DR.

D Y PATIL UNITECH SOCIETY’S

DR. D Y PATIL IHMCT, TATHAWADE, PUNE 33

COOKING TECHNIQUES
C 101 FOOD PRODUCTION 1
CHEF. PRALHAD BOTRE

2020
 Cooking Techniques

Chapter – 2
Cooking Techniques
Content -
Chapter – 2 Cooking Techniques 10 12
2.1 Techniques used in preparation of food
2.2 Methods of mixing food
2.3 Methods of Heat Transfer -Conduction,
Convention, Radiation, Induction
2.4 Methods of cooking (moist, dry, medium of fat) –
Definition, Classification, Rules to be observed for
each type of cooking method, examples
2.5 Textures and Consistencies-Desirable and non-desirable

Introduction -
Many techniques are used for food preparation before cooking and they are done
according to the requirements of the various dishes. This helps to improve,
appearance texture, palatability and flavour and foods combine readily. The
techniques are divided into two:-
a. Preparation of ingredients
b. Combining and mixing in the preparation of foods

2.1 Techniques used in preparation of food (PREPARATION METHODS)

Preparation of ingredients is popularly termed as Mise-en-place. Mise-en-
place (pronounced mizãplas, i s literally "set in place"), it is a French phrase
defined by the Culinary Institute of America as "everything in place". It is used in
kitchens to refer to the ingredients, such as cuts of meat, relishes, sauces, par-
cooked items, spices, freshly chopped vegetables and other components that a cook
requires for the menu items that they expect to prepare.
A certain amount of preparation is thus mandatory.

1. Washing: It is necessary to remove superficial dirt. Meat, Fish, Vegetables and Fruits are
washed in cold water before any preparation, i.e. peeling or cutting. If cut and soaked for
long period or washed after cutting there is a great loss of water soluble vitamins and
minerals. The more cut surfaces exposed, the more nutrition is lost.
Following are the points to be noted while washing fruits or vegetables:
 Remove and discard outer leaves.
 Rinse under clean, running water just before preparing or eating.
 Rub briskly by scrubbing with a clean brush or hands, to remove dirt and surface
microorganisms.

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 Don’t use soap or detergent.

 After washing, dry with a clean cloth or paper towel. Moisture left on produce
may promote survival and growth of microorganisms. Drying is critical if food
won’t be eaten or cooked right away
 Cut away bruised and damaged areas.

2. Peeling: Peeling is removing the outermost skin of fruits/vegetables manually or using a

peeler,
e.g. Carrot, Cucumber, sweet limes, potatoes etc
Spoilt, soiled and edible portions, skins of vegetables and fruits are removed by scraping.

3. Paring: Paring is removing the surface layer in circular motion by pressure of a knife
edge all round the object.
e.g – Paring of Tomato, sweet lime, lemon, carrot etc.

4. Cutting (cuts of vegetables): Reducing to small pieces with a knife.

Vegetables are cut into various sizes and shapes for various cooking purposes, creating
different texture, taste and mouth feel. These cuts are cooked differently to create
different texture and flavour.
i. Chopping – cutting vegetables into small cubes or pieces. Smaller than Brunoise.
Used for sauté, gravies, sauces.
e.g – Chopped onions, garlic, chili, coriander leaves etc
ii. Mincing – chopping vegetable into very fine pieces.
e.g – mincing of onin, garlic used for sauces, gravy and stuffing.
iii. Mirepoix: Roughly cut vegetables sometimes with skin (onions, carrot, celery,
leeks) cut into rough dices, used for stock, soups, sauces and flavouring
iv. Slicing – cutting food into long thin pieces not as fine as shredding
e.g – slicing of onion, tomato, cucumber, bread etc.
Used for salads, Roast, grills, Baking etc.
v. Slitting – making a slit in the middle lengthwise.
e.g – green chilli, lady finger
vi. Dice – cutting into even sized cubes is known as dicing,
e.g - dicing potatoes, carrot etc
vii. Brunoise : vegetables are cut into small dices of 2mm x 2mm x 2mm size.
Used for garnishes and stuffing..
viii. Macedoine : vegetable cut into 5mm x 5mm x 5mm dice.
Used in salads, sauté preparations.
ix. Julienne : vegetable cut into thin strips. 1mmx1mmx25mm inch long.
Used in garnishing salads or stir fry
x. Jardinière : vegetable cut into Baton shape 3mm x 3mm x 18mm
Used in sauté preparation
xi. Shredding – Cutting food into long thin slices using knife or shredder.
e.g – shredded Cabbage, Lettuce, spinach etc
xii. Chiffonade – shredded leafy vegetables.
e.g – lettuce.

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Used for garnishes, sauted preparations and stuffing

xiii. Paysanne : vegetables cut into small geometrical shapes in 1mm thickness like
triangles, circles and squares – uniform shape.
xiv. Wedges: Round vegetables cut equally lengthwise.
e.g - tomatoes and lemon cut into four or six pieces.
Used for stew, grill, braise, poaching
xv. Chateau – Turning of vegetable into barrel shape.
e.g – potato used in baking, roasting, sauté.
xvi. Matignton – evenly cut root vegetables used as mirpoix.
e.g – Casseroles
xvii. Parisienne – vegetables or fruit scooped out with parisienne scooper.
e.g – parisienne carrot, melon, Papays etc.
Used for salads, sauté, stew.
xviii. Segment – usually done for citrus fruits where each segment removed from fruit.
e.g – Orange, Grape fruit segment.
Used for garnishing, salads, fruit platter.

