Ethics by Sir Nes JR

UNIVERSITY OF THE EASTERN PHILIPPINES
PRM Campus, Catubig, Northern Samar
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor in Elementary Education
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
Prof. Nestor JR Pajares De Asis, LPT
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
Complete Name: _____________________________________________
Program: _____________________________________________
College: _____________________________________________
Professor: _____________________________________________
MODULE # ACCUMMULATED SCORES
OVER ALL SCORES

Checked by:
_________________________________________________________________________
Printed name over signature
Date: ______________________
1|Page
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON: GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
WEEK: 1
SUB-TOPIC/S: 1. General Ethics and Special Ethics
2. Cultural Conceptions of the Good
3. Differences and Relationship of Ethics, Morality,
and Values
a. The Moral Act
b. From the Act to the Person
4. Importance of Ethics
OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC
Welcome to your learning material on Ethics. This week you are tasked
to learn and accomplish several activities on General Introduction to Ethics.
Why is there a need to study ethics at all as a subject in college? Clearly,

only a few, if there are any at all, of the students in this course are philosophy
majors and are interested in philosophical questions academically. In fact,
most students in an ethics course probably think that such endeavor is a waste
of time and distracts them for their major. Why then is it important to take a
course in ethics? Does not everyone already have a sense of what is good and
bad behavior? Does not everyone have an instinct of what one ought to do,
what one’s duties are? Why is there a need to spend time thinking about what
is already inherent in everyone’s mind?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. share views and perspectives about ethics and its interrelated

matters;
b. compare and contrast ethics, morality and values;
c. interpret different images pertaining to ethics;
2|Page
d. discuss ethics, morality, and culture; and
e. identify the moral acts.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
a. analyze sets of pictures concerning to ethics;
b. read a short article about “Art and Offense” and elucidate several
questions; and
c. retort formative questions given below.
EXPLAIN
THE STUDY OF ETHICS AND CULTURAL CONCEPTIONS OF THE GOOD
Firstly, it is true that there are traditions that guide one’s actions. It is
impossible for anyone to have grown up with some sense of good and evil,
proper and improper, the ought and ought not. People mostly think that they
know exactly their basis of the good and that is reasonable. However, a
person’s understanding of the good hardly ever goes unquestioned, especially
in today’s world. Devoting one’s life to one’s parents’ needs seems perfectly
logical until one’s wife, who grew up in a different tradition, questions it. The
contractualization of labor for greater profit seems the most reasonable course
of action until one encounters the sufferings of people who have to face the
end of their contracts every five months. The subtle harassment of women,
such as ogling and throwing lewd jokes, seems harmless, until a woman files a
case against an offender in Quezon City where ordinances against
harassment exist.
People like to think that their traditions are already clear and
unquestionable to serve as basis for how they should act. This is because
people grow up with traditions. Traditions are part of culture. Culture is a system
of codes that gives the world meaning and shapes the behavior of people. It
also determines proper behavior. This includes what we eat and how we
prepare food, how we talk and what language we use, what we make and
how we make and utilize things, how we understand the meaning of life and
death, and how we recognize the meaning of life. Culture is our code that
shapes how we understand, what life is worth living, and what it means to be
a human.
3|Page
There are some of the ways culture shapes the way people act. The
following are examples and situations:
a. The penitents who whip themselves during Holy Week especially in the
province of Pampanga. (For them it is a way to participate in Christ’s sacrifice
and by doing so, they cleanse themselves of their sins and are spared from
punishment.);
b. The hook-up culture or engaging in sexual activities for excitement and fun.
(Thus, the meaning of sexual activity in these cultures is not necessarily
connected to love and procreation, lineage propagation, and property
transmission.) On the other hand, some people cannot even conceive of sex
as a leisure activity because in their culture, the idea or set of behaviors related
to it does not exist.
c. The belittling status of woman in the society. (In some cultures where the
status of women is that of property or is tightly controlled because of the
importance of lineage, it is customary that women accept their husband’s
authority, submit it to their will and serve all their needs.)
It can therefore, be noted that the conception of the good is shaped by

culture and it is the very basic system of codes that shapes human behavior.
This could be dangerous in a way because not all cultures and their
conception of the good reflect the good or what ought to be. For instance,
most of the corrupt government officials do not think that they are doing harm
because they were formed in a culture where self-interest allows for the
violation of rules of governance and the common good.
THE MORAL ACT
Human beings are complex beings. Unlike other organisms that are
simply driven by the survival instinct, human beings experience the world in a
variety of ways through a variety of perceptive capacities. Bacteria are driven
solely to replicate themselves; plants seek only nourishment and growth, and
animals seek to address their hunger and reproduce themselves. Apart from
our rational capacity which allows us to reckon reality with imaginative and
calculative lenses, our feelings also play a crucial part in determining the way
we navigate through various situations that we experience. We do not simply
know the world and other; we also feel their existence and their value.
Most of the time, we act based on how we feel. The following are
examples and situations:
a. You are pleased when others compliment for a job well done;
b. You are angry when you are accused of a wrongdoing you did not do;
c. You become afraid when you are threatened by someone; and
d. You feel anguish and despair in moments of seemingly insurmountable
hardship.
However, although feelings provide us with an initial reckoning of a
situation, they should not be the sole basis for our motives and actions.
4|Page
Always remember that our decisions have consequences and these
have an effect on others. Matters of moral import need to be analyzed with a
perspective that takes the welfare and feelings of others into consideration.
What is good for one may not be good for others.
For instance, if a jeepney driver thinks that it is right for him to get as many
passengers as he can in order to address the needs of his family, his reasoning
may be construed as narrow and selfish. In other words, if one’s reasoning does
not consider the interests of people that are affected by his/her actions, then
he/she is actually being prejudicial to his/her won interests. Prejudices make
decisions impartial. Reason recognizes not only the good of oneself but also
the good of others.
One way of ensuring the rationality and impartiality of moral decisions is

to follow the seven-step moral reasoning model. These steps can serve as a
guide in making choices of moral import.
1. Stop and think – Before making any decisions, it is best to take a moment to
think about the situation itself, your place in it, and other surrounding factors
which merit consideration, such as the people involved and the potential
effects of your decision on them.
2. Clarify goals – It is also necessary to clarify both your short-term and long-
term aims so as not the sacrifice your long-term plans over your short-term
plans.
3. Determine facts – Make sure that you gather enough information (must be
supported by facts and not hearsays) before you make a choice.
4. Develop options – Once you are clear in terms of your goals and facts, try to
come up with an alternative options to exhaust all possible courses of action.
Also, clear your mind and try to think of other creative ways of clarifying your
motives and implementing your actions with the least ethical compromise.
5. Consider consequences – Filter your choices and separate the ethical from
the unethical choices bearing in mind. Think of long-term consequences and
act in accordance with the principles of justice and fairness.
6. Choose – Make a decision. If it’s hard to decide, consult others who are
knowledgeable, experienced in that situation and those who possess virtuous
character.
7. Monitor and modify – Monitor what happens after your decision and have
enough humility to modify your action or behavior as necessary.
These seven steps can help you ensure that you do not take moral
decisions lightly. They shed light on the various aspects of moral situations that
you have to consider before making a decision. An important element,
though, is your will to commit to an action based on moral principles. You must
have the necessary resolve to put your choice in motion after a long process
of deliberation.
5|Page
FROM ACT TO THE PERSON
Human acts, in turn, determine the reality of the person. Though

personhood rather than particular acts is the deeper reality, the significance
of the latter cannot be overlooked. Human beings as doers of moral acts are
responsible not only for what they do but for the persons they grow into through
their moral acts. Human acts are relevant to the kind of person one becomes.
It is personhood that gives actions shape the “person” that one desires. It is
therefore, not only “good moral actions” that are important for ethics.
Finally, Kant insists on this mysterious center that is in the human person
that he refuses to say that the person is inherently evil. For Kant, the human
person’s inexhaustible ability to always change for the better is a source of
surprise even for the moral agent. No matter how much a human person is
conditioned by culture and environment, there is within that person a source
for change and a turning towards the good. This is confirmed by the
conversions and even cultural revolutions that happen in human history.
WHAT IS ETHICS?
What do people think about when they think ethically? What is the
experience on which ethical reflection is grounded? It is grounded on the
experience of free persons who have to act in difficult situations. It developed
from the reality that when people act, they do not merely need to know the
best way to realize something but there are times when they need to act in a
way that realizes the good. And the good does not always mean the easiest
or most expedient way. Ethical norms and the question of good and evil arise
when people need to act as free persons. But not all actions are inherently
ethical. Actions only require ethical reflection when they are free acts that
involve a person’s desire to realize the good.
Eating and breathing are not usually thought about as ethical or

unethical. After all, these are just functions of the body. However, when eating
is thought of in relation to human freedom, the ethical questions comes in. For
instance, buying food that is produced by a factory which in turn pollutes the
environment, particular the bodies of water. Whoever eats that product
participates in the exploitation and destruction because purchasing food
supports the activity of the manufacturer. In this case, eating becomes an
ethical question because although eating is a bodily function, eating this
exploitatively produced food is a free choice. This entails human beings having
a choice to act in a creative or destructive way toward others.
Thus, ethics has something to do with realizing the fullest potential as free
persons acting in the world and doing right for others. It is not about being
efficient or achieving goals. It is about realizing what people intuit to be the
good. Human beings intuit that life is not just about existing or survival, and
6|Page
human actions are not just about existing or survival, and human actions are
not just about expediency. Somehow, human beings sense that there is this
thing they call the good which they are bound to realize to genuinely be
human and build better societies.
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS by MANAGEMENT STUDY GUIDE
Most of us would agree that it is ethics in practice that makes sense; just
having it carefully drafted and redrafted in books may not serve the purpose.
Of course all of us want businesses to be fair, clean and beneficial to the
society. For that to happen, organizations need to abide by ethics or rule of
law, engage themselves in fair practices and competition; all of which will
benefit the consumer, the society and organization.
Primarily it is the individual, the consumer, the employee or the human

social unit of the society who benefits from ethics. In addition ethics is important
because of the following:
1. Satisfying Basic Human Needs: Being fair, honest and ethical is one the basic
human needs. Every employee desires to be such himself and to work for an
organization that is fair and ethical in its practices.
2. Creating Credibility: An organization that is believed to be driven by moral
values is respected in the society even by those who may have no information
about the working and the businesses or an organization. Infosys, for example
is perceived as an organization for good corporate governance and social
responsibility initiatives. This perception is held far and wide even by those who
do not even know what business the organization is into.
3. Uniting People and Leadership: An organization driven by values is revered
by its employees also. They are the common thread that brings the employees
and the decision makers on a common platform. This goes a long way in
aligning behaviors within the organization towards achievement of one
common goal or mission.
4. Improving Decision Making: A man’s destiny is the sum total of all the
decisions that he/she takes in course of his life. The same holds true for
organizations. Decisions are driven by values. For example an organization that
does not value competition will be fierce in its operations aiming to wipe out
its competitors and establish a monopoly in the market.
5. Long Term Gains: Organizations guided by ethics and values are profitable
in the long run, though in the short run they may seem to lose money. Tata
group, one of the largest business conglomerates in India was seen on the
verge of decline at the beginning of 1990’s, which soon turned out to be
otherwise. The same company’s Tata NANO car was predicted as a failure,
and failed to do well but the same is picking up fast now.
6. Securing the Society: Often ethics succeeds law in safeguarding the society.
The law machinery is often found acting as a mute spectator, unable to save
the society and the environment. Technology, for example is growing at such
a fast pace that the by the time law comes up with a regulation we have a
7|Page
newer technology with new threats replacing the older one. Lawyers and
public interest litigations may not help a great deal but ethics can.
Ethics tries to create a sense of right and wrong in the organizations and
often when the law fails, it is the ethics that may stop organizations from
harming the society or environment.
(Source: https://www.managementstudyguide.com/importance-of-
ethics.htm)
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: Kindly read the short article, “Art and Offense” and elucidate the
following questions in a concise manner (maximum of eight sentences). The
rubric for evaluation is provided below.
Note that in this part you are encouraged to think logically.
ART AND OFFENSE
In 2011, the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) mounted an exhibit

that included Mideo Cruz’s “Politeismo,” an installation comprised of an
amalgam of many images including a statue of Jesus wearing Mickey Mouse
ears, a crucifix adorned with a bright red phallus, and a picture of the face of
Jesus with a wooden ash tray with penis tacked on the middle. Apparently
conceived as a piece to promote critical thought and perhaps debate on
idolatry, it was seen by many in this predominantly Catholic country to be a
deliberate insult to their faith. Given the public outcry and the strong
denouncement from the various religious and secular leaders, the exhibit was
abruptly closed. In addition to being threatened and having his work
vandalized, Cruz was charged with obscenity. However, he (as well as the
administrators of the CCP) was acquitted of these charges by the courts in
2013.
A case such as this allows us to consider questions on aesthetics such as

“Is it the point of the work to be appealing or to be thought provoking?” It also
allows us to consider political questions, such as “Who gets to decide which
artists and which projects may or may not receive funding from the state?” Our
concern here is ethical, and perhaps we can recognize that a number of
highly significant ethical questions can be raised: Does the artist have an
ethical obligation to the sensibilities of his audience? Or does he have a moral
obligation only to be faithful to his vision and his art? What constitutes offense,
and at what point is offense severe enough as to require control or to justify
retribution? Does a religious majority have a monopoly on understanding of
what is right or wrong? Does an artist have an absolute freedom of expression,
or are there proper restrictions to this right?
8|Page
What do you think?
(Mideo Cruz’s Art Exhibit on the left side, Jesus Christ with a wooden ash tray with penis tacked on the
middle on the right side.)
I. Imagine a scenario in which an image of someone who is the object of

religious devotion (such as Jesus Christ or Mary, the Mother of Jesus) is placed
side by side with a phallic image.
1. Is this an ethical issue? Why or why not?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
2. Does the question of the rightness or wrongness of this depend on which

religion you belong to? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
9|Page
RUBRIC FOR EVALUATION SCORE
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
explanation is explanation is explanation is explanation is Has no
RELEVANCE
directly relevant relevant to the quite relevant to not clear and explanation
to the topic. topic. Most of the topic. Only has a very rough
Every detail the details few of the details transition of
points toward the contribute to the contribute to the idea. The details
topic. development of development of are not relevant
the topic. the topic. to the topic.
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
explanation explanation explanation explanation Has no
ARGUMENT
EVIDENCE/
shows at least 9 shows at least 6 shows at 3 to 5 shows at most 2 explanation

correct/valid to 8 correct/valid correct/valid
evidences to correct/valid evidences to evidences to
support his/her evidences to support his/her support his/her
answer. support his/her answer. answer.
answer.
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
CLARITY
clear, has a very clear, has a somewhat clear not clear and explanation
good flow of good transition, and has a rough has a very rough
discussion, every most of the transition from transition of
detail is details are one idea to ideas.
connected to connected to another.
each other. each other.
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
TECHNI-
explanation has explanation has explanation has 3 explanation has Has no

