepted as a major breakthrough in theoretical physics. Hawking
was the first to set out a theory of cosmology explained by a union of the general theory of relativity and
quantum mechanics. He was a vigorous supporter of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum
mechanics.

Hawking achieved commercial success with several works of popular science in which he discussed his
theories and cosmology in general. His book A Brief History of Time appeared on the Sunday Times
bestseller list for a record-breaking 237 weeks. Hawking was a Fellow of the Royal Society, a lifetime
member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom,
the highest civilian award in the United States. In 2002, Hawking was ranked number 25 in the BBC's poll
of the 100 Greatest Britons. He died on 14 March 2018 at the age of 76, after living with motor neurone
disease for more than 50 years.

1.2.British Principles
 Laws of Motion

Newton's laws of motion are three laws of classical mechanics that describe the relationship between
the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws can be paraphrased as follows:

Law 1. A body continues in its state of rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by
a force.

Law 2. A body acted upon by a force moves in such a manner that the time rate of change of momentum
equals the force.

Law 3. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.

The three laws of motion were first stated by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687. Newton used
them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems, which laid the
foundation for Newtonian mechanics.

 Evolution by natural selection

The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles Darwin
and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the
Origin of Species. Evolution by natural selection was first demonstrated by the observation that more
offspring are often produced than can possibly survive. This is followed by three observable facts about
living organisms: (1) traits vary among individuals with respect to their morphology, physiology and
behaviour (phenotypic variation), (2) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction
(differential fitness) and traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness). Thus,
in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the progenies of
parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their
respective environments. In the early 20th century, other competing ideas of evolution such as
mutationism and orthogenesis were refuted as the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution
with classical genetics, which established adaptive evolution as being caused by natural selection acting
on Mendelian genetic variation.
Wikipedia, Science and technology in the United Kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom , truy cập ngày
19/12/2021
Wikipedia, Natural selection, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection#Darwin's_theory,
truy cập ngày 19/12/2021
Wikipedia, Newton’s laws of motion, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton
%27s_laws_of_motion, truy cập ngày 19/12/2021
Wikipedia, Stephen Hawking, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking, truy cập ngày
19/12/2021
Wikipedia, Evolution, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution, truy cập ngày 19/12/2021
Lewi Jinks (2020), SRG, 7 of the greatest British scientists (and how they changed the world),
https://www.srgtalent.com/blog/greatest-british-scientists, truy cập ngày 19/12/2021