5. Grating (vegetables): Reducing large piece of food to small particles or shreds by

rubbing on a rough course surface like grater,
e.g - Grating cheese, carrots etc.

6. Grinding: Reducing to small fragments or powder by crushing, as in grinding spices, or

coffee in a mill or on a grinding stone.
e.g – Powder masalas, coffee beans, coconut

7. Mashing (vegetables & Pulses): This is a method of breaking up of soft food with
pressure usually after cooking, with a potato masher.
e.g – Mashed potatoes for pav bhaji,

8. Sieving (Flour): Passing through a fine wire mesh to remove impurities or unwanted
things. It also helps in enclosing air and mixing ingredients evenly
e.g - sieving of flour for cakes.

9. Steeping : Extracting colouring and flavouring by allowing ingredients to stand in water

generally at a lukewarm or room temperature.
e.g - Cereals, Pulses, Tamarind, lemon rind etc.

10. Evaporation (Milk & Gravies): Also called reduction, is removal of water commonly
accelerated by heating without lid. It has to be done at slow temperature (simmering) for
longer time.
e.g – Milk as in Rabdi, Gravies etc

11. Marination : To steep in mixture of yoghurt, vinegar or any acid medium to break down
tissues and fibres which will soften the meat and helps cooking faster, also gives a good
flavour.

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e.g – Marinated Meat, Fish, Chicken

12. Sprouting : Soaking seeds/pulses/legumes in cold water for 12 hours and then tying in a
muslin cloth like a bundle and leaving for 24 hrs for the shoots to grow which leads to
germination.
E.g – Sprouting of Pulses & Legumes

13. Blanching: To submerge food in hot boiling water for a shorter time to remove the skin
or impurities.
e.g - a. Tomatoes Or almonds are dipped in boiling water to blanch to remove the skin.
b. Cauliflower is dipped in boiling water to white the colour.
c. French potatoes are in hot fat to let a skin form and to partially cook them.

14. Filleting of Fish: Cutting the flesh along the line of backbone and raise the fillet from the
middle of the back, to the sides, first working towards the head then the tail.

15. Deboning & Jointing Poultry: Separating the boneless flesh from the carcass of the bird
is deboning. Jointing is cuts made through natural joints to produce two wings, two breast
pieces, two drumsticks, two winglets and two thigh pieces.

2.2 METHODS OF MIXING

1. Beating: Mixing material briskly, lifting and dropping them with an appropriate tool.
Like whisk, spoon, fork, blender. Sometimes used synonymously with whipping. This is
done to thin mixture of liquids. The aim is to mix well and incorporate air.
e.g – beating of egg for cake or omelette.

2. Blending: Mixing of two or more ingredients thoroughly SO THEY ARE SMOOTH

AND EQUALLY DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT THE MIXTURE. In blending
ingredients are combined together and not done to incorporate the air into mixture.,
e.g. - blending milk into white roux for béchamel sauce.

3. Cutting in: Usually the incorporation of fat in flour and other sifted dry ingredients with
a knife or rubber spatula, a method which produces relatively coarse division of fat and
does not result in blending.
e.g - Cutting the fat into a pastry or Cake mixture

4. Rubbing in: it is rubbing of fat into the flour by using fingertips till resembles like a
bread crumbs used for pastry making.
e.g rubbing of fat into flour for making short crust.

5. Creaming: Softening of fat by friction with a spoon, usually followed by gradual

incorporation of sugar as in cake making.
 The butter or fat should be at room temperature so it incorporates the sugar
sufficiently to produce a smooth and creamy batter that is light and fluffy.

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 A whisk, wooden spoon, or electric mixer with paddle attachment can be

used. It also incorporate air into the mixture.

6. Folding: Mixing materials with palate knife or wooden spoon, by a careful lifting and
dropping motion as in folding whipped egg whites in the cake mixture.
 Usually used when combining light & airy ingredients into heavier mixture.
 Light ingredients has to be added in batches and not all at one time. This will help
to mix ingredients uniformly.

7. Kneading: Manipulating by alternating pressure with folding and scratching as in

kneading bread dough into smooth and pliable mass.
 A method of combination to the extent that it combines water and flour proteins to
make gluten.

8. Rolling in: Rolling butter or fat on the soft dough to obtain layers. It is mostly followed
in pastry making like Puff, Flaky, Danish. After rolling dough need to place in
refrigerator to harden fat.

9. Pressing: This is done to shape foods like cutlets and sometimes as a method of
subdivision to separate liquids from solids by weights or mechanical pressure.
e.g – making of Paneer & cider from apples..

10. Stirring: Mixing food with suitable tool such as a spoon by a circular motion in contact
with the pan. It is used to prevent sticking or burning.
e.g - stirring of soups and sauces.