CALITY
no error in 1 to 2 errors in to 4 errors in at least 5 errors explanation

grammar, grammar, grammar, in grammar,
spelling, and spelling, and spelling, and spelling, and
punctuations. punctuations. punctuations. punctuations.
OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
DIRECTIONS: In this, you will be asked to answer different sets of questions which
is a combination of different types of objective examination (multiple choices,
identification, short response, true or false or alike, and so on.)
Note that in this part you are encouraged to remember the topic/s discussed.
This will be provided on the platform identified in the syllabus and course guide.
REFERENCES
Marc Oliver D. Pasco, V. Fulluente Suarez, and Agustin Martin G. Rodriguez, Ph.D.
(2018) Ethics C & E Publishing Company (pp. 1 – 13)
Oscar G. Bulaong Jr, Mark Joesph T. Calano, Albert M. Lagliva et. al. (2018) Ethics:
Foundations of Moral Valuation Rex Book Store (pp. 1 – 26
10 | P a g e
ADDITIONAL
MATERIALS
Why is ethics important?

https://www.managementstudyguide.com/importance-of-ethics.htm
Prepared by:
Mr. Nestor JR Pajares De Asis, LPT

Master of Arts in language & Literature Unit Earner
Master of Arts in English Studies
Bachelor of Laws/ Juris Doctor
NOTE:
This is module is protected by copyright. Please contact Mr. Nes De Asis if your wanted to
reproduce this.
11 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON: PART 1: THE ACADEMIC ETHICAL TRADITIONS
WEEK: 2
SUB-TOPIC/S: INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ORGANIZATION
a. Gawi and Gawa Habituation
b. Ethics and Ethos
c. Plato’s Insight into the Good
Welcome to your learning material on Ethics. This week you are tasked
to learn and accomplish several activities on the Academic Ethical Traditions.
The idea of viewing organizations as cultures—where there is a system of

shared meaning among members—is a relatively recent phenomenon. Until
the mid-1980s, organizations were, for most part, simply thought of as rational
means by which to coordinate and control a group of people, which have
vertical levels, departments, authority relationships, and so forth. But
organizations are more than that.
They have personalities too, just like individuals which can be rigid or
flexible, unfriendly or supportive, innovative or conservative. For example,
general electric offices and people are different from the offices and people
at general mills. Harvard and MIT are in the same business of education—
separated only by the width of the Charles River in Massachusetts, USA, but
each has a unique feeling and character beyond its structural characteristics.
Organization theorists now acknowledge this by recognizing the important role
that culture plays in the lives of organizational members.
Interestingly, though, the origin of organizational culture as an

independent variable affecting an employee’s attitude and behavior can be
traced back more than 50 years to the notion of institutionalization. When an
organization becomes institutionalized, it takes on a life of its own, apart from
its founders and any of its members. For example, Ross Perot created electronic
12 | P a g e
data systems (EDS) in the early 1960s and left in 1987 to establish a new
company, Perot Systems.
EDS has, however, continued to thrive despite the departure of its

founder. Sony, Eastman, Kodak, Gillette, McDonald’s, and Disney are a few
other examples of organizations that have existed beyond lives of their
founders or any one member and have developed their own self-initiated
organizational cultures over the period of time. Additionally, when an
organization becomes institutionalized, it becomes valued for itself and not
merely for the goods and services it produces. It acquires corporate
immortality. If its goods are no longer relevant, it does not go out of business.
Rather it redefines itself.
When the demand for Timex watches declined, the Timex Corporation merely
redirected itself into consumer electronics business-making, in addition to
watches, clocks, computers, and health care products such as digital
thermometers and blood pressure testing devices. Timex Corp took on an
existence that went beyond its original mission to manufacture low cost
mechanical watches. This sense of redefining itself became a part of Timex’s
organizational culture.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. compare and contrast gawi and gawa;

b. delineate ethics and ethos; and
c. discuss Plato’s insight into the good.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a. differentiate action and inclination
b. create a Venn diagram depicting gawi and gawa; and
c. retort formative questions given below.
13 | P a g e
ENGAGE
DIRECTIONS: Kindly retort the following questions in a concise manner

(maximum of three sentences).
Note that in this part you are encouraged to underwrite what you feel.
a. What is gawi? Gawa?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
b. Have you heard about Plato? What do you know about him?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: Attempt to analyze the different scenarios, activities, and cultures

commonly shown in and performed by Filipino families. Share your view and
perspective towards it in a concise manner (maximum of three sentences).
Note that in this part you are encouraged to be factual with what you
perceive.
“The utang-na-loob
“Being rebellious thing” thing” “The balikbayan box
Speaking up and Or also known as debt mentality”
voicing out an opinion of gratitude; An Abusing the OFW’s
toward an elder or obligation to generosity; Most of the
submission to appropriately repay a time, family members
patriarchs person who has done a are involved as abusers
favor
14 | P a g e
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
EXPLAIN
GAWI AND GAWA HABITUATION
In Filipino, the words gawi and gawa can give a sense of what
philosophers mean by ethical action. Filipinos distinguish between thoughtless,
instinctive mannerisms and reflexes from gawa (action) and gawi (inclination).
In reflecting on how Filipinos use these words, one can understand that human
actions are different from mere bodily movements.
Freedom figures closely into action and inclination. Freedom, as defined,

is the willful act and decision that give form and shape to the actions and
inclinations of people. This freedom is oriented toward the wherefore, the what
for, and the whom for of the doings of people.
15 | P a g e
These are the common aspects of human of human action that Filipinos
understand as action and inclination: that free human acts are governed by
reflection and are freely decided such that they are not determined by
internal or external forces.
However, gawi and gawa are not identical: For instance is the
matrix/table below:
GAWA GAWI
a.) It refers to the free action that is a.) It refers to a free kind of work as
oriented toward a particular end. well (which is same as gawa). Also, it
refers to the kind of acts that people
are used to accomplishing.
b.) For example: A worker uses his/her b.) Gawi does not only refer to
free imagination and will to bring particular acts of a person. A person’s
about services and products that kagawian or habitual action reveals
contribute to the well-being of a truth about himself/herself.
society.
c.) Also equivalent to ethos in Greek
and mos or moris in Latin
Finally, a worker who produces for the society is judged skilled or

unskilled. But a person is judged good or evil, right or wrong based on
kagawian or habituation.
ETHICS AND ETHOS
The term ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, which means custom,
a characteristic, or habitual way of doing things, or action that is properly
derived from one’s character. The Latin word mos or moris (and its plural mores)
from which the adjective moral is derived, is equivalent to ethos.
In the same manner, that gawi for the Filipino is different from gawa,
Aristotle differentiates between human actions that are “praxis” and to
“poiein.” What is important for the human agent who engages in “to poiein,”
gawa for Aristotle is to successfully complete a particular work be it artistic or
technical: that the tabletop is smooth, the carvings are precise, and the chair’s
legs are balanced. The human person himself/herself is significant only in
considering the result in matters of “to poiein” or gawa. Ethics, on the other
hand, not only has such “normative” considerations as to the end product of
the actions.
Ethics, as concerned with “praxis” for Aristotle, properly focuses on the

human agent that is revealed through his/her actions. Ethics is normative with
regard to its being a practical science. It does not only limit itself to the
description of human actions but also aims to guide them.
16 | P a g e
Ethics also considers that which is worthy of a human being. This means
that living rightly is not only about searching for happiness but living as one
ought to live as a human being. For instance, in living rightly, one receives
contentment and approval both from others and himself/herself, and in living
wrongly, he/she deserves blame (from others and from himself/herself).
PLATO’S INSIGHT INTO THE GOOD
An academic introduction to the discipline of ethics is incomplete

without reference to Plato (427-347 BCE). Even the word “academic” itself
harks back to academia, the institution of learning established by Plato for the
training of his followers who later will be called philosophers, lovers of wisdom.
Ethics, being a discipline to study in universities that fall under the umbrella of
philosophy, can also traits it roots back to Plato as the systematic thinker who
grappled with the question of what is good.
The context of life of Plato is unfamiliar with students of today. The link on
a video from YouTube is tasked for you to watch in order to learn what good
life for Plato is. It is a composition of his confrontation to Socrates, his teacher
and mentor and Glaucon, son of Ariston and his older brother (Plato).
(Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oJs5u_GAYA)
In summary, Plato directs humanity to the nobility that is reachable

through the knowledge of the good. His confidence is knowing the good as
acting upon it reaches out to every age that grapples with the question of
what is proper human action.
17 | P a g e
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: Create a Venn diagram showing the comparison and contrasting

ideas of gawi and gawa. The rubric for evaluation is provided below.
Note that in this part you are encouraged to think commonsensically.
GAWI GAWA

3 – The 2 – The student’s 1 – The student’s 0.5 – The 0–
student’s concept/point concept/point of student’s Has no
CONCEPT:
POINT OF
concept/point of view view has concept/point explanation

VIEW
of view has somehow compared and of view did not

compared and compared and contrasted the compare and
contrasted the contrasted the author’s point of contrast the
author’s point of author’s point of view in a limited author’s point of
view. view. way. view.
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
ARGUMENT
EVIDENCE/
shows at least 5 shows at least 3 shows 2 shows only 1 explanation

evidences to correct/valid evidences to evidence to
answer.
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
CLARITY
clear, has a clear, has a somewhat clear not clear and explanation
very good flow good transition, and has a rough has a very rough
of discussion, most of the transition from transition of
every detail is details are one idea to ideas.
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
TECHNI-

CALITY

OVERALL SCORE:
18 | P a g e
EVALUATE
DIRECTIONS: In this, you will be asked to answer different sets of questions which
is a combination of different types of objective examination (multiple choices,
REFERENCES
Marc Oliver D. Pasco, V. Fulluente Suarez, and Agustin Martin G. Rodriguez,

Ph.D. (2018) Ethics C & E Publishing Company (pp. 15 – 23)
ADDITIONAL
MATERIALS
Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oJs5u_GAYA
Prepared by:

Master of Arts in English Studies Unit Earner
NOTE:
reproduce this.
19 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON 1: UTILITARIANISM – JOHN STUART MILL
WEEK: 3
SUB-TOPIC/S:
Human decisions always have consequences. Whenever one decides to do

something, one’s actions affect other people in ways beyond how one thought it
would. Decisions continually affect the configuration and integrity of various forms of
human relationships because in deciding to do something, for instance, one actually
brings something new into the world that has never existed before. Decisions bring
forth new ideas, objects, and relationships into play in the realm of action and
thought. Because one decides in a certain way, one affects others and the world in
a particular way, differently from how one would have if one decided differently. In
other words, particular consequences that correspond to how one’s motives
translated into action through a decision.
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure and
the determination of right behavior based on the usefulness of the action’s
consequences. Among the major proponents of this way of thinking, John Stuart Mill
(1806-1873), is considered by many to be the most influential. His utilitarian theory of
morality is a development and clarification of the earlier form of the theory authored
by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and espoused by his father, James Mill (1773-1836).
James Mill homeschooled John Stuart on the Benthamite doctrine, which essentially
states that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of
right and wrong. Happiness in this context is understood as the predominance of
pleasure over pain. John Stuart later on revises this doctrine by highlighting a
distinction between qualities and quantities of pleasures and pains.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. articulate the meaning of a consequentialist ethics;
b. analyze the greatest happiness principle;
20 | P a g e
c. examine the objections to Mill’s position and his responses to each of them;
and
d. evaluate ethical decisions from the point of view of utilitarianism
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students can:
a. explain the greatest happiness principle;
b. create an analysis paper about Animal Rights and Welfare.
ENGAGE
DIRECTIONS: Kindly retort the following questions in a concise manner (maximum of
three sentences).
a. When was the last time you made a decision? What is it?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
b. What are the things and factors you are considering when making decisions?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
c. Share a relevant experience where your decision skills were tested.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: Kindly read the short article found below. Share your view and
Note that in this part you are encouraged to be factual with what you perceive.
21 | P a g e
On January 25, 2015, the 84th Special Action Force (SAF) conducted a police
operation at Tukanalipao, Mamasapano in Maguindanao. Also known as Oplan
Exodus, it was intended to serve an arrest warrant for Zulkifli bin Hir or Marwan, a
Malaysian terrorist and bomb-maker who had a 5 million USD million bounty on his
head. This mission eventually led to a clash between the Philippine National Police’s
(PNP) SAF, on the one hand, and the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF) and
the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) on the other. Although the police operation
was “successful” because of the death of Marwan, the firefight that ensued claimed
sixty-seven lives including forty-four SAF troopers, eighteen MILF fighters, and five
civilians. However, the relatively high number of SAF members killed in this operation
caught the attention of many including the Philippine media and the legislature.
In one of the congress investigations that followed this tragic mission, then
Senate President Franklin Drilon and Senator Francis Escudero debated the public
hearing of an audio recording of an alleged conversation that attempted to cover
up the massacre of the PNP-SAF commandos. Drilon questioned the admissibility of
these recordings as evidence under the Anti-Wire Tapping Law whereas Escudero
cited the legal brief of the Free Legal Assistance Group (FLAG) arguing that the Anti-
Wire Tapping Law protects only the recording and interception of private
communications. Drilon cited Section 4 of the Anti-Wire Tapping Law Act (RA 4200)
and explained that “any communication or spoken word, or the existence, contents,
substance, purport, or meaning of the same or any part thereof, or any information
therein contained or secured by any person in violation of the preceding sections of
this Act shall not be admissible in evidence in any judicial, quasi-judicial, legislative, or
administrative hearing or investigation.” Senator Grace Poe, previous chairperson of
the Senate committee on public order and dangerous drugs, argued otherwise.
“Sinabi na ni Senator Drilon na ito daw ay illegal, na hindi daw pwede, na ako daw
ay pwedeng maging liable kung ito daw ay ipapakinig ko sa Senado, ako naman,
ano ba itong mga batas na ito? … Ang mga batas na ito ay para malaman natin
ang katotohanan at magkaroon tayo ng hustisya. Itong mga anti-wiretapping or mga
recording na ganito, kung hindi pwedeng ilabas sa publiko, pwede naming gawing
basehan sa executive session.”
Senator Poe’s response leads us to ask: Can the government infringe individual
rights? If it is morally permissible for the government to infringe individual rights, when
can the government do so? Does it become legitimate to sacrifice individual rights
when considering the greatest benefit for the greatest number of people?
This case exposes the aftermath of the Mamasapano incident and the Senate
investigations. The Senate inquiry proceedings raised questions on the possibility of
wire-tapping and the intrusion to one’s rights to privacy. While the 1987 Philippine
Constitution does protect one’s right to private communication, it did provide some
exemptions to its inviolability. These exemptions include a lawful order of the court
and/or issues involving public safety and order. In fact, RA 4200 (or the Anti-Wire
Tapping Law) and RA 9372 (or the Human Security Act of 2007) both provided
exemptions to the inviolability of the right to privacy in instances of treason,
espionage, rebellion, and sedition. While this is certainly a legal issue, can it also
constitute a moral concern? By raising the distinction between moral and legal issues
and concerns, do you think that these two are different? To simplify things, let us put
aside the question of law and let us assume that you were asked to decide whether
22 | P a g e
wiretapping is morally permissible or not. On what instances is it not morally
permissible?
When considering the moral permissibility of wiretapping, we calculate the

costs and benefits of wiretapping. If we calculate the costs and benefits of our
actions, then we are considering an ethical theory that gives premium to the
consequences of actions as the basis of morality and as such is utilitarianism.
EXPLAIN
THE GREATEST HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE
In Mill’s ethics, actions are understood as right with respect to other capacity
to promote happiness and wrong when they tend to promote the opposite of
happiness. Happiness as defined by Mill, is pleasure and the absence of pain, while
unhappiness is pain or the absence of pleasure. For him, the Principle of Utility or the
Greatest Happiness Principle is the supreme measure of morality. Pleasure and the
freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends, and all desirable things are
desired either because they are inherently pleasurable or because they contribute to
the prevention of pain.
For instance, if one is faced with the choice of playing online games all day for
a week and studying school lessons for at least three hours a day per week, one must
ask oneself which course of action fulfills one’s higher faculties more. On should ask
how many people can benefit from such a choice compared to the other, as well as
the kind of happiness it can bring these people. Let us thus examine the case:
PLAYING ONLINE GAMES STUDYING

ALL DAY FOR A WEEK THREE HOURS A DAY FOR A WEEK
- immediately satisfies one’s search for - tedious, yet allows one to develop
fun and excitement his/her intellect and virtue of
perseverance in learning important
lessons for school
- satisfies one and one’s gaming friends - has the potential to bring pleasure to
immediately one’s family by showing one’s gratitude
for their gift of education
When one carefully examines the kinds of pleasures at stake in the possible
consequences of one’s decision, one realizes that studying, while seemingly “painful”
relative to one’s desire for immediate gratification, bears more potential to bring
happiness in the long run compared to playing online games.
Now, one might say that Mill might conclude that studying is always better than
playing. However, one may argue that one also learns useful skills in playing computer
games and that the development of friendships is more important than getting a
good job after graduating from school. Mill must not be interpreted hastily. He is not
23 | P a g e
saying that lower pleasures must always give way to higher forms of pleasure. He does
not envision persons as one-dimensional.
Mill presents an important point in his utilitarian theory of morality. He recognizes

a person’s embeddedness in a social, cultural, and historical context that plays a
crucial role in his/her capacity to recognize varying kinds of pleasures.
One of the Mill’s famous quotes runs as follows: “It is better to be a human being
dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.
And if the fool or the pig is of a different opinion, it is because they only know their
own side of the question. Happiness, according to the Greatest Happiness Principle,
must be pursued in direct proportion to the form of being which desires it.
REPLIES TO OBJECTIONS
TO THE OBJECTION THAT HAPPINESS IS UNATTAINABLE

There are some who object to Mill’s proposition by saying that happiness is
unattainable. Many things such as poverty, disease, and failure thwart one’s attempt
at being happy. Mill responds by saying that if his objectors define happiness as a
continuity of highly pleasurable excitement, then it is true that such a life is indeed
impossible. Pleasures often only last for a certain period. For instance, the pleasure
derived from eating only lasts until one experience hunger once more. However, Mill
says that the life of happiness defined in his theory is not a life of rupture but an
existence made up of a few, transitory pains, different pleasures with a decided
predominance of pleasure over pain. More so, happiness is, therefore, attainable if
one understands it realistically and lives one’s life in solidarity with others and cultivates
one’s deeper capacity to enjoy that which endures in the transitory.
TO THE OBJECTION THAT UTILITARIAN MORALITY IS INCOMPATIBLE WITH SELF-SACRIFICE

Another objection to Mill’s theory is that it does not recognize the value of self-
sacrifice. Mill answers this objection by saying that utilitarianism does recognize the
goodness of self-sacrifice which places the welfare of others over and above one’s
own but only to the extent that is done for the sake of promoting the greatest
happiness of the greatest number, and for no other reason is it acceptable other than
this. If self-sacrifice is merely done for its own sake, then utilitarianism sees it as a waste.
The kind of sacrifice Mill finds reasonable is the kind which produces consequences
that benefit more people other than oneself. Utilitarianism upholds the belief that a
truly moral person always tries to incorporate the good of others in every decision
he/she makes. Thus, in the case of self-sacrifice, it is morally acceptable so long as it
is done for the sake of the good of the greatest number.
TO THE OBJECTION THAT SOCIAL CONCERN IS A RARE MOTIVE FOR ACTION

The last objection Mill deals with in his treatise is the objection relating to the
question whether people actually have society in mind whenever they choose a
course of action. For Mill, a distinction must be made between the motives and the
consequences of one’s actions with respect to which of the two is the basis for judging
an act to be normal or not. Of course, it is ideal to always have the good in mind in
every decision, but as far as morality is concerned, the act itself is moral so long as it
promotes the good of the greatest number.
24 | P a g e
THE ULTIMATE SANCTION
According to Mill, it is man’s “feeling for humanity” that constitutes the ultimate
sanction of the principle of utility. This is the internal sanction of the principle of utility.
One of the external sanctions that provide the imperitus for moral conduct is
one’s fear of displeasing God (if one believes in God) because one is determined by
his/her desire to please his/her creator, for he/she feels that he/she owes this much.
The other external sanction is the fear of disapproval from other people especially if
one is fearful that he/she will be punished by society in whatever way, be it legal
(fined/imprisoned) or extra-legal (social ostracization, marginalization). Such a motive
takes into account the opinions of others with respect to what is advantageous or
disadvantageous for them before one acts.
Mill then proceeds to explain that although external sanctions do promote the
welfare of the whole, it is still the internal sanction of conscience that is considered as
the ultimate sanction of morality. This is the feeling associated with one’s violation of
duty towards others when one selfishly looks after one’s happiness exclusively.
Conscience is the internalization of the external sanctions of morality that feels
remorse each time one acts without considering first the effect or consequences of
one’s actions in other people’s lives. In the end, one can only sleep well at night when
he/she has a clear conscience, that is, when one is certain that he/she did everything
to promote not just his/her own happiness, but that of everyone’s.
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: Kindly read the short article, “Animal Rights and Welfare” and elucidate
the following questions in a concise manner (maximum of eight sentences). The rubric
for evaluation is provided below.
ANIMAL RIGHTS AND WELFARE

Peter Singer, in his book Animal Liberation, argues that animals are equal
candidates for moral respect; this does not mean equal treatment as it does equal
consideration. While, Rene Descartes argues that animals are incapable of feeling
pleasure and pain because they do not have any minds, Bentham and Mills argue
otherwise. For them, animals are capable of feeling pleasure and pain and are thus
to be included in whatever moral deliberation we are to make, especially when the
decisions we make affect them. The animal’s capacity for suffering is a vital
characteristic that entitles them to equal consideration. While animal intelligence is
another moral issue to confront, it cannot be denied that animals do feel physical
pain. While other researchers simply dismiss this as an act of anthropomorphizing, the
vast research on animal consciousness is worth considering at this point. Should
animals have moral rights?
Utilitarianism recognizes that animals do feel physical and emotional pain. But
this does not mean that we are not allowed to cause animals pain. When causing
25 | P a g e
animal pain obtains a greater happiness to the majority of humans and nonhuman
animals, then doing so to sentient creatures can be morally permissible. For this reason,
utilitarianism nowadays rarely use the term animal rights as they do talk about animal
welfare. If human rights, according to Bentham, are “nonsense upon stilts,” then the
same is true with animal rights. These rights are not absolute especially when it would
be detrimental to society. Mill do talk about rights to security, liberty, and justice, but
he also argues that “particular cases may occur in which some other social duty is so
important, as to overrule any one of the general maxims of justice.” This can mean
that, as a utilitarian, the pain and pleasure of nonhuman animals must be taken into
consideration when there are no concerns that would justify their pain for the sake of
the greatest happiness of the greatest number. In this case, when animals are used
for the development of household product and cosmetics, they are condemned by
utilitarian. However, when they are used for medical experimentation that can lead
to cure for a debilitating or terminal illness, they are acceptable to a utilitarian. Do you
agree with this?
1. In view of Bentham’s and Mill’s assertion of the greatest happiness of the greatest
number, do you think that animal rights and welfare should even be a concern in the
Philippines where millions of Filipinos below the poverty threshold are struggling to
have descent lives? Is the concern for animal rights and welfare a first world problem?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______

3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
RELEVANCE
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
ARGUMENT
EVIDENCE/

answer.
26 | P a g e
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
CLARITY explanation is explanation is explanation is explanation is Has no
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
TECHNI-

CALITY

OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
DIRECTIONS: In this, you will be asked to answer different sets of questions which is a
combination of different types of objective examination (multiple choices,
REFERENCES
Prescribed Textbook
Pasco, Marc Oliver, Suarez, Fulluente V. and Rodriquez, Agustin Martin G. (2018): Ethics C & E
Publishing Company
References
Agapay, Ramon R.”Ethics and the Filipino”, 2nd Edition (2008), National Book Store,
Mandaluyong City.
Bulaong, Oscar G., Jr, Calano, Mark Joseph T, and Lagliva Albert m, et.al (2018), “Ethics
Foundations of
Moral Valuation,”: Rex Book Store
Dooley, Mark (1999), “Questioning Ethics: Contemporary Debates in Philosophy”, Cambridge

University
Press
Glenn, Paul J. (1988), Ethics: A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy
Grassin, Victor (1992), “Moral Reasoning: Ethical Theory and Some Contemporary Moral
problems, 2nd
ed.: Jersey, Prentice Hall,
27 | P a g e
Kant Immanuel (2007) Kant’s Critique of Practical reason and other Works on the Theory of
Ethics
(Translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abott)
Paul, Richard (2001). “The Miniature Guide of Understanding the Foundations of Ethical
Reasoning:
Foundation for critical thinking Free Press.
Ramos, Christine R. (2006), 2nd Ed. “Introduction to Philosophy” Rex BookStore, Publishing Co.
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this.
28 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON 1: ASIAN ETHICAL TRADITIONS
WEEK: 4
SUB-TOPIC/S:
In most ethics courses, including this one, there is heavy emphasis on the traditions
of the West to train students to think about the ethical way of existence. However,
there is another tradition of thinking about the good that is worth considering for a
fuller understanding of how people orient their lives to the good. This tradition comes
from the great civilizations of the East, particularly from India and China.
The students of this course may not realize it but many people in the Philippines
are deeply influenced by or have great commonalities in their ethical way of thinking
with these traditions. For instance, people believe that if they do bad things, they
could be victims of misfortune because of Karma. Others believe that one ought to
live in a way that honors their ancestors. Most people believe that the world is ordered
by Heaven and that if one wishes to have a good life, one must understand that order
and live one’s life according to it. These are all beliefs that echo or are derived from
Indian and Chinese traditions. It would be profitable to study these traditions because
they are closer to Asian moral sensibilities and have shaped them.
Examples of some of these great traditions are discussed here to give readers
sense of how their metaphysical, religious, and mythical conceptions of the universe
can be the foundation of an ethics.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. articulate the basis for ethical behavior for Buddhists;
b. analyze how the concept of the oneness of all things in the Brahma serves
as a basis for moral behavior; and
c. examine hoe Confucianism founds ideal human behavior on the ideas of
Ren and Li.
29 | P a g e
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a. compare and contrast the different Asian Ethical traditions;
b. conduct an online interview to a Chinese friend about ancestor woship.
ENGAGE
three sentences).
a. What Asian ethical tradition or belief do you accept as true? Which is NOT?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: Observe the three pictures below which have something to do with Asian
ethical tradition. Share your view and perspective towards it in a concise manner
(maximum of two sentences for each picture).
30 | P a g e
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
EXPLAIN
THE VEDAS AND UPANISHADS
The Vedas are some of the oldest philosophical writings in the world. These
series of hymns to the most ancient gods are a poetic articulation of the structure and
meaning of the universe. Here, there is a family of gods for whom the hymns are
composed. The most basic insight of these writings is that Rita is the foundational
principle of all things and is the right order of the universe. Human beings experience
this order through the presence of the gods to whom they dedicate their performance
of the hymns embodied in rituals. More popularly, this means the performance of
rituals according to how priests define perfection. And unfortunately, most people
take the Vedas to be a handbook of prescribed rituals to realize good fortune, which
leads to a rethinking of the revelations of the Vedas collected in the Upanishads.
The writers of Upanishads seek to understand the fullness of human becoming

by realizing the deepest insight about the true nature of the universe. They seek to
articulate about the true nature of the universe. They seek to articulate why and how
human beings could come to fullness through enlightenment about the transcendent,
unchanging reality of being. The expression of the path to enlightenment is through
poetic deliberations on the nature of being and the human realization of self in this
universe.
31 | P a g e
Beyond rituals, the authors of the Upanishads share a path of spiritual
enlightenment. The first idea is Samsara or reincarnation. All human beings are born
repeatedly in different forms of life. It is not just a process of repetition but one of
purification. In the teaching of Karma, the actions of persons have just consequences.
The way persons live their lives redounds on what happens to them and more
importantly, it determines their reincarnation. The Upanishads live teach that by living
a life of meditation and purification, one achieves a state of spiritual enlightenment
that will allow us to live in a genuine accord with the order of the good. If one lives
well, Karma will lead one to a better life. Thus, one must live well according to one’s
Darma, which is the duty that one has based on one’s station or station of life. There
are duties given one’s cast or status in the social order, and if one fulfills all one’s given
duties, one can escape the Karmic cycle which is the state of Moksha or liberation.
To achieve Moksha, one must come to the insight that all things are one in the
Brahman. All things that exist are from the Brahman, and ultimately all things return to
the Brahman. That simple realization leads to Moksha or the state of enlightenment
that liberates persons from the cycle of birth and rebirth to a state of stillness and a
rootedness in the eternal. The realization that “All is Brahman” correlates to the greater
insight that “Brahman is Atman” and “Atman is Brahman.” Atman is the self that
underlies all being. It is the eternal self which is all our selves. And so all things are one
being in Brahman and they are all one self in Atman.
If we ask the question “How does a good person live her life?”, then the answer
is one must act in a way that does not detract from insight and enlightenment. Also,
one must be careful of one’s actions so it does not incur negative Karma which keeps
one imprisoned in the cycle of rebirth.
BUDDHISM
Buddhism was born from the enlightenment of Gautama