2.3 Methods of Heat Transfer

Any food can be cooked by using heat source which is transferred to food. Heat can be
transferred by three methods – Conduction, convection, Radiation
Two or three of these methods may be combined.
e.g – in baking cake convected heat cook the mixture, when tray come in contact with cake
mixture, tray transfer heat via conduction & browning take place by radiation.

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Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into 3 broad categories:

Conduction
It is the passage of heat through a solid or one solid to another provided they are in contact – pot
on hot plate.
 Some materials retain heat better than the others.
 Copper, for example heats faster and evenly but does not retain heat well.
 Stainless steel, iron and ceramic cookware, on the other hand, retain heat well.
 Heat conduction includes shallow frying, sautéing and stirring.

Convection
Involves the transfer of heat in liquids and gases.
In heating liquid or gases, convection currents are produced which distribute heat, the bottom
rises to the top and cold gas/liquid goes down, as it is heavier.
e.g – Boiling of vegetables, Baking of bread/cake, Poaching of fish
Radiation
 It is the passage of heat in straight rays from a hot object.
 Any object in the path of the rays becomes hot.
e.g – Gas and electric grills, Salamander, Tandoor

2.4 Basic Methods of Cooking –

Definition, Classification, Rules to be observed for

Cooking helps to preserve color, get a variety of texture, enhance flavor and make the nutrients
easily digestible, though a few of the nutrients, which are water soluble are lost or oxidized.

Moist Methods of cooking:-

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BOILING
Boiling is immersing of the food in hot boiling water which must be bubbling at 100 C.
Boiling is restricted to meat and poultry for the first few minutes in order to
 seal the pores,
 to retain the natural juices
and then gentle boiling must take place which is known as simmering (82-92C).
Simmering, Blanching, Parboiling are synonymous terms used with boiling.

Techniques associated with boiling

Simmering – It is gentle boiling of the food just below boiling point is known as simmering.
 This is gentle heat treatment which causes small bubbles to rise slowly from the liquid.
 The food remains whole, with a better texture and more and flavour.
 The water does not evaporate so quickly and
 Less vigilance is required to maintain the correct level of liquid.

e.g simmering of stocks, soups, sauces, gravies etc.

Blanching is immersing/plunging of the food item in hot boiling liquid for one or two minutes
depending on the size of the food and then removed
After blanching food needs to be refreshed to avoid further cooking.
The purpose of Blanching is
a. To remove the outer skin. E.g – blanched tomatoes and almonds and
b. To remove the impurities. E.g -blanching of chicken carcass in white stock making.

Parboiling – Immersing of food in hot boiling liquid for few minutes till it is partially cooked.
The food is placed in boiling water for a short time from 1 to 5 minutes, or until the outside
become soft.
 e.g - parboiled vegetables for stir frying in Chinese cooking.
 parboiled potatoes for French fries.

Basic Rules
1. All food items should be completely immersed throughout the process: if excess evaporation
takes place the liquid must be replenished.
2. The flavor of the meat and poultry is enhanced by the addition of herbs and vegetables to the
cooking liquor.
3. Scum that arises during the boiling must be removed or it will discolor and spoil the taste.
4. The liquid in which food is boiled is known as pot liquor, as it contains some nourishment and
flavor. This liquor can be used for sauces or gravies.
5. Fast boiling should be done to green vegetables as it preserves the green color and prevents
excessive loss of vitamins and mineral salts. The pan should be uncovered while boiling.
6. Root vegetables, with the exception of new potatoes, must be placed in cold water to boil. This
helps improve flavor.
7. Always poach fish and never boil, or the fish will break up.

Advantages

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1. Tougher, cheaper cuts of meat may be used.

2. Heat transfer is fairly rapid and efficient
3. The food is not likely to burn unless the water is allowed to evaporate completely.
4. The food remains moist and is not likely to dry out and become hard.

Disadvantages
1. Flavour and some colour may be lost from the food into liquid.
2. Loss of nutrients (especially water-soluble vitamins) may be high.

POACHING
This is a moist method of cooking in which food is placed in liquid which is brought to and
maintained at, a temperature just under boiling-point (650 to 900 C).
The cooking liquid may be water, milk, stock, wine, or court bouillon.
Types of Poaching are

1. Shallow – Poaching: Most foods are poached by this method. A minimum amount
liquid is added and this is later used to make an accompanying sauce. Greased paper
or a lid can be used to trap moisture and prevent drying out.

2. Deep – Poaching: When poaching some items, more liquid is used than in shallow -
poaching. In the case of fruits this is because they have to be completely covered to
prevent discolouration. In other cases with eggs, a depth of water is needed to prevent
food sticking to the cooking dish (or) other pieces of food during cooking.

Basic Rules:
1. Food item should be completely immersed in the liquid and left in throughout the cooling
process.
2. As soon as the liquid, with the food item begins to boil, lower the temperature to allow
poaching.
3. Whole fish must be placed into cold liquor to poach. Cuts of fish must be placed into boiling
liquor, temperature lowered and allowed to poach.
4. The liquid for poaching eggs at one side of the pan should be simmered and fresh eggs must
be added one at a time, this will help to get the round shape.
5. Adding salt and Vinegar helps in quicker coagulation and prevents disintegration.
6. It is important that fresh eggs should be used for poaching.