Buddha who lived between the 6th and 4th BCE. A sheltered
prince, Buddha sought the meaning of existence when he
realized that human life is suffering. The Buddha’s lifelong search
led him to extreme asceticism. However, he discovered that
enlightenment and salvation could be achieved in the ordinary
human life if people are enlightened about the nature of
suffering. People who seek to arrive at a higher level of
enlightenment, where one can see “beyond birth and death,”
need to realize four truths called Chatvari-arya-satyani.
FOUR TRUTHS
First Truth – In the cycle of death, life, and rebirth, there is a constant suffering or
dukkha.
Second Truth – Action or karma is the cause of this suffering, particularly “non-virtuous
action, and the negative mental states that motivate such actions. These are
afflictions of the mind such as desired, hatred, and ignorance which are rooted in the
wrong valuation of self or atman.
32 | P a g e
Third Truth – There is an end to suffering and the path beyond the suffering is to
transcend this illusion and enter the state of nirvana. Nirvana is the dissolution of
suffering which is the fruit of the surrender of the ego.
Fourth Truth – This is how human beings ought to live a life free from suffering by
following the Eightfold Path or Astangika-marga.
EIGHTFOLD PATH OR EIGHT ELEMENTS OF PATH

1. Correct view – an accurate understanding of the nature of things, specifically the
Four Noble Truths
2. Correct intention – avoiding thoughts of attachment, hatred, and harmful intent
3. Correct speech – refraining from verbal misdeeds such as lying, divisive speech,
harsh speech, and senseless speech
4. Correct action – refraining from physical misdeeds such as killing, steeling, and
sexual misconduct
5. Correct livelihood – avoiding trades that directly or indirectly harm others, such as
selling slaves, weapons, animal for slaughter, intoxicants, or poisons
6. Correct effort – abandoning negative states of mind that have already arisen,
preventing negative states that have yet to arise, and sustaining positive states that
have already arisen
7. Correct mindfulness – awareness of body, feelings, thought, and phenomena (the
constituents of the existing world)
8. Correct concentration – single-mindedness
Clearly, Buddhism provides a way to understand what a good human being

ought to do to come to the fullness of human life.
With these examples of Indian thought, we can see that their ethical tradition
is not only a quest to articulate good action but a way to realize genuinely human
existence leading to the fullness of transcendence.
CHINESE PHILOSOPHY AND CONFUCIAN ETHICS
This section explores the fundamental ideas of Confucian

thought as a representative of Chinese ethical thought.
Confucian ethics is not the only or primary form of Chinese
ethics. There are Daoist and Legalist Chinese schools of thought
that contribute equally to the development of the traditional
Chinese people’s conception of the good.
Confucianism is the system of thought attributed to the

teacher Kongqui known in the West as Confucius. He was an
aspiring civil servant who lived his life as a teacher of
governance, ethics, and ritual, and was able to gather a
following around him. His main preoccupation was the possibility of building a
harmonious, ordered society. He believed that if people were able to internalize or
take as their own the ways of these virtuous people, then the state would be ordered
because it would reflect the order of Heaven. This is what he thought people: the way
to bear the order of heaven in one’s conduct.
33 | P a g e
There is one basic aspiration for any Confucian, that is, to be a person who has
the virtue of ren, to be a person who has internalized the way of Heaven. Heaven here
does not indicate the abode of God. It is the source of order and balance, the way
of life and nature, the way of justice and proper relationships. A person of ren knows
how to act properly or with propriety in all situations giving all situations and things their
due, but it is also about being human and the relationships between persons. Manuel
B. Dy explains that “Ren is made up of two characters, ren meaning human being
and erh meaning two, indicating thus that ren is the virtue that governs interpersonal
relationships. Ren is translated as “benevolence, kindness, human-heartedness,
humanity, and when Confucius was asked for its meaning, he said, “Ren is to love
human beings”
(Analects, 12:22).
To cultivate a greater realization of Ren, a state needs good education and

moral leadership. Good education for Kongqui meant an education of the heart and
virtues. This one could clearly receive from an education in the ancient rituals and
customs that leads to the attunement with the Dao. Moral leadership in a society is
particularly important because people need exemplars to live a life according to the
way. The sage realizes that in a corrupt society where the Dao is not practiced, there
will be disorder or people will only comply with the orders of the rulers because of fear.
However, if the ruler practice virtue and are people who have Ren, then the people
would be drawn to live according to the Dao because their social order is founded
on it. Also, exemplars show the people how to live according to the Dao, which in turn
inspires them to be virtuous.
As mentioned, there are other philosophies that respond to Confucianism, like

Daoism. Daoism puts more emphasis on the opening to the Dao that makes itself
present in the natural order rather than in the ways of the state, the family, and rulers.
Here we see the heart of these ancient Chinese ethical systems. They all seek
perfect attunement to the Dao in order to realize genuine humanity. Confucians spell
out a system of rituals and customs so that there is a frame that can guide people to
that profound attunement. Daoists offer a more complex path of mysticism that is
worth studying in depth because of its poetry and profundity. But to understand their
insight requires a lifetime of meditation and to understand the insights of Kongqui
requires some immersion into Li, a ritual.
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: Conduct an online interview with a Chinese acquaintance or a friend

about his/her practices of ancestor worship. Ask him/her about how it affects his/her
conception of good human behavior and if it helps him/her act ethically toward living
persons. Analyze his/her responses from what you understand to be the basis for
ethical behavior. (Kindly follow the format of interview below)
INTERVIEWER:
INTERVIEWEE (Chinese Name):
(Filipino Name, if there is):
34 | P a g e
AGE:
BIRTHPLACE: RESIDENTIAL PLACE:
RELIGION:
PRINCIPLE IN LIFE:
Kindly write their responses factually.

1. What is your own definition of religion? How does it affect you as a person?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
2. Do you have any practices of ancestral worship? What are these?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
3. Does it affect your conception of good human behavior? In what way?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
35 | P a g e
4. Does it help you act ethically toward living persons? How do you say so?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
Attach here your substantial evidence/proof of interview.
EVALUATE
REFERENCES
Prescribed Textbook
Pasco, Marc Oliver, Suarez, Fulluente V. and Rodriquez, Agustin Martin G.

(2018): Ethics C & E
Publishing Company
References
36 | P a g e
Agapay, Ramon R.”Ethics and the Filipino”, 2nd Edition (2008), National Book
Store, Mandaluyong City.
Bulaong, Oscar G., Jr, Calano, Mark Joseph T, and Lagliva Albert m, et.al
(2018), “Ethics Foundations of
Dooley, Mark (1999), “Questioning Ethics: Contemporary Debates in

Philosophy”, Cambridge University
Press
Grassin, Victor (1992), “Moral Reasoning: Ethical Theory and Some

Contemporary Moral problems, 2nd
Kant Immanuel (2007) Kant’s Critique of Practical reason and other Works on
the Theory of Ethics
Paul, Richard (2001). “The Miniature Guide of Understanding the Foundations

of Ethical Reasoning:
Ramos, Christine R. (2006), 2nd Ed. “Introduction to Philosophy” Rex

BookStore, Publishing Co.
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this.
37 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON 1: DISCOURSE ETHICS
WEEK: 5
SUB-TOPIC/S:
Most people assume that they know what is right and wrong. People can easily
judge right and wrong based on their common sense. For instance, it is almost an
instinct to know what is proper and improper dressing for men and women. No one
also has to think deeply about their judgment about steeling, killing, and the beating
of women and children. People have an instinctive and, most of the time, unshakable
moral judgment about these things.
For instance, anyone would have an opinion about wife beating. Some men
and women would immediately agree tat particular women deserve the beating
they get because they act against some norms such as talking flirtatiously to another
man or not preparing dinner on time. However, other people say that wife beating or
any form of beating is unacceptable and inexcusable. Some people understand wife
beating as a normal course of behavior that is a private matter between husband
and wife. Other people understand this as a crime that the state must intervene in.
These people hold their position to be a matter of common sense that does not need
to be reflected on or thought too much about.
What is discourse theory? Discourse theory is a theory that shows rational

people how to arrive at a shared conception of the good using reason alone. In this
case, though, reason meant the various forms of reason of people from different
cultures and systems of values. Discourse theory sought to articulate the basic
principles for arriving at a consensual understanding of the good so that people in a
shared world could live with each other. One of the most important philosophers of
discourse theory is Jurgen Habermas.
Habermas was born in Germany in 1929 and was formed as a thinker during
the post-World War II reconstruction. He was greatly influenced by the so-called
Frankfurt School of Thinkers who were influence by Marxian thought and were deeply
interested in social critique of the emerging modernity. Habermas, using his lenses as
a philosopher and a sociologist, was very interested in the democratization of modern
societies founded on communicative action and practice. One of his most important
contributions to philosophy is the analysis of the emergence of the public sphere and
38 | P a g e
civil society, as well as his articulation of discourse theory and discourse processes. He
was a prolific writer who analyzed how modern social configurations emerged and
how discursive systems democratized these.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. articulate why discourse ethics was a necessary development;
b. explain the principles of (U) and (D) as the foundations of discourse ethics;
and
c. discuss the principles of fair and just discourse and how these principles lead
to a shared we-perspective.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a. explain the importance of discourse ethics; and
b. distinguish situations that involved discourse ethics.
ENGAGE
three sentences).
a. How do you perceive a good act? Negative act?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
b. In what way can you say that a particular act is accepted by society?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
39 | P a g e
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: Enumerate at least three acceptable and unacceptable behaviors and
act in the following places. Share your view and perspective towards it in a concise
manner.
PLACES ACCEPTABLE UNACCEPTABLE
BEHAVIORS BEHAVIORS
1 1
2 2
3 3
1 1
2 2
3 3
1 1
2 2
3 3
EXPLAIN
40 | P a g e
COMPETING CONCEPTIONS OF THE GOOD
As discussed, the foundational idea that brought about the emergence of

discourse ethics is the idea that there are competing conceptions of the good in
modernized societies. This means that societies today are no longer homogeneous
and people have different forms of reason, including moral reasoning. In large
societies where the multiplicity of people’s needs to be accommodated, conflict and
injustice cannot be avoided.
Injustice is a particular danger in multicultural societies. Any society needs a

dominant system to guide free and autonomous people regarding what is
acceptable behavior. The dominant system also determines what is acceptable and
unacceptable behavior, what can be expected and what duties persons have to
each other and to society. And so it is easy to see how people’s lives can be
determined by the dominant ethical thinking about the good. It frees people to act
but it also limits people from realizing themselves if their conception of the good is
seen as contrary to the dominant system.
How does a dominant system come about? Often, dominant systems evolve.
When human beings come together, to live together and survive with each other,
ways of living together and doing things evolve. Everything evolves – from a shared
understanding of doing things, the sense of good and evil, right and wrong, proper
and improper also evolves.
Thus, dominant systems are generally useful guides for human behavior,
especially in community. And dominant systems are not generally problematic in
communities that share the same perspective on reality and where general conditions
for human dwelling remain unchanged. However, human communities in our time are
large in scale and quite cosmopolitan. People from all cultures come to share the
communities that they live in with others.
Discourse theory was conceived to provide a way of creating a system of

shared conceptions of the good in societies where there are competing conceptions
of the good. It is helpful because it can provide human beings with a basis for
accepting laws and ethical systems as valid for autonomous, rational beings.
“LEGISLATING” FOR AUTONOMOUS, RATIONAL BEINGS
The basic idea of discourse theory is that human beings are rational and
autonomous, and as such need to legislate for themselves their rules of behavior. This
means that they are free beings who usually act when these actions make sense to
them. There are many reasons why certain actions make sense to people. One reason
is practicality – doing something because it is beneficial to him/her. One also acts
because he/she is fearful or just avoiding negative consequences. In this, people
action is based on authority.
41 | P a g e
However, human beings are truly most free when they act because they are
convinced that an action is good and that it ought to be done. This is when it can be
said that people act according to their free will. In such instances, they have basically
willed themselves to do the good because they are usually following a maxim, a
universalizable ought which they have accepted as justified and reasonable. For
instance, one follows the law because it is good. It ought to be followed by human
beings who desire to realize themselves as good.
Habermas is one of the philosophers who has

helped sort out the principles for formulating
conceptions of the good in solidarity with others. The
need for the communal process is twofold. Firstly, human
beings act in a community. Norms of human behavior
have to be acceptable to all the community for people
to be able to act together and have an ordered society.
But more importantly, when they articulate a conception of the good, the persons in
dialogue are seeking the authenticity of what it means to be a human being.
This formulation certainly works as a basis for universalizable norms of human

behavior if people can agree that there is only one shared form of human rationality.
However, humanity has already seen that people from various backgrounds, cultures,
and societies have produced various forms of rationality with their own conception of
the good. More so, Habermas comes up with a modification of the categorical
imperative. He proposes the following condition for the acceptability of a norm:
“(U) All affected can accept the consequences and the side effects
its general observance can be anticipated to have for the satisfaction
of everyone’s interest (and these consequences are preferred to those
of known alternative possibilities for regulation.)”
In proposing this condition, Habermas is offering a more communal form of

norm formulation. Unlike Kant’s categorical imperative, where it is possible for norms
to be formulated by a single person imagining what is justifiable to all rational people,
(U) proposes that a norm can only be valid if all affected can accept the
consequences and their acceptability of the observance of norms. Thus, Habermas
comes up with the principle of discourse ethics:
“(D) Only those norms can claim to be valid that meet (or could meet)
with the approval of all affected in their capacity as participants in a
practical discourse.” Instead of the categorical imperative, Habermas
gives this principle for a process for norm creation.
Practical discourse means a “cooperative process of argumentation”. This

means that for a society to be able to articulate and be bound by universalizable
norms, there must exist processes where people can freely justify to each other why
they believe the norms of their actions are valid for all persons who are bound and
affected by it. The process also allows them to become aware that their own moral
beliefs are not as universal as they believe because people from other cultures have
various moral certainties.
42 | P a g e
In conclusion, for Habermas, the true value of cooperative discourse is that it
can lead to a shared opinion and will.
SHARED OPINION AND WILL-FORMATION
What is a shared opinion and will? People live in harmony and peace with each
other when, despite their competing conceptions of the good, they are able to
reconcile their difference and together articulate a conception of the good that they
can equally accept. Once they have a shared conception of the good, then they
can act together to realize this good in the world. Their shared conception of the
good becomes their shared norm for acting together.
Total consensual agreement on the good is almost impossible to realize. After