Rules for Poaching

1. Heat the liquid to boiling point, then reduce the temperature that there is no movement.
2. Gently lower the food in to the cooking liquid (The exception is when cooking whole
large fish, as it is placed in the cold liquid and drought up to temperature)
3. Allow the food to remain in the liquid until cooked.
4. Remove the food and reserve the liquid if it is used for a sauce.

Advantages

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1. The application of heat is gentle, so foods with delicate texture may be cooked without
breaking up.
2. Poached foods are easily digested
3. No fat needs to be added to cook the food an advantage for people who want to reduce
the amount of fat in their diet.

Disadvantages
1. Poaching is not particularly suitable for large pieces of food
2. There is some flavour and nutrient loss from the food the cooking liquid.
3. There is little development in colour and flavour.

Safety Rules
1. Equipment should be matched to the quantity of food to prevent spillages.
2. Care should be taken in handling dishes which an brought to temperature on the top of the
stove and then transferred to the oven.

STEAMING
This is cooking of the food by using steam.
The food is surrounded by steam under varying degrees of pressure.
Types of steaming
1. Direct steaming – is by placing the article in a perforated container or on a covered plate
over a saucepan of water
2. Indirect steaming – is done when the food is placed in a closed pan which is surrounded
by plenty of steam from fast boiling water or in a steamer. The food item be protected
with grease proof paper

Advantages
1.All nourishment & flavour retained.
2. Healthy - No fats or other additives are needed for cooking.
3. No risk of burning food.
4. Ideal for those with poor digestions. Food easily digested

Disadvantages
1. Chances of overcooking if not paid attention.
2. Taste is lacking or bland.
3. Meat and fish juices may be lost (They should be incorporated in to sauces wherever possible).

PRESSURE COOKING

Pressure cooking makes use of steam from water boiled in a sealed container. The boiling point
of water varies according to air pressure. The higher the pressure the higher the boiling point.
Under normal atmospheric conditions at sea level, water boils at 100 C. Inside a pressure
cooker the pressure can be increased so that water will boil at 120 C steam from the boiling

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water is driven through the food, cooking it very quickly.

Safety Rules
1. Before use, check that the water level is correct for self generation equipment.
2. Switch off all steam controls and reduce pressure before opening.

BRAISING
It is a combined method of pot Roasting & stewing in a pan with a tight fitting lid.
It require special pan/casserole dish/stew pan.
Process of Braising
a. Meat should be sealed first
b. Place on bed of aromatic vegetables
c. Stock or gravy is added which should cover 2/3rd of meat.
d. Flavouring & seasoning are added
e. Lid placed on & food allowed to cook gently on top of stove or gas.
f. Lid removed & joints basted or glazed

Braising represents a combination of the following processes

1. Stewing - Less liquid involved
2. Pot-roasting - Water, not fat, main ingredient in cooking liquid.
3. Steaming - Water Vapour trapped under lid.

Heat Transfer
Conduction and convection

Method of Braising
 Braised dishes are classed on either white or brown.
1. Brown braising - involves the coloring of meat in hot fat (searing) before
cooking.
For brown braising Espagnole is diluted with an equal quantity of stock and used on the
cooking liquor (e.g. braised beef)
2. White braising - involves white stock and natural Ingredients.
Marinating: Some meats are soaked in flavored alcohol or acid to tenderize and improve
flavor and color, prior to cooking.

Advantages
1. Tougher, Cheaper cuts of meat may be used.
2. Less amount of fat is used in the cooking.
3. There is little loss of nutrients.

Disadvantages
1. Cooking time is long and slow
2. Over cooking will produce discoloration and disintegration of the product.

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Safety
1. Hot liquids and utensils can be the cause of serious burns.
2. Equipment should be matched to the quantity of food to prevent spillages.
3. Care should be taken when removing the lid of braising pans to avoid scalds from
escaping steam.
4. Safety practice should be observed in operational procedure, clothing and footwear.

STEWING

This is a long, slow, moist method of cooking in which small pieces of food are simmered in
a minimum amount of liquid. OR
Stewing is a gentle simmering in small quantity of water, stock or sauce till food become tender
with lid in saucepan or casserole or in oven. Both liquid & food served together.
This is a very gentle method of cooking food in a closed pan using only small quantity of liquid.

Heat Transfer
Heat is conducted through the cooking utensil and to the surfaces of the food in contact with it.
It is carried to all areas of the cooking liquid by convection currents, heat reaching the
surface of the food then passes through it by conduction the food then cooks.

Basic Rules
• While stewing Liquid should cover food item
• The food should never be more than half covered with liquid. Food above this level
cooked by steam.
• Stew is always simmered- long slow process
• Tough cheaper, coarser, older types of Poultry, Meat are suitable
• Slow process convert connective tissue to gelatin so meat fibers fall apart & become
easily digestible
• Flavoring & seasoning added to improve flavour.

Types of Stew
1. Blanquette: A stew cooked in stocks from which for sauce is made.
2. Fricassee: A stew in which the meat, poultry or firm is cooked in the sauce.
3. Navarin:. Refers to the rich dark lamb stew.
4. Ragout: Stew brown beef stew.
5. Bouillabaisse : A heavily fish and shell fish with saffron. A traditional specially of France

Advantages
1. Stewing is economical as cheaper cuts of meat may be used.
2. Cheap cuts of meat, old fowl & tough or under riped fruits may prepared by this way.
It soften fibers, rendering the food tender
3. Meat & Vegetables may be cooked & served together saving fuel & labour making an
appetizing dish.

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4. All nourishment & flavors retained. There is little loss of nutrients or moisture as any
juices which escape from the meat or vegetable become part of the sauce.

Disadvantages
1. Time consuming method
2. Some stews lack 'bite' and contrast in texture.

Dry Methods of cooking:-

ROASTING
It is process of surrounding a food with dry, heated air in an enclosed area.
The term roasting was originally applied to the cooking of large pieces of meat, on a turning spit
oven an open fire, a practice that would be reasonably called grilling or perhaps barbecuing
today. It is process of surrounding a food with dry, heated air in an enclosed area.

The traditional methods of roasting are:

Oven roasting: It is cooking in a roasting tray in an oven with the aid of fat & first class meat,
poultry by dry heat at quite high temperatures.
Process of Oven Roasting
 Meat may trimmed & tied to retain shape.
 Sealing of meat done to retain juices & to impart colour.
 Meat may placed on bed of aromatic vegetables
 Average cooking time for 15 mins/500 gm. Time depend on size of meat
 Basting of meat done at intervals to prevent dryness of meat.
 Test for doneness – a. finger pressed against meat & if it offers no resistance then cooked.
b.Pierce meat with skewer at centre, if no pinkish juice means cooked.
 Remove meat & allowed to cool for 10-15 mins to reset meat juices
 Meat taken out, juices strained & prepare Roast gravy/jus roti.

Spit roasting: This is the original form of Roasting. It involves cooking by radiated heat, on
a spit, over a very fierce glowing fire. The meat is prevented from drying out by the constant
rotation of the spit which ensure even cooking & coloring.

First class quality of small pieces of meat is used. In case of small game, use wood as fuel to
produce low heat.

Pot-roasting: Pot roasting uses a cooking utensil with a fight fitting lid in a covered pan or pot
only good quality meat i.e small joints and bird is used when no oven is available. It is not a true
roast because it uses moist heat. i.e. steam trapped under the lid of the closed utensil. Pot
roasting is suitable for duck, poultry, game.

Process of Pot Roasting

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 Use thick heavy bottom pan.

 Fat melted to cover bottom of pan
 Meat Joint browned, skewered & placed on top of mat matignon or mirepoix to avoid
sticking.
 The pan is covered tightly with well fitting lid & cooked over slow fire.
 Meat may basted if lean & turned frequently.
 The juices and veg are used to make the accompanying sauce.

TANDOOR
A Tandoor is a cylindrical clay oven used in cooking and baking. The Tandoor is used for
cooking in India, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Middle East, Central Asia as well as
Burma and Bangladesh.

The heat for a Tandoor was traditionally generated by a charcoal fire or wood fire, burning
within the Tandoor itself, thus exposing the food to both live-fire, radiant heat cooking, and hot-
air, convection cooking.
Temperatures in a Tandoor can approach 480°C (900°F), and it is common for Tandoor ovens to
remain lit for long periods of time to maintain the high cooking temperature. The Tandoor design
is something of a transitional form between a makeshift earth oven and the horizontal-plan
masonry oven.
The Tandoor is basically used to cook meats. Even though Hindus of India are mostly vegetarian
while Sikhs are mostly non-vegetarian, it was popularized during Muslim reign in South Asia. It
is thought to have travelled to Central Asia and the Middle East along with the Roma people,
who originated amongst the Thar Desert tribes. In India, the Tandoor is also known by the name
of bhatti. The Bhatti tribe of the Thar Desert of northwestern India and eastern Pakistan
developed the Bhatti in their desert abode, and thus it gained the name.
The Tandoor is currently a very important fixture in many Indian restaurants around the world.
Some modern day Tandoor use electricity or gas instead of charcoal.

Advantages of Tandoori cooking:-

1. The distinctive flavour of Tandoori-cooked food comes from both the marinade and the
cooking process.
2. Marinating tenderizes and also adds flavour to foods.
3. Colour change may occur depending on the spices used: a red colouring agent is used in
some marinades, also onions, garlic, herbs, spices and oil, wine or lemon juice.

Heat transfer: Radiation, Convection, Conduction

Basic Rules for Roasting

1. Items of meat, poultry & game must be tender & of good quality.
2. Food items raised off the bottom by using trivet to prevent meat lying in fat
3. Roast juices used to prepare Roast/Pan gravies.
4. Meat after roasting, cooled for 15-20 mins- to settle meat juices & make easier to slice
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5. Thicker the meat-lower should be the cooking temperature.