all, there are multiple perspectives in one’s society. However, the process itself of
cooperative discourse creates a certain process where people gain what we can
call, borrowing from Habermas, a we-perspective. A shared we-perspective is a
community’s shared horizon of understanding that is born from the free and fair
engagement of persons who bear different frames for understanding the good.
Because if people are engaged in institutions that allow for the free discourse of
rationalities, they will be engaged in a process of mutual justification. Creative
dialogue is really founded on mutual justification because here people come
together to explain to each other why they believe what they believe. If this process
is engaged in with openness and goodwill, then it can be a process of mutual
clarification and deepening. Because as they justify to each other what they
understand to be the good, the participants in creative discourse begin to understand
that not all conceptions of the good are acceptable to all people. And if the
participants are genuinely open, then they will ask themselves what the sources of
difference and disagreement are and how they can enrich their own perspective
about the good with his engagement with other conceptions of the good.
Thus, it is important for people of goodwill to engage in a process of mutual

justification and clarification, as much as they work for mutual understanding and
respect.
It is hoped that in these processes of communicative action, the participants

will become a we. The participants in constant engagement of goodwill eventually
become a we. Partly, because they are called on to listen to each other and try to
imagine where each person is coming from. Such imagination draws people from their
natural egotism to an actual opening to the other. The participants in constant
engagement of goodwill build camaraderie and have a deeper sense of fellow-
feeling because they begin to understand the good in shared ways or at least can
come to a consensual understanding of the good more easily because they have
explained to each other their positions and points of view. And so, when faced with
necessary decisions regarding the good, members of this community are a we who
are invested in the process of mutual understanding and consensus building.
Consensus building is different from making compromises. Here is the matrix of

their difference:
MAKING COMPROMISES CONCENSUS BUILDING
43 | P a g e
a. entails accepting the positions of
others because of practical needs,
a. all participants agree on given what
coercion, acquiescence, and or simple
they know and can know at the moment
recognition of the powerful persons
have over one’s self
b. means to surrender one’s own
b. building of a shared conception of the
judgment and autonomy in order to be
good that all persons involved can
able to reach an argument with
agree on
another.
c. agrees and accepts the offer for c. a position arrived at by a community
practical purposes to achieve a certain engaged in creative communication
goal practices
The processes for consensus building and creating a shared we-perspective

requires systems that ensure fairness so that all participants feel that they are part of a
process where the outcome reflects their accepted understanding of what is the best
position to take. In other words, the shared opinion on the good is the product of a
fair process where even people whose positions are not taken can accept the
dominant position because it is the most reasonable and makes most sense.
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: Study the pressing issues in your community or school. Choose a situation
where discourse ethics can be applied (one for community and one for school). Make
sure it is an issue that involves competing conceptions of the good such as tuition
fee increase or the community/ barangay-wide corruption amidst pandemic.
Also, and elucidate the following questions in a concise manner (maximum of eight
sentences per item). The rubric for evaluation is provided below. (Kindly follow the
format of activity below)
Kindly write your responses factually.

1. What is the current pressing issue in your school? In what way can you say that it is
a pressing issue? As a young individual, what can you suggest to the administrator in
order to provide solution to the said concern?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
44 | P a g e
2. What is the current pressing issue in your community? In what way can you say that
it is a pressing issue? As a young individual, what can you suggest to the administrator
in order to provide solution to the said concern?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________

3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
RELEVANCE
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
ARGUMENT
EVIDENCE/

answer.
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
CLARITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
TECHNI-

CALITY

OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
45 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Prescribed Textbook
Pasco, Marc Oliver, Suarez, Fulluente V. and Rodriquez, Agustin Martin G. (2018):
Ethics C & E
Publishing Company
References
Mandaluyong City.
Bulaong, Oscar G., Jr, Calano, Mark Joseph T, and Lagliva Albert m, et.al (2018),
“Ethics Foundations of
Dooley, Mark (1999), “Questioning Ethics: Contemporary Debates in Philosophy”,

Cambridge University
Press
Grassin, Victor (1992), “Moral Reasoning: Ethical Theory and Some Contemporary
Moral problems, 2nd
Kant Immanuel (2007) Kant’s Critique of Practical reason and other Works on the
Theory of Ethics
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this.
46 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON 1: SPECIAL TOPICS IN ETHICS
WEEK: 6
SUB-TOPIC/S:
On the previous chapters, you learned about General Ethics and its importance.
On the next chapters, you will learn about Ethics on different field such as Environment,
Business, Feminist and Biomedical. Why is ethics important to these fields? What
advantages do you get from learning the ethics on these different areas? How
important are these special ethics in your life as a student, citizen of your country and
as a human being?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the students can:

a. provide an overview of special topics in ethics – environmental, business,
gender equality, and biomedical; and
b. value the relevance of learning the ethics in various fields and profession.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a. analyze the videos and come up with an inforraphics;
b. retort formative questions;
ENGAGE
47 | P a g e
three sentences).
a. What are some of the important things/matters you have learned during the
midterm part?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
b. What are the things which you want to learn during this final term in relation to
ethics?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: Enumerate at least two general facts, acceptable considerations,

behaviors or act in the following fields or professions. Share your view and perspective
towards it in a concise manner.
ENVIRONMENTAL
BUSINESS FIELD FEMINIST FIELD BIOMEDICAL FIELD
FIELD
___________________ ___________________ ___________________

___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
48 | P a g e
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________
EXPLAIN
The great philosophers realized that the fullness of human existence is

dependent on man’s ability to live according to the principles that determine being
human. These philosophers also tried to show that human action and self-realization
are not purely automatic or mechanical. Although not absolutely free, people do act
based on choice and reflection. All the most human actions are determined by free
choices founded on thought. Thus, their ethics focused on articulating the most basic
principles that realize the good – or the actions that most realize what it means to be
a free being capable of thought and choice.
The ethical theories of particular philosophers earlier discussed are the most
influential in the field of ethics and they are also the most representative of what kind
of theories exist. Aristotle explains how human action is oriented toward the realization
of human happiness by realizing one’s telos. He shows that realizing a life toward one’s
telos entails habituation in human excellences so that virtue shaped human lives. St.
Thomas explains that there is an order of good that frames all being. Whatever it is, it
is determined by natural law and all human beings must act in a way that respects
and realizes this order. Kant shows a way of realizing the good by legislating it for one’s
self. He shows how people must legislate for themselves what is good action and what
is duty by using reason in determining the ought. Utilitarians show that a calculus of
greatest happiness for most of people determines the ought for human beings. For
any person who seriously seeks to realize the good in their lives, it is important to have
an understanding of these principles because they give a clear basis for deciding
what is the most humane of just actions.
This section explores how contemporary thinkers have responded to the

complex ethical questions that face modern people. This is brief survey of
49 | P a g e
contemporary ethical thinking about problems that are not new but have taken on a
particular character in contemporary times. For instance, most women have
experienced some form of oppression and there may have been moves toward
emancipation. However, the theorizing of that oppression and movements toward
the emancipation of women in a sustained and global manner is only a recent
phenomenon. There are many theories about why women are oppressed and how
they should be emancipated. The theories continue to develop and it is important for
students to know the basic issues and the foundational theories of feminism.
The same is true for ecology, medical ethics, business ethics, and other fields
featured here. It is the aim of this section to expose the student to the main currents
of the foundational theories in these fields, give them a perspective form which to
read these realities, and have enough basic theory with which to understand on their
own the evolving theories they may want to research on.
ELABORATE
Watch videos on the different special ethics:

Environmental Ethics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZiVIV67fclc
Business Ethics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IEmUag1ri6U
Feminist Ethics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4iaCpAFypq8
Biomedical Ethics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cY-7gwnWESk
Create a Venn Diagram of the 4 special ethics.
RUBRICS FOR VENN DIAGRAM:
50 | P a g e
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–

explanation is explanation is explanation is explanation is not Has no
REL directly relevant relevant to the quite relevant to clear and has a explanation
EV to the topic. Every topic. Most of the the topic. Only few very rough
AN detail points details contribute of the details transition of idea.
CE toward the topic. to the contribute to the The details are
development of development of not relevant to
the topic. the topic. the topic.
EVI 3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–

DE explanation shows explanation explanation shows explanation Has no
at least 9 shows at least 6 at 3 to 5 shows at most 2 explanation
NC
correct/valid to 8 correct/valid correct/valid correct/valid
E/ evidences to evidences to evidences to evidences to
AR support his/her support his/her support his/her support his/her
GU answer. answer. answer. answer.
ME
NT
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–

CL clear, has a very clear, has a good somewhat clear clear and has a explanation
good flow of transition, most of and has a rough very rough
ARI
discussion, every the details are transition from one transition of
TY detail is connected to idea to another. ideas.
connected to each other.
each other.
TE 2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–

CH explanation has explanation has 1 explanation has 3 explanation has Has no
no error in to 2 errors in to 4 errors in at least 5 errors in explanation
NI-
grammar, spelling, grammar, grammar, spelling, grammar,
CA and punctuations. spelling, and and punctuations. spelling, and
LIT punctuations. punctuations.
Y
OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
From the videos you have viewed about special ethics. Create an infographics about
the special ethics.
RUBRICS FOR INFOGRAPHICS
RUBRIC FOR INFOGRAPHIC

5 4 3 2 COMMEN
TS
All details Most details Few details No details to
Content support the main support main support main support the
idea idea, has accurate idea, lacks main idea,
51 | P a g e
appropriately; information for accurate information
information are almost all subject information is inaccurate
accurate and matter and the and does not and does not
detailed; and information clearly support the
information mostly adequate support visual’s
adequately and supportive of visual’s purpose
supports the visual’s purpose purpose
purpose of visual
Topic and title Most of the topic Topic and title Topic and
are clear and can and title are clear are difficult to titles are not
be easily and can easily be identify, the clearly
identified, the identified, the main idea is identified,
main idea is also main idea is not clearly there is no
clear and is appropriate to the stated, and main idea
Focus appropriate to topic, and most few identified,
the topic, and all illustrations illustrations and
illustrations compliment the compliment illustrations
compliment the purpose of the the purpose of do not
purpose of the visual the visual complement
visual the purpose
of the visual
The use of color, The use of color, The use of There is a
design, and design, and space color, design little attempt
space is is adequate and and space is to use color,
outstanding, the overall design inappropriate, design and
have an original is mostly the design space
and creative harmonious and lacks appropriatel
Visual design, and the pleasing creativity and y, the design
Appeal overall design is originality, is dull and
harmonious and the overall presentation
pleasing design lacks has sloppy
harmonious appearance
and the
presentation is
unpleasing
Free of Mostly free of Frequent Too frequent
grammatical grammatical grammatical grammatical
errors and the errors and the errors and the errors and
words used are words used are presentation is elements are
Mechani
legible and mostly legible illegible and distractive
cs
pertinent to the and pertinent to confusing and the use
topic the topic of
illustration is
ineffective
52 | P a g e
Lifted from: http://piktochart.com/
REFERENCES
ADDITIONAL
MATERIALS
Videos on Youtube:
Environmental Ethics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZiVIV67fclc
Business Ethics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IEmUag1ri6U
Feminist Ethics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4iaCpAFypq8
Biomedical Ethics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cY-7gwnWESk
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this
53 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON: ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
WEEK: 7
SUB-TOPIC/S: Various Approaches to Environmental Ethics
a. Peter Singer
b. Tom Regan
c. Paul Taylor and Biocentrism
d. Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic
The earth has been in existence for around 4.6 billion years. If one scales this time
to 46 years, humans have only been in existence for proportionately 4 hours and the
Industrial Revolution in this case would have started only a minute ago. In this short
period, we have found and invented ways to exploit the planet’s resources and have
driven our own species to the precipice of extinction. Various global environmental
problems and catastrophes, in scales unheard of before, have been popping up all
around the world brought about by global warming. People have caused the
extinction of innumerable species of plants and animals. We have polluted the seas
and pillaged the forests and mountains so much that animals have begun to exhibit
strange patterns of migration and erratic behavior. Large parcels of land in South and
Central America have been cleared and burned for the sake of cattle raising that
provides cheap beef for the West. In 136 years of monitoring the surface temperature
of earth, NASA reveals that 16 of the 17 warmest years recorded have all occurred
since 2001, with the exception of 1998. Dramatic increases in global temperatures
contribute to the melting of the polar ice caps, which then affects global climate
patterns, making it more difficult for climate scientists to predict the occurrence of
natural calamities such as typhoons and hurricanes. One can imagine a time when a
simple walk outside the house would be considered difficult, if not dangerous, due to
this increase in temperature. In these troubled times, one asks what sort of world will
be left for future generations of human beings.
The human population of the world is expected to nearly triple by the year
2100. As human beings continue to place their faith in the principles and ideas of
progress, the drive to consume simultaneously becomes the primary impetus for life.
The technological era has facilitated the human capacity to extract wealth and
resources from nature and has since allowed human beings to live with far more
convenience and comfort than ever before. Technology has allowed human beings
to live longer, but one may ask, what for? People seems to want a lot of things now
54 | P a g e
without knowing why they want them. It seems that utility has become an
afterthought, secondary to the compulsive need to have and possess. As people
accumulate more and more things and live longer (but with more diseases),
corporations continue to supply all their demands. As both production and
consumption increase, the environment is pushed to its limits, forced to provide
people more and more of their needs and wants.
This chapter contemplates the human person’s ethical relationship with the
natural environment. Starting from one’s duty to animals, the issues expand to one’s
duty towards all that have life and ultimately to the entire land and biotic community.
As the current generation of humanity faces more natural catastrophes that threaten
not only human life but all that exists on this planet, environmental ethics is now, more
than ever, crucial in adopting a way of life that is less destructive and more in tune
with one’s essential place in nature. Does one have moral duties toward natural
things?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, students can be able to:

a. recognize the value of environmental ethics especially in the context of the
contemporary era;
b.. discuss biocentric outlook on nature and compare and differentiate it to
the land ethics;
c. trace the philosophical foundations of ecological problems such as climate
change; and
d. exhibit an understanding of what it means to be a dweller in nature.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a. explain the different approaches to environmental ethics;
b. discuss specific environmental issue and point out the root cause of it; and
c. create a two-minute video advertisement concerning a specific
environmental issue.
ENGAGE
DIRECTIONS: Answer the following with a maximum of 3 sentences.
a. What can you say with what is happening around our nature before the pandemic?
Currently (at present experiencing the pandemic)? How about after this pandemic?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
55 | P a g e
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
b. What is the most positive thing that humans did to our nature? Negative?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
c. Were you able to attend a nature-related or environmental activity before? How