6. Meat rare when reaches temp-60oC, well done-82-83

Advantages
1. Minimal fire risk
2. Meat juices from the meat can be used for gravy which enhance the flavor
3. Gives a variety to the menu

Disadvantages
1. Constant attention is required
2. Losses of nutrients like amino acids

Note: Matignon: An edible mirepoix that is often used in Poele'ed dish. Typically,
matignon includes two parts of carrot, one part celery, one part leeks one part onion, one
part mushroom and one part ham and bacon.

Poeling: It is similar to pot-roasting: the difference is that it is cooked entirely in butter.

 Usually poultry and game are poeled.
 The poultry is wrapped with thin slices of pork fat, covered with or without butter paper,
placed in a pot and basted with melted butter while it is cooking,
 Covered with a tight fitting lid.
 Matignon/Mirepoix and Madeira wine is added later on for flavoring.
 After the liquor is absorbed the aroma, the cooked food is removed and then the liquor is
reduced and stained to serve as an accompanying sauce.

Special Poeling are known as “Encasserole” and “Encocotte” the poeling is done in special
earthernware utensil and served in the same.
Encasserole – The food item is poeled in only butter, without addition of vegetables, when
cooking done, the food item is withdrawn & brown stock is poured & served.

Encocotte – same as encasserole, except that food items garnished with buttered turned
vegetables such as Mushroom, Artichoke bottom, small onions, carrots, turnips etc

GRILLING
Grilling is cooking of the food items on top of grill bars by radiation heat which could be
from below or above. The source of heat may be from charcoal, coke, gas or electricity. Used
synonymously with Broiling.
It is a fast, dry method of cooking which uses the intense heat radiated by an electrical element,
gas flame or glowing charcoal. The heat sources can be either above or below the food or both.

Types of Grilling as follows

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1. Grilling over the heats: This is cooking on greased grill bars with the help of fat over
direct heat only first class cuts of meat is used to grill in this methods. The bar should
char the food on both sides to give distinctive flavour of grilling.

2. Grilling under the heat: This is cooking on grill bars or on tray under direct heat
Steaks, chops etc usually cooked on bars
Fish, tomato, Bacon, Ham, mushroom, are cooked on tray
Salamander is one of the best example for this type of griller.
Grilling between heat – Food is cooked between electrically heated grill bars.

Infra red grilling – cooking by infra-red radiation. Reduce cooking time.

e.g – steak can cooked in one min.

Basic Rules –
1. The grill bars should be cleaned & oiled.
2. Item for grilling must be of small size, flattened.
3. Primary quality meat is used
4. The item should be oiled/marinated & seasoned with salt & pepper & brushed both sides
with oil.
5. Fish – usually floured, oiled & seasoned
6. Heat should be intense to seal juices of meat.

Advantages
1. Grilling is a quick, easy method of cooking
2. There is little loss of nutrients and less fat is used.
3. Grilled food are tasty and easy to digest

Disadvantages
1. Grilled foods cannot be successfully reheated and are difficult to keep warm without
drying and toughening. They need to be served straight away.
2. Only tender cuts of meat, which are generally more expensive, can be used. However
other foods such as vegetables, kababas are suitable for grilling.

French Grilling Terms

Au bleu -- rare, very underdone
Saignant -- underdone
A Point -- just done (medium)
Biencuit -- well cooked

Barbecue: When the process takes place out of doors it is usually referred to as
'Barbecuing'. The heat source in this situation is usually glowing charcoal, a gas flame or an
open wood fire, positioned below of the food.

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Broiling
It is cooking by direct heat and is used synonymously with grilling. It could be done by source of
heat from above or below. It is dry cooking, and can be done on a griddle or pan broiled, where
the food is cooked uncovered. The pan or grill is oiled slightly to prevent sticking and excess fat
is removed.

• Expensive cuts of beef & fish most often broiled

• Grid marking on steak add attractiveness
• Whole spices are broiled on tawa bring out flavor

Basic Rules –
• Tawa or Pan or Grill may be oiled slightly to prevent sticking
• Dry cooking should take place

BAKING
This is cooking of food by the action of dry heat in an oven.

 Bread rolls, cakes, Pastries, puddings, potatoes, vegetables, farinaceous dishes are baked.
 During baking moisture in product expand by air, steam or CO2.
 Baking does not require any fat but can sometimes require a little bit of steam depending
on the product that you are baking and the end result that you require.
 The texture, surface, volume of baked goods are modified by steam. This is produced
by the food as it cooks or can be injected in to the oven if required.

Basic Rules
• Always preheat oven before placing product inside oven
• Scale all ingredients properly
• Keep space between two items to bake evenly.
• Do not open oven door frequently
• Bake at correct temp.
• Apply egg wash/milk/water on top

Advantages:
1. Flavor and texture are improved.
2. Variety of dishes can be made
3. Uniform and bulk cooking can be achieved e.g. bun and bread.

Disadvantages:
Special equipment and skill are required.

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2.4.3 FRYING
Frying is cooking of food item in hot oil.

Food is fried when it is placed or immersed in oil or fat at a sufficiently high temperature; used
to brown the surface at least and partially or completely cook the interior of the food. Frying also
adds flavor to other wise bland and tender foods; it also creates a crisp and crunchy texture.