does it feel?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: You are tasked to watch two videos about environmental and nature-
related activities human beings have done to earth. The links for the video (from
YouTube.com) are found below. After which, share your view and perspective
towards it in a concise manner (maximum of three sentences).
(Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCDVN7DCzYE)
56 | P a g e
(Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G4H1N_yXBiA)
EXPLAIN
VARIOUS APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
PETER SINGER AND TOM REGAN ON THE ETHICAL TREATMENT OF ANIMALS
Peter Singer’s book, Animal Liberation (1975), is one of the most influential works
with respect to philosophies which tackle the ethical treatment of animals. Singer
advocates equal treatment for all sentient beings, from animals to human beings. He
argues that in the same way that some people are prejudiced against other people
that are different from them in terms of race, gender, or sexual orientation, they can
also be accused of unjust prejudice against animals. He observes that human beings
have been treating non-human animals in a radically different matter as they do
human beings like themselves. Singer names this behavior speciesism – the
unjustifiable privileging of one’s own species over another.
If a being cannot feel, then it has no interests, and therefore, to kick a dog is
morally wrong, while crashing a stone is not. Hence, if a being has the ability to suffer
or feel pain, then its species must not get in the way of its being included in the moral
sphere. All beings with the capacity to suffer equally should have an equal standing
from a moral perspective. On the other hand, Singer advocates vegetarianism and
stands against animal experimentation because these practices tend to inflict
suffering on non-human animals. In other words, if one’s action causes painful
consequences on sentient beings (both human and non-human), then Singer holds
that this act is morally wrong.
Tom Regan, a Kantian deontologist, has a different approach from Singer’s

utilitarian perspective. He holds that certain non-human animals have actual rights,
which make them morally considerable, and oddly enough it is not rationality that
makes them so for him. For him it is a being’s being an experiencing subject of a life
57 | P a g e
that makes it count as morally considerable. This means that a being’s capacity for
having:
… beliefs and desires; perception, memory, and a sense of the future,

including their own future; an emotional life together with feelings of
pleasure and pain; preference and welfare interests; the ability to
initiate action in pursuit of their desires and goals; a psychological
identity over time; and an individual welfare in the sense that their
experiential life fares well or ill for them, logically independently of their
utility for others and logically independently of their being the object of
anyone else’s interests.
If a being possesses these traits, then Regan says that such a subject of a life
has inherent value and should be treated as rights-holder. Hence, for instance, it is
wrong to kill animals for sport, experiment on them or use them in commercial
agriculture once it is proven that they do experience themselves as a subject of life.
More than anything, these two authors have shown that human beings should
not wantonly exercise their dominion over other species. At the very least, humans
must consider the amount of pain they may be inflicting on other sentient beings no
matter what the motivation. One must also try to see other animals as beings of
inherent value that deserve respect. In other words, if one is to be ethical in one’s
treatment of animals, one must continually come up with ways of lessening their
suffering or view them as beings that have inherent value and, therefore, deserve to
be in the sphere of moral liberation.
PAUL TAYLOR AND BIOCENTRISM
For Taylor, a biocentric outlook protects the rights of all living organisms,
including plants and microorganisms, to seek out their good and well-being. As a
teleological-center-of-life, an organism exists for the sake of furthering its existence by
undergoing changes and processes that improve its well-being. In other words, all
organisms move towards fulfilling their own ends. Insofar as plants need water and the
sun for nourishment, to willfully deny them these things would constitute a violation of
their rights as teleological-centers-of-life.
Hence, for Taylor, human beings much like their plant counterparts are non-
privileged members of the earth’s community of life. Humans, like other organisms are
contingent, biological beings that cannot absolutely guarantee their survival. Human
beings share a bond of kinship with other living organisms because it is the same
natural processes that brought all of us to life. In fact, human beings are relatively new
comers to the earth. The planet has been teeming with life way before humans came
into the scene, and yet, we act like we are the sole purpose and end of natural
evolutionary processes.
Unlike Taylor’s egalitarian outlook, Robin Attfield proposes a revision of

biocentrism by arguing for a hierarchical view, which holds that even if all beings that
have a good of their own possess inherent value, some beings, namely persons, have
greater intrinsic value. Hence, for Attfield, although all living organisms have inherent
value, some organisms may be considered as having more inherent worth than others.
58 | P a g e
ALDO LEOPOLD’S LAND ETHIC
Aldo Leopold, in his A Sand County Almanac, holds that “a thing is right when
it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is
wrong when it tends otherwise.” According to this view, the land itself, or what Leopold
calls the biotic community, is considered as the locus of intrinsic value. If Singer, Regan,
Taylor, and Attfield place value on individual beings, Leopold thinks that it is the very
ecosystem, including sand, rocks, minerals, and various natural processes that deserve
moral consideration. A concrete implication of this view is that the welfare of an
individual member of an ecosystem is not as valuable as the preservation of the
integrity of the whole biotic community. For example, if an invasive species of rats lays
waste to a vegetable farm which sustains the life of human beings and other species
of animals, then the land ethic permits the most humane way of extinguishing the rat
population in that area, bearing in mind that the good of the community is paramount
to that of an individual.
The land ethic places human existence in the context of the community as part
of an ecological whole. As such, human beings must not be viewed as conquerors
but as members of life-giving system. In this regard, Leopold holds that in order to
establish an ethical relationship with the land, humans must develop not only their
rational but also their emotional intelligence. Leopold suggests that if humans only
learn to think not just with their minds but with their hearts, then they cannot be grateful
and respectful of the community they belong to. Ecological conscience is the key in
appreciating one’s duties towards the environment. Ecological wholes deserve
proper respect, for everything that happens to human beings happen by virtue of the
life-sustaining processes inherent in the land itself.
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: Read an article about 5 of the world’s biggest environmental problems

at https://www.dw.com/en/five-of-the-worlds-biggest-environmental-problems/a-35915705.
Form a group of 3. Create a two-minute video advertisement concerning a specific
environmental issue. A sample video is provided for your reference. The link for the
video (from YouTube.com) and the rubric for evaluation are provided below.
59 | P a g e
(Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YrSLTAPsG8Y)

4 – The 3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0–
DEMONSTRATION OF CONCEPT
advertisement advertisement advertisement advertisement Has no

consists of a consists of most consists of some consists of some output
range of of the strategies of the strategies of the strategies
strategies (the (the use of (the use of (the use of
use of bandwagon, bandwagon, bandwagon,
bandwagon, testimonial, testimonial, name- testimonial,
testimonial, name-calling, calling, repetition, name-calling,
name-calling, repetition, and and glittering repetition, and
repetition, and glittering generality) glittering
glittering generality) highly somehow generality) not
generality) highly appropriate for appropriate for seemingly
appropriate for the target the target appropriate for
the target audience of the audience of the the target
audience of the advertisement. advertisement. audience of the
advertisement. advertisement.
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
ADVERTISEMENT
advertisement is advertisement is advertisement is advertisement is Has no

presented with a presented with a presented with a presented with output
CONCEPT
detailed, detailed nor simple concept either a simple

professional professional design, including concept design,
concept design, concept design, simple labelling. or labelling.
including including
detailed labelling.
labelling.
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
advertisement advertisement advertisement advertisement Has no
graphics used on graphics used on graphics used on graphics used output
ORIGINALITY
the campaign the campaign the campaign on the

reflect an reflect a degree somehow reflect campaign did
exceptional of student a degree of not reflect a
degree of creativity in their student creativity degree of
student creativity creation and/or in their creation student
in their creation display. and/or display. creativity in their
and/or display. creation and/or
display.
OVERALL SCORE:
60 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Ethics C & E
Publishing Company
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this
61 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON: ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
WEEK: 8
SUB-TOPIC/S: Various Approaches to Environmental Ethics
e. Kohak and the Human Being as a Dweller
f. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring
The earth has been in existence for around 4.6 billion years. If one scales this time
to 46 years, humans have only been in existence for proportionately 4 hours and the
Industrial Revolution in this case would have started only a minute ago. In this short
period, we have found and invented ways to exploit the planet’s resources and have
driven our own species to the precipice of extinction. Various global environmental
problems and catastrophes, in scales unheard of before, have been popping up all
around the world brought about by global warming. People have caused the
extinction of innumerable species of plants and animals. We have polluted the seas
and pillaged the forests and mountains so much that animals have begun to exhibit
strange patterns of migration and erratic behavior. Large parcels of land in South and
Central America have been cleared and burned for the sake of cattle raising that
provides cheap beef for the West. In 136 years of monitoring the surface temperature
of earth, NASA reveals that 16 of the 17 warmest years recorded have all occurred
since 2001, with the exception of 1998. Dramatic increases in global temperatures
contribute to the melting of the polar ice caps, which then affects global climate
patterns, making it more difficult for climate scientists to predict the occurrence of
natural calamities such as typhoons and hurricanes. One can imagine a time when a
simple walk outside the house would be considered difficult, if not dangerous, due to
this increase in temperature. In these troubled times, one asks what sort of world will
be left for future generations of human beings.
The human population of the world is expected to nearly triple by the year
2100. As human beings continue to place their faith in the principles and ideas of
progress, the drive to consume simultaneously becomes the primary impetus for life.
The technological era has facilitated the human capacity to extract wealth and
resources from nature and has since allowed human beings to live with far more
convenience and comfort than ever before. Technology has allowed human beings
to live longer, but one may ask, what for? People seems to want a lot of things now
62 | P a g e
without knowing why they want them. It seems that utility has become an
afterthought, secondary to the compulsive need to have and possess. As people
accumulate more and more things and live longer (but with more diseases),
corporations continue to supply all their demands. As both production and
consumption increase, the environment is pushed to its limits, forced to provide
people more and more of their needs and wants.
This chapter contemplates the human person’s ethical relationship with the
natural environment. Starting from one’s duty to animals, the issues expand to one’s
duty towards all that have life and ultimately to the entire land and biotic community.
As the current generation of humanity faces more natural catastrophes that threaten
not only human life but all that exists on this planet, environmental ethics is now, more
than ever, crucial in adopting a way of life that is less destructive and more in tune
with one’s essential place in nature. Does one have moral duties toward natural
things?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, students can be able to:

a. recognize the value of environmental ethics especially in the context of the
contemporary era;
b.. discuss biocentric outlook on nature and compare and differentiate it to
the land ethics;
c. trace the philosophical foundations of ecological problems such as climate
change; and
d. exhibit an understanding of what it means to be a dweller in nature.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a. explain the different approaches to environmental ethics;
b. discuss a specific environmental issue and point some root cause of it;
c. create a two-minute video advertisement concerning a specific
environmental
issue.
ENGAGE
DIRECTIONS: Answer the following with a maximum of 3 sentences.
a. What is common among the pictures?
63 | P a g e
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________
b. Why do you need to value the environment?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
c. What does it mean by we have a finite earth?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_________
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: You are tasked to watch a video about a date tree. After which, share
your view and perspective towards it in a concise manner (maximum of three
sentences).
64 | P a g e
(Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-TKylyVUQy0)
Answer the question:

What does the video imply?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
EXPLAIN
KOHAK AND THE HUMAN BEING AS A DWELLER
The thinker Erazim Kohak thinks it is the forgotten meaning of “culture” that is at
the root of the human being’s alienation from his/her environment. Culture is not
merely the collection of artifacts or the manifestation of a people’s taste and
appreciation of beauty. According to him, culture traces its etymological roots from
the Latin, cultus, which means the yielding of respect, honoring the sacredness of all
that is.
Kohak claims that it is only by understanding one’s essential and moral place
in nature as a dweller can one begin to mend the wounds of avarice inflicted upon
nature.
A dweller is someone who resides in a particular place and calls this place
his/her home. Someone who dwells is someone who recognizes the value inherent in
being afforded the comfort of being received and welcomed by a place. There is a
reason why the adage, “There is no place like home,” resonates with human
sentiment. A home nurtures one’s existence for free. A home does not ask for anything
other than respect. In showing respect for one’s home, one recognizes the value
inherent therein and cultivates its capacity to serve as a dwelling place not just for
oneself but for others as well. In other words, to dwell is to cultivate one’s place; it is to
take on the responsibility for the upkeep of that which embraces and sustains one’s
65 | P a g e
existence providing one with the sense of security and acceptance that may not be
found anywhere else.
The natural environment is the human being’s only home. It is a complex system
that allows one to explore his/her possibilities and sustain his/her needs even beyond
the biological kind. Culture becomes a thing instead of an act. Culture may be,
therefore, seen as the human person’s ethical task in nature. It is the way one ought
to dwell in nature. It is in fulfilling the demands of culture that one becomes a virtuous
dweller, thereby justifying one’s place in one’s home. In Aristotelian terms, to dwell is
to be an excellent human being with respect to the demands of one’s very
situatedness in the natural environment.
RACHEL CARSON’S SILENT SPRING
The rise of environment ethics may be traced back to the 1950s and 1960s, a
time when humanity palpably faced nuclear annihilation during the cold war era.
During this time, Rachel Carson’s best-selling book Silent Spring came out exposing
the accumulation of deadly pesticides and toxins throughout food webs. This book
brought the topic of ecology into the mainstream. In that book she writes, “The road
we have been travelling is deceptive easy, a smooth superhighway on which we
progress with great speed, but as it end lies disasters. The other for of the road – the
one less travelled by’—offers our last, our only chance to reach a destination that
assures the preservation of our earth.
- Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, London Hamish Hamilton, 1963, 226.
EVALUATE
QUIZ
DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which statements are correct?

I. Peter Singer and Tom Regan have the same view about animals. Animals have the
same equal rights as of humans.
II. Tom Regan said that animals are like humans that have desires, memories and
intelligence.
III. Both Peter Singer and Tom Regan would like to imply that animals also deserve
respect.
IV. Both Peter Singer and Tom Regan are both deontologist.
a. I and II
b. I and IV
c. II and III
d. I and IV
2. Which statements are true about Paul Taylor and Biocentrism?