Types of Frying
1] Deep Frying: Deep frying involves the complete immersion of food in hot fat or oil.
 Large quantity of fat require. Care should be taken to prevent overheating of oil.
 Food may be coated with bread crumb, battered or dusted before frying.
 Ensure correct temperature before frying any item.
 If less temp- absorb oil & food break up., if high- cook outside, inside raw.

2] Shallow Frying : This is a dry method of cooking. Foods to be shallow fried are
cooked in a small amount of fat or oil the level of fat can be any where from halfway up
the side of a food.
 Tender good quality item like fish, meat, poultry are used
 Preparation side should oiled first & then turned, both sides brown evenly.
 The food items that are shallow fried are fish cakes, medallions, eggs, parathas,
dosa, chelas, tikki etc.

Heat transfer conduction and convection.

a. Sauteing: Sauteing is tossing the food in the pan during cooking so that it cooks and
browns on all sides. The name comes from the French for 'to jump'. Some times the food is
described as sauteed even if it is too big to be tossed in the pan (Sauteed Chicken) this
simply means it has been turned so that it is browned all over.

b. Stir-fry: A traditional method of Chinese cookery used for fast frying vegetables and
thin strips of meat in a specially designed utensil termed a wok. The base of the wok is
rounded with high sides so that only a small amount of food is in contact with the heat and
there fore, stirring is the only action needed to control browning.

c. Meuniers: Literally this term means 'in the style of a miller's wife'. It describes a method of
cooking which applies mainly to fish. Fish cooked in this way is seasoned, lightly floured
(Presumably the connection with the miller) and shallow fried in butter or oil. The fish is
sprinkled with lemon juice, garnished with slice of lemon and finished with beurre noisette
and chopped parsley.

Advantages

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1. Taste is improved, along with the texture.

2. Increases the calorific value.
3. Fastest method of cooking.
4. In shallow fat frying the amount f oil consumption can be controlled.

Disadvantages
1. Sometimes the food may become oily or soggy with too much absorption of oil.
2. More attention is required while cooking and care should be taken to avoid accidents.
3. The food becomes very expensive.
4. Fried food takes long time to digest.
5. Repeated use of heated oils may produce harmful substances and reduce the smoking
point.

2.4.3.6 Pressure frying: The same principle of pressure steaming applies to pressure frying.
Pressure fryers produce high quality fried foods, quickly, safely and economically. The fryer has
a tight fitting lid which traps the steam given off by the food. Pressure is automatically decreased
at the completion of the cooking. Pressure vents ensure a safe level of pressure build up and
locking system on the lid prevents it from being lifted until the pressure is released. Foods like
chicken pieces can be fried from a raw state in a short time and are less likely to burn than a
conventional fryer. This is due to the fact that moisture is trapped in the food, keeping in the
juices and preventing absorption of the frying medium into the food. Good circulation around the
food and maximum contact of hot fat or oil achieves even cooking and colour development.

SPECIAL METHODS OF COOKING FOODS

SOUS VIDE COOKING

Sous vide, which means “under vacuum” in French, refers to the process of vacuum-sealing food
in a bag, then cooking it to a very precise temperature in a water bath. This technique produces
results that are impossible to achieve through any other cooking method.
Sous vide cooking utilizes precise temperature control with circulation to produce results that
one can’t achieve through any other cooking technique. The reason–when using traditional
methods of cooking, we don’t have control over heat and temperature. Consequently, it’s very
difficult and time consuming to consistently cook great food. Food ends up overcooked on the
outside, with only a small portion in the center that is cooked to the temperature required. Food
loses flavor, overcooks easily, and ends up with a dry, chewy texture.

With precise temperature control in the kitchen, sous vide provides the following benefits:

Consistency. Because food is cooked to a precise temperature for a precise amount of time, you
can expect very consistent results.

Taste. Food cooks in its juices. This ensures that the food is moist, juicy and tender.

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Waste reduction. Traditionally prepared food dries out and results in waste. For example, on
average, traditionally cooked steak loses up to 40% of its volume due to drying out. Steak
cooked via precision cooking, loses none of its volume.

Flexibility. Traditional cooking can require your constant attention. Precision cooking brings
food to an exact temperature and holds it. There is no worry about overcooking.

Sous Vide Steak vs. Traditionally Cooked Steak

SOLAR COOKING
It is similar to what we use in the kitchen to cook food. Solar cooker works only on solar energy.
It emits no smoke; no soot spoils the cooking utensils. It keeps the surroundings clean. Above all
it conserves the precious energy resources of the country and saves money.

INFRARED COOKING
Dry heat is excellent for cooking meat, fish and other item, which are fairly tender to begin with.
The food is placed a few inches above or below the heat source. Some of the heat is given off by
the heat source is carried to the food by the means of radiation. The radiation is in the form of
infrared rays. Infrared rays are a form of radiation, which are just a little longer than those waves
that are seen as red and shorter than radio waves and microwaves.

2.4.4 MICROWAVE:
All microwave ovens consist of the same basic unit. This may incorporate some of the
additional facilities. When the machine is turned on, the microwaves are produced by the
magnetron. They travel along the wave guide and enter the oven. The stirrer fan distributes
them evenly throughout the metal cooking cavity. The specially designed safety door prevents
any microwave leakage while the oven is in operation. The air vent allows any steam to escape
during cooking.