I. Humans are superior beings.
66 | P a g e
II. Human beings share a kinship bond with other living organisms.
III. All organisms are centers of life in the sense that each is a unique individual pursuing
its own good in its own way.
a. I and II
b. II and III
c. I and III
d. All of the above
3. According to Tom Regan, what should be the goal of the animal rights?
a. reform the conditions of factory farming
b. abolition of commercial animal agriculture
c. abolition of factory farming and a return to traditional animal agriculture.
d. none of the above
4. Which is not true about Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic?

a. Human is the core of the whole biotic community.
b. Human existence is party of an ecological whole.
c. The land includes soil and water.
d. Land is a soil that provides food for plants and animals but is only a part of the
food
chain.
5. What statement tells about biocentrism?

a. Nature is beautiful and humans are responsible to take good care of all the
organisms.
b. Everything must go somewhere else. All actions that we do have
consequences.
c. All forms of life are important and should be treated equally.
d. Everything is connected to everything else.
Essay:
Answer the following questions. Limit your answer to 5 sentences.
1. How has human lost his/her sight as a dweller? Give 2 examples.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________
2. Why should we consider the land as an intrinsic value?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
67 | P a g e
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________
3. Compare and contrast Peter Singer and Tom Regan’s treatment of animals?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________
RUBRIC FOR THE ESSAY. EACH NUMBER IS WORTH 10 PTS.
RELEVANCE
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
explanation is explanation is explanation is explanation is
directly relevant to the quite relevant to not clear and has Has no
relevant to topic. Most of the topic. Only a a very rough explanation
the topic. the details few of the details transition of idea.
Every detail contribute to the contribute to the The details are
points development of development of not relevant to
toward the the topic. the topic. the topic.
topic.
EVIDENCE/
ARGUMENT 3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
explanation explanation explanation explanation
shows at shows at least 6 shows 3 to 5 shows at most 2 Has no
least 9 to 8 correct/valid correct/valid correct/valid explanation
correct/valid evidences to evidences to evidences to
evidences to support his/her support his/her support his/her
support answer. answer. answer.
his/her
answer.
68 | P a g e
CLARITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
explanation is explanation is explanation is explanation is
clear, has a clear, has a good somewhat clear not clear and has Has no
very good transition, most and has a rough a very rough explanation
flow of of the details are transition from transition of
discussion, connected to one idea to ideas.
every detail is each other. another.
connected to
each other.
TECHNI-CALITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
explanation explanation has 1 explanation has 3 explanation has
has no error to 2 errors in to 4 errors in at least 5 errors Has no
in grammar, grammar, grammar, in grammar, explanation
punctuations punctuations. punctuations. punctuations.
.
OVERALL SCORE:
REFERENCES
Ethics C & E Publishing Company
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this
69 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GED008

TOPIC OR LESSON 1: BUSINESS ETHICS
WEEK: 9
SUB-TOPIC/S:
The world of business is oftentimes seen as an amoral world. It is viewed as a

world solely driven by the profit-motive and business people are often portrayed as
ruthless, self-interested individuals. One might wonder how business and ethics can
co-exist. One of the principal tasks of ethics is to enforce the values of justice and
fairness in situations where there are grave abuses of power and a gross imbalance
and in the allocation of resources between people that are meant to share them.
Business, as an enterprise directed towards the accumulation and growth of profit, is
prone to many unethical practices, especially by those who occupy the seats of
power of corporations.
Some businesses unethical acts are the following:

a. engagement in illegal and unfair labor practices;
b. not paying their workers with its proper wages;
c. not offering and maintaining safe environment;
d. forcing employees to work overtime without extra pay;
e. engagement in fraud by selling products that do not perform as advertised;
f. entering on illegal contracts that bypass legal codes;
g. damaging the environment and human communities with waste from their
factories; and
h. involvement in creating monopolies and cartels that effectively control the
price of consumer goods.
All these have moral implications in that such practices violate the basic
principles of justice and fairness. A business reserves the right to seek profit, but it does
not have the right to profit through unethical, or at least illegal means.
However, some businesses do want to at least strike a balance between the

profit motive and ethics. These include the following acts:
a. ensuring that employees are paid fairly and enjoy the benefits of social
security and health insurance;
b. safeguarding that business processes abide by the legal environmental
codes of the community;
70 | P a g e
c. do not engage in false advertising; and
d. making certain that their profit margins are within acceptably fair bounds.
This chapter tries to shed light on how ethics may be effectively integrated to
a business’s operation. How can business fulfill its goal of making money without
compromising ethical responsibility? What are some normative models that can be
used in assessing a business’s moral development? Simply put, how can the profit
motive and ethics co-exist?
LEARNING OUTCOMES

a. examine the ethical dimension of business, its relevance and necessity;
b. compare the stockholder, stakeholder, and social contract normative
theories of business ethics;
c. recognize the implications of corporate social responsibility in running a
business; and
d. show understanding of the various stages or organizational moral
development.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a. Differentiate stockholder, stakeholder and social contract theories;
b. Explain the Stages of Organizational Moral Development;
c. Provide a list of companies with good reputation for being ethical in
running their business.
ENGAGE

three sentences).
a. Have you experienced managing, own or even co-own a business? What type of
business is this? What products are you selling?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
71 | P a g e
b. If you have no business background, and if someday given a chance, what
business do you want to engage in? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
c. What are the considerations you need to include when engaging in business?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: You are tasked to watch two videos about business/company ethics that
are relevant nowadays. The links for the video (from YouTube.com) are found below.
After which, share your view and perspective towards it in a concise manner
(maximum of three sentences).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eim0cIkMbSk&t=11s
BalitangHali: 2,000 Chinese POGO Workers na may criminal record sa China,
pina-deport
72 | P a g e
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0vMokR-0OA&t=204s
24 Oras: POGO, papayagan na ulit magbukas sa ilang kondisyon.
EXPLAIN
NORMATIVE THEORIES OF BUSINESS ETHICS
It is not common to hear the criticism that those who theorize and teach
business ethics have little or no experience in the actual practice of business. Some
argue that deontology, virtue ethics, and consequentialist morals are esoteric
philosophical theories that are inapplicable to real-life business situations. Some say
that if one is fully engaged in the workings of the business world, one realizes that it is
not a world of abstraction but a world of simple and practical problem-solving. In this
case, one realizes that business ethics, if it is reliably applicable to such a context, must
negotiate a way of speaking the language of business community. The following is a
brief explicitation of the three basic normative theories in business ethics mainly
derived from an article by John Hasnas.
THE STOCKHOLDER THEORY
This theory states that “businesses are merely arrangements by which one
group of people, the stockholders, advance capital to another group, the managers,
to be used to realize specified ends and for which the stockholders receive an
ownership interest in the venture.” In this theory, it is the people who invested money
in the company that serve as the main source of business decisions. Managers act as
agents that serve at the pleasure of investors. They are not allowed to divert funds
away from the business plan that has been expressly approved by the stockholders.
73 | P a g e
In other words, the stockholders have the final say in everything that happens in the
business.
THE STAKEHOLDER THEORY
This theory “holds that the management’s fundamental obligation is not to

maximize the firm’s financial success but to ensure its survival by balancing the
conflicting claims of multiple stakeholders. A stakeholder is defined as any group or
individual that stands to benefit or suffer from the decisions made by a corporation.
This obligation, according to Hasnas, is based on the two principles of stakeholder
management:
1. Principle of corporate legitimacy. The corporation should be managed for
the benefit of its stakeholders: its customers, suppliers, owners, employees, and the
local communities. The rights of these groups must be ensured, and further, the groups
must participate, in some sense, in decisions that substantially affect their welfare.
2. Stakeholder fiduciary principle. Management bears a fiduciary relationship
to stakeholders and to the corporation as an abstract entity. It must act in the interest
of the corporation to ensure the survival of the firm safeguarding the long-term stakes
of each group.
This principle may be derived from the Kantian principle of treating people not
merely as means but as ends as well. According to the stakeholder theory,
stakeholders’ interest must be properly represented in business decisions. Each
stakeholder must be afforded in a fair say in company policies and decisions. In other
words, the management’s task is to manage the business such that various interests
are balanced in an optimal way.
THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
This normative theory states that “all businesses are ethically obligated to
enhance the welfare of society by satisfying consumer and employee interests
without violating any of the general canons of justice.” This theory posits an implicit
agreement between businesses and society that the latter only tolerates the
existence and operation of the former under the supposition that it can benefit from
it. In the same manner, the social contract theory imagines a scenario where there
are no formed businesses, but only individual producers, and then proceeds to ask
what conditions must be met before businesses are allowed to be formed.
The existence of businesses can be an enabling factor in a citizenry’s economic

life by inducing new possibilities of interactions that generate opportunities for
expanding earning capacities and integrating leisure time to an otherwise tight
working schedule. If businesses conduct their affairs fairly, employees stand to benefit
from the stability provided by a regular salary. So long as companies respect workers’
labor rights, the latter’s productivity may be channeled to various endeavors that
essentially support the economic apparatuses of society. Within the ambit of justice
and fairness, society stands to gain a lot from the existence of various business
enterprise.
REIDENBACH AND ROBIN’S CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF CORPORATE MORAL

DEVELOPMENT
74 | P a g e
R. Eric Reidenbach and Donald P. Robin argue that there are certain
organizational behaviors that exhibit a business’ level of moral development. While it
is true that profit is the main goal of any business enterprise, society demands that
corporations also try to contribute to certain social goals. The following classificatory
variables are used for Reidenbach and Robin’s model of corporate moral
development: “management philosophy and attitudes, evidence of ethical values
manifested in the business’s culture, and the existence and proliferation of
organizational cultural ethics and artifacts (codes, ombudsmen, reward systems).
There are five stages that comprise the model: amoral, legalistic, responsive,
emerging ethical, and ethical. The model is inspired by Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages
of Moral Development. Reidenbach and Robin assert that a direct application of
Kohlberg’s model is not possible since individuals do not develop in the same manner
as organizations. Briefly, Kohlberg’s model is as follows:
Level 1: Pre-conventional morality

Stage 1: Obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment
Stage 2: Individual interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards
Level 2: Conventional morality

Stage 1: Interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval
Stage 2: Authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming social
order
Level 3: Post-conventional morality

Stage 1: Social Contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and
individual rights
Stage 2: Universal Ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles
Corporate moral development is not necessarily a continuous process. As new

management or new mergers occur, an organization experiences a sudden change
in ethical progression and regression in its moral development.
THE STAGES OF ORGANIZATIONAL MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1: The amoral organization

This type of organization is defined by a “winning at any cost” attitude. For this
type of organization, the only social responsibility of a business is to make profit. As
Reidenbach and Robin say, “Top management rules by power and authority and
employees respond by acquiescing to that authority and power through a reward
system which reports a ‘go along’ type of behavior.” Those who obey the rules without
question are rewarded, while those who dare to question management are ultimately
punished by expulsion from the organization. Reidenbach and Robin add, “The
ethical culture of a stage one organization can be summed up in the ideas that ‘They
will never know,’ ‘Everybody does it,’ ‘We will not get caught,’ and ‘There is no way
anyone will ever find out.” From this perspective, the owners and investors are the
most important stakeholders.
Stage 2: The legalistic corporation
75 | P a g e
Firms in stage two “exhibit compliance with the letter of the law as opposed by
the spirit of the law.” An organization in this state of moral development exhibits a
respect for laws, codes, and regulations. From this perspective, what is legal
corresponds to what is right. While it shares the principality of the profit motive with
stage one, stage two is concerned with the legality of the way by which profit is
gained.
Stage 3: The responsive corporation

This type of corporation begins to acquire values other than profitability and
legality. In other words, these types of corporations are inclined to give in to societal
demands and, therefore, realize that business has an obligation to operate with
society in mind. As Reidenbach and Robin clarify, “Concern for other stakeholders
begins to manifest itself as managements begin to realize the importance of
employees and the community in which they operate.
Stage 4: The emergent ethical organization

This type of organization actively seeks greater balance between profit and
ethics. It recognizes the existence of a social contract between business and society.
Various instruments are designed to make sure that the firm and its various agents
conduct business ethically. These are handbooks, policy statements, committees,
ombudsmen, and ethics program directors that seek to manage and ethically
account for the conduct of the organization with respect to its various responsibilities
to different stakeholders. Nonetheless, there is a real effort in making sure that profits
are earned morally.
Stage 5: The ethical organization

Reidenbach and Robin say that they do not know of any business organization
that has reached this stage of corporate moral development. They describe this stage
as follows:
Stage five behavior is characterized by an organization-wide
acceptance of a common set of ethical values that permeates the
organization’s culture. These core values guide the everyday behavior
of an individual’s actions. Decisions are made based on the inherent
justness and fairness of the decision as well as the profitability of the
decision. In this sense, there is a balance between concerns for profits
and ethics. Employees are rewarded for walking away from actions in
which the ethical position of the organization would be compromised.
The main difference between stage four and stage five is the level of
dedication the company exhibits in funneling its resources towards the goal of making
the firm truly ethical in all aspects.
These five stages illustrate how corporations vary in their understanding and
appreciation of ethics and its relation to the profit motive. As firms progress up the
stages, ethics becomes more integrated in their operations. The stages help one
understand how different companies try to inculcate ethical behavior in their various
dealings with various stakeholders. As the profit motive becomes more balanced with
the obligation to be ethical, a company is shown to be less concerned with itself and,
therefore, more attentive to its social obligations.
76 | P a g e
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: Conduct a research on a company that has a positive and remarkable

reputation for running a business. Also, come up with a list of their practices that exhibit
their advanced organizational moral development. (Kindly follow the format of
activity below.)
ABOUT THE COMPANY/BUSINESS

NAME OF COMPANY:
BUSINESS TYPE:
OWNER:
YEAR ESTABLISHED/FOUNDED:
NUMBER OF BRANCHES, if there is:
NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES:
SPECIAL ACHIEVEMENT OF THE COMPANY (please enumerate):
Kindly answer the questions that follow.