HOW MICROWAVE OVENS WORK

The mechanics of a microwave oven are really very simple. The machine is plugged into the
regular domestic electricity supply but converts the electrical energy emitted to
electromagnetic waves by passing it through a magnetron vacuum tube.

1. Reflection

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Microwaves are reflected by metal; they cannot pass through it. Microwaves bounce off the
metal surfaces (walls, ceiling and floor) of the oven cavity in a regular pattern.

2. Transmission
Microwaves are transmitted by other materials, such as glass, ceramics, paper and some
plastics. Microwaves can pass through these substances without heating them up.

3. Absorption
Microwaves are absorbed by the moisture molecules in foods. The microwaves can only
penetrate to about 5 cm (2 in) but the food then heats through by conduction.

Advantages
1. They cook many foods in about 1/4th of the time necessary on a gas burner. There is no
wastage of energy.
2. It saves time in heating frozen foods. Thawing can be done in minutes or seconds
3. Only the food is heated during cooking. The oven or the utensil does not get heated
except under prolonged heating periods.
4. Flavour and texture do not change when reheated in a microwave oven.
5. Loss of nutrients is minimised.
6. After cooking in a microwave oven washing dishes is much easier as food does not stick
to the sides of the vessels.
7. Food gets cooked uniformly.
8. Preserves the natural colour of vegetables and fruits.

Disadvantages

1. Due to short period of cooking, food does not become brown unless the microwave has a
browning unit(grill).
2. It is not possible to make chapati or tandoori rotis in it. It cannot cook soft or hard boiled
eggs. Deep frying necessary for puris, jalebis, pakoda, vadas cannot be done in it.
3. The short cooking time may not give a chance of blending of flavours as in conventional
methods.
4. The operator should be careful in operating the microwave oven since any exposure to
micro wave oven causes physiological abnormalities.
5. If the food is greater than 80 mm the central portion is out of range of the microwave
radiation will only heat by the normal slow process of conduction. It will be relatively
uncooked while the exterior accessible to microwave is cooked in minutes or seconds.

2.5 Textures and Consistencies-Desirable and non-desirable

 Texture is the term used to describe the characteristics of a finished food product.
 Variety includes some hard and soft food in a meal, so that the amount of chewing,
required is varied.
 This is one of the points that are considered while planning a menu.

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 The menu includes dishes that have different textures as soft, crisp, hard, smooth, etc.
All the above mentioned factors contribute to concept of texture.

Factors affecting textures in food: -

Appearances: it is the first factor in the appreciation of the food. The size, shape and distribution
of holes are of prime importance. Ideally the holes should be comparatively small, slightly oval
or elongated and evenly distributed. Large holes produce coarseness to the eye, as in cakes,
breads.
Feel to touch: the perceptiveness to the touch should be exact as it is desirable to be. E.g. a
sponge cake should be light and spongy.
Softness: It is the characteristic of texture and the product should possess the resiliency to
gradually return to its normal shape. E.g. Idlis, dhokla, bread.
Mouth feel: Texture involves feels or bite tenderness- dry, soft, wet, hard, firmness, crumbliness
and short.

Desirable and Non Desirable textures in food: -

1. Firm and close: Raising agents added raise the food, the volume is increased, the holes
are small and many. The products are crisp and not spongy, e.g. biscuits, tartlets, etc.
2. Short and crumbly: The product is short and it just melts in the mouth when eaten. The
right quantity of fat used gets this effect. More fat is added, as it prevents the product
from becoming hard and short. It is very similar to firm and close texture .e.g. shortbread,
Nankhatai, short crust pastry etc.
3. Light and even: There are plenty of holes of more or less the same size. It is less short
than a pastry and less spongy than a sponge cake. The product is firm to touch e.g.
Madeira, queen cakes, etc.
4. Flaky: The products have thin crisp flakes and they are formed by air pockets. The
crispness is due to the method of rubbing fat with the flour. In order to get a good flaky
texture, the right amount of ingredients, proper mixing and correct temperature is
essential, e.g. vol-au-vents, veg patties, bouchees, paratha, Mathias etc.
5. Smooth: When a dry ingredient is added to a liquid and the blending results in a smooth
texture, e.g. Sauces, batters, gravies, phirnees etc.

Non desirable texture

Incorrect textures spoil the dish and should be avoided. Some of the incorrect textures are:
1. Coarse and open texture: This may be due to insufficient creaming of fat and sugar, or
careless mixing of flour when added. Too much of raising agents also give a coarse and
open texture.
2. Hard texture: The air enclosed has been driven off, may be due to the addition of more
liquid than required, or has not been mixed properly. Low temperature of the oven also
spoils texture.
3. Soggy texture: this occurs where there is the presence of too much of moisture, as it
combines to the ingredients and the starch gets overcooked and tends to stick, e.g. while
preparing rice, or mashing the potatoes.

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4. Lumpy texture: This happens when the liquid and solid is not mixed properly at the same
temperature. Once the lumps are cooked, they are difficult to remove. This texture may
occur in sauces, suji halwa etc.

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