1. What do you like most about this company/business? Explain.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
Attach here your substantial evidence/proof of their remarkable reputation. (It can
be newspaper news and pictures that strengthen their standing.)
RUBRICS FOR THE RESEARCH:

77 | P a g e
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
REL directly relevant relevant to the quite relevant to clear and has a explanation
EV to the topic. Every topic. Most of the the topic. Only few very rough
AN detail points details contribute of the details transition of idea.
CE toward the topic. to the contribute to the The details are
development of development of not relevant to
the topic. the topic. the topic.
EVI 3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–

DE explanation shows explanation explanation shows explanation Has no
at least 9 shows at least 6 at 3 to 5 shows at most 2 explanation
NC
correct/valid to 8 correct/valid correct/valid correct/valid
E/ evidences to evidences to evidences to evidences to
AR support his/her support his/her support his/her support his/her
GU answer. answer. answer. answer.
ME
NT
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–

CL clear, has a very clear, has a good somewhat clear clear and has a explanation
good flow of transition, most of and has a rough very rough
ARI
discussion, every the details are transition from one transition of
TY detail is connected to idea to another. ideas.
connected to each other.
each other.
TE 2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–

CH explanation has explanation has 1 explanation has 3 explanation has Has no
no error in to 2 errors in to 4 errors in at least 5 errors in explanation
NI-
grammar, spelling, grammar, grammar, spelling, grammar,
CA and punctuations. spelling, and and punctuations. spelling, and
LIT punctuations. punctuations.
Y
OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
78 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Prepared by:

NOTE:
This is module is protected by copyright. Please contact Mr. Nes De Asis if your wanted
to reproduce this
79 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON 1: THE QUESTION OF WOMEN AND THEIR EMANCIPATION
WEEK: 10
SUB-TOPIC/S:
A woman in almost any part of the world is faced with challenges that make it
difficult for her to realize her potential as a person.
In obviously violent or subtle ways, women are victims of unequal treatment in

much of the world. No matter how much they work, they are paid less. No matter how
talented they are, they are less likely to be hired than their male counterparts. They
are the overwhelming victims of sexual violence. Many forms of modern slavery are
reserved for women. This is the reason why feminism as a framework for thinking about
justice and fairness is necessary. Because of the forms of violence and injustice that
are particular to women, a specific form of ethical theory has to be developed.
This feminist ethical theory is a theory born from the realization that women
have a different set of issues that male-dominated ethical theories cannot fully
address. Although traditional ethics could explain the injustice of the violence of
trafficking and rape, it does not easily understand the violence of discrimination and
marginalization. Thus, a woman’s lens is needed to explain why certain social
structures are ethically wrong.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

a. explain the necessity of feminism;
b. discuss and articulate the idea that women’s rights are human rights; and
c. recognize how women’s rights are abused and articulate possible paths to
emancipation and equality
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
80 | P a g e
a. explain women’s rights
b. analyze a movie about women’s rights and characters.
ENGAGE

three sentences).
a. Do you respect women the same with men?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
b. What are the stereotypes to women/men that you want to break?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
c. Do you believe that what things men can do, women can too?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
EXPLORE
DIRECTIONS: Observe the three pictures below which have something to do with
women emancipation. Also, consider these persons’ view and stand to women’s
rights. Share your view and perspective towards it in a concise manner (maximum of
two sentences).
81 | P a g e
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
__________________________ __________________________
__________________________
EXPLAIN
WHY FEMINIST ETHICS?
In this section, we reflect on the questions posed by feminist ethics. It is a branch

of ethical thinking framed by women to confront the challenges women face. It is a
theory of the good and justice that puts into focus the abuses and injustices that
women have to suffer and theorizes why these injustices exist and how we can
address them. But more that just a theory about injustices and abuses and how to
address these, feminist theory presents a way of theorizing the good from the
perspective of women. This is an important task because academic ethics is defined
82 | P a g e
by a very male perspective. This quote best summarizes the importance of women’s
ethics.
To a large extent, feminist ethical theory can be understood as both a

response to, and a movement against, a historical tradition of more
abstract, universalist, ethical theories such as utilitarianism, deontology,
and in certain respects, contractarianism and virtue theory, which tend
to view the moral agent either as an autonomous, rational actor,
deliberating out of a calculus of utility or duty, or else as an often
disembodied and decontextualized ideal decision-maker, unburdened
by the non-ideal constraints of luck (moral and otherwise),
circumstance, or capability (Nagel 1979; Brennan 1999; Nussbaum
2000). Specifically, feminist ethics contend that this top-down, juridical,
principalist theorizing has largely neglected the centrality of physical,
social, and psychological situatedness, power differentials, and,
importantly, the voices of women whose lived experiences have simply
not been part of any ongoing moral debates (Young 2005; Jaggar 1992;
Walker 1997; Lindemann Nelson 2001; Held 1990; Tessman 2005). As
Alison Jaggar argues, traditional ethics emphasizes male-centered
issues of the public and the abstract while dismissing the private and the
situated. As a result, women and “women’s issues” that have to do with
care, interdependent relationships, community, partiality, and the
emotions, are decentered and relegated to the margins of serious
intellectual (and specifically philosophical) inquiry (Tong and Williams
2014; Jaggar 1992)
This quote is worth reflecting on.
EQUALITY AND DISCRIMINATION
The primary concern of feminist ethics is the question of equality. For as long as
the dominant world civilizations have existed, women have been treated as the lesser
sex that has to suffer abuse and discrimination. This takes on many forms, the most
pervasive of which are sexual exploitation, confinement to only a few tasks in society
which are not equally compensated, the prevention from taking on significant
leadership roles in the family and the public sphere, and the expectation to rear
children while often bearing the burden of providing their sustenance. This is not to
mention the various forms of violence that women have to contend with such as
domestic abuse, rape, and fatal neglect. There are truly some things women suffer
just because they are women. For instance, women are almost always the victim of
rape; widows are exiled or burned, and female children are neglected to die or killed
just because they are female.
Why is the inequality of women accepted and propagated by society?

Feminist thinkers have shown that the acceptance of women’s inequality lies in how
the discrimination is inscribed in culture and social structures. For instance,
circumcision is accepted because certain societies value the fidelity of women to
their husbands. This has much to do with the passing of property to one’s own heirs. In
a patriarchal society where the ownership of land is assigned to the men, they have
to be sure that the inheritors of their land are males of their own genetic line.
83 | P a g e
Thus, a very important theme of feminist ethics is to emancipate women from
social structures that keep them oppressed and unequal. The struggle for justice and
liberation has focused on certain themes which reflect the different aspects of
emancipation for women.
The first phase of their struggle for equal rights, which took the form of the
suffragette movement. Here, women demanded for the equal right to vote, and later
expanded to the demand for equal rights in various aspects of social life. This phase
began around the turn of the 19th century until about the latter part of the 20th century.
This was the time when women were able to participate in different occupations and
proved they were as capable as men. After women had institutionalized the respect
for their rights, they need focused their work on the analysis of the social structures that
oppressed them.
It was also at this time that Western women discovered that their own
aggressive definition of what it meant to be women and what women should want
was oppressive to non-Western women. Women from Asia and Africa asserted that
their own analysis of how their own definition of womanhood was different but equal
to that of Western women. And so, the voices of more women were emancipated
and different ways of being a woman were celebrated and supported. Filipina
feminists at this time explored how their traditional cultures should be embraced for
how they celebrated the centrality of women’s roles as nurturers and healers, as much
as they celebrated their role as warriors and community leaders. There are numerous
examples of women leaders such as Gabriela Silang, Gregoria de Jesus, and the
countless babaylan who were the precursors of the Filipina activists, development
workers, politicians, and educators of today.
HOW WE CAN WORK TOWARD EMANCIPATION
Today, the women’s emancipation movement is an ongoing project with

women continuing the struggle for equality while discovering various and creative
ways of being a woman. The aims of the movement continue to evolve with more
and more women exploring social realities and exposing how economic,
communication, governance, and cultural systems oppress women. As before,
feminists of all genders explore how women can continue to push against boundaries
of oppression. Despite this, it is still clear that women are not fully equal in our shared
world. Thus, we must ask ourselves how to think about the good with a mind to realize
gender equality and genuine liberation.
There are many areas to consider when thinking about doing the good using
a woman’s ethical perspective. The first, of course, is to protect the rights of women.
As women activists rightly remind us, women’s rights are human rights. This means that
the first thing we must do with regard to the liberation of women is to ensure that all
their rights are preserved. The right to life, the right to the means of survival, the right
to education, the right to bodily integrity, the right to access health care – these are
all very basic rights. However, these rights are easily violated for women.
Other than their basic human rights, there are rights that need special attention
and protection.
84 | P a g e
Violence against women is another special area of concern.
Finally it is important to engage in critical thinking without regard to women’s

issues. Every society needs to explore and reflect on itself. Why are they so prone to
do violence against their women? What function does the oppression of women fulfill?
Why is it necessary? Usually, the practices that propagate violence against women
are rooted in some practice that was useful for a society. And so we must ask why is it
necessary to circumcise women. How does it help to build those civilizations that do?
Why do we like to keep women from active participation in the governance of the
state? Why is prostitution necessary? What functions does it realize? We need to find
this out and critically examine if these practices serve anything but the suppression of
more than half of the world’s population.
Another thing to do is analyze social institutions and practices to expose the

violence they commit against women. Some institutions seem benign but actually
propagate violence.
Human beings must engage in a dialogue of equals where modern and

economically powerful do not equate to more advanced and liberated and
traditional and non-Western do not amount to enslaved and impoverished. Women
and men must come together and allow the meeting of their horizons to show each
other how their practices have destructive and creative potentials for the liberation
of women.
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: As discussed above, the women and their emancipation have given a
huge importance in relation to ethics. With this, search and watch a movie in which
women’s rights, characters, and careers are exemplified and elucidate the following
questions in a concise manner (maximum of eight sentences). The rubric for
evaluation is provided below.
I. Movie Information (This part is not included in grading but needs to be filled out.)
a. Movie Title: ____________________________________
b. Main Star/s: ____________________________________
c. Genre: ____________________________________
d. Release (year): ____________________________________
e. Length (time): ____________________________________
II. Brief description of the movie/story (This part is not included in grading but needs to
be filled out.)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
85 | P a g e
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
III. Questions
1. Why did you choose this movie? In which part/s of the movie do you think has/have
portrayed women empowerment?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
2. Which type/s of screenplay ending did the movie present (book end, narrator, twist,
expected, moral, dubious moral, emotional, anticipation, gag, symbolic, confused,
quote or deleted scene? As a viewer, if given a chance to change the movie ending,
what could it possibly be?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______

3 – The movie 2 – The movie 1 – The movie 0.5 – The movie 0–
analyzation is analyzation is analyzation is analyzation is Has no
ANALYSIS
undeniably undeniably quite accurate. not accurate. explanation

accurate. Every accurate. Most Only few of the The details are
detail points of the details details contribute not relevant to
toward the topic. contribute to the to the the topic.
development of development of
the topic. the topic.
86 | P a g e
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
ARGUMENT
EVIDENCE/
answer.
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
CLARITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
TECHNI-

CALITY

OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
REFERENCES
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this
87 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON 1: BIOMEDICAL ETHICS
WEEK: 11
SUB-TOPIC/S:
Jean Vanier, the founder of L’Arche (a community that is inclusive of people with
mental disabilities), reported in his 2008 book Living Gently in a Violent World that a
few years hence, people with down syndrome may not be born because they would
have been aborted. Chorionic villus sampling later fulfilled Vanier’s prediction.
National health services of European nations such as France, Denmark, and United
Kingdom recommend CVS as a form of prenatal testing done around 10 to 12 weeks
of pregnancy. It is a sampling of placental tissue, chorionic villus, that allows the
detection of birth defects, genetic diseases and other disorders in the fetus. In 2014,
693 abortions (roughly 90 percent of those who tested positively in CVS) was carried
out in the United Kingdom. John, a member of L’Arche with Down syndrome puts it,
“That doesn’t make us feel very welcome, does it?”
Ethics can hardly keep up with the fast and confusing advancement in the
fields of genetics, medicine, and pharmacology. An introductory book of ethics for
college students cannot cover all the nuanced applications of the theories and
available perspectives. The limitations can only permit learners an introductory but
sound guide to navigate through these current and emerging developments. For such
purposes “personalist biomedical ethics” is suggested.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. articulate what a moral dilemma is in the medical field;
b. give examples of possible medical moral dilemmas; and
c. apply at least one philosopher’s theory to a particular issue in medical ethics.
88 | P a g e
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
a. explain what biomedical ethics is,
b. do a movie analysis of the movie Unplanned.
ENGAGE

three sentences).
a. Are words abortion, organ trafficking and euthanasia, familiar to you? Define it.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
b. Are you in favor of the use of contraceptives or medical operations in order to

discontinue the growth of population? Why or why not?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
EXPLORE
“Organ Trafficking and Human Needs”
89 | P a g e
The many developments in the past few decades in both the life sciences and
in biotechnology have given rise to the recognition of a host of ethical issues that are
concerned with the physical survival and welfare of living creatures including, of
course, human beings. These ethical discussions have been gathered under the name
of bioethics, a rapidly emerging field of applied ethics. Both medical ethics and
animal ethics can actually be classified as subfields within the larger sphere of
bioethics, while environmental ethics can have a lot of concerns that are tied up with
bioethics. Given that animal ethics, in the form of the topic of animal rights, has
already been covered and environmental ethics as well, let us now concentrate on
medical ethics. This field focuses on moral issues in medical practice and research.
One such issue that has given rise to much debate is the phenomenon of organ
trafficking, which is defined as the trade in human organs (whether from living or
nonliving people) for the purpose of transplantation. The trade can happen through
the sale of organs or through any other means including coercive force.
In 2009, the Philippine government halted a planned kidney transplant from a

Filipina wife to her Saudi Arabian husband. It was discovered that the couple had only
been married for a short time and that the man did not know how to speak in English
or Filipino, while the wife could not speak Arabic – a situation that raised a lot of
suspicion on the part of the authorities. The government’s allegation was that the
planned transplant was not really an organ donation, which Philippine law allows, but
was, in actuality, a case of an organ sale, which is tantamount to organ trafficking
prohibited by law. One possible reason for the woman’s consent to this alleged deal
is the widespread poverty among Filipinos. Although organ trafficking is patently illegal
in the Philippines and in many other nations, it continues to be a tempting possibility,
especially for impoverished individuals, to earn some much needed cash. Most
people are born with two kidneys, and an individual can live on a single kidney.
Supposing that the transplant will be done under strict medical supervision, that there
is a shortage of available kidney donors, and setting aside the clear illegal status of
organ trafficking, is it really wrong for a person in great financial need to sell one of
her kidneys to someone who requires a transplant to survive and who is willing and
able to offer a generous amount of cash?
EXPLAIN
PERSONALIST BIOMEDICAL CARE
At the turn of the 20th century, personalist theories emerged as a reaction to

perceived depersonalization caused by the advent of science, technology, and
totalistic systems in philosophy. Though different key thinkers give their own versions of
personalism, a common affirmation is the centrality of the human person for
philosophical thought. It posits the value of personhood as a center of life, experience,
90 | P a g e
decisions, and actions. Biomedical ethics has a stable grounding if it holds the
inviolable, inherent, and intrinsic value of the person, as well as his/her relational and
communitarian realities. To better guide the introduction to such Personalist
Biomedical Ethics, the birth, well-being, and death suitable for the human person are
covered.
ECTOPIC PREGNANCY AND THE PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT
James Keenan reported a discussion on the question of ectopic pregnancy as

early as 1893. An interesting point was raised in the discussion of the theologian
named Aloysius Sabbetti (1839-1898). If the fetus is said to be where it should not be in
the case of ectopic pregnancy (i.e., outside the womb and is threatening the life of
the mother, can it be treated as an unjust aggressor? A more precise nuanced is even
arrived at by presenting it as a “materially unjust aggressor,” that is, even without
intention simply because in the wrong place, the immature fetus is a grave threat to
the life of the mother. Given such incident, is abortion of the fetus acceptable?
Ethicist who belong to the Catholic communion were given an instruction

clearly defining that it is a matter of faith for this particular Church that it is not allowed
to use the category of unjust aggressor, formal or material in questions involving life.
Abortion is also defined as an intrinsic evil act that is unacceptable in any direct and
intended form as a human action. The case then of ectopic pregnancy occasions
the principle of double effect.
This principle is applied in the case of an action that is seen to have two results:
one is known as good and hence that which we can only intend; another
simultaneous effect is bad, however, but since we don’t intentionally do it for that
purpose, this can be considered as a mere by-product of the action. The bad effect
is willed to have not occurred at all only if such an instance is possible.
If personalist ethics is applied to biomedical issues, in this instance, the option

that uphold the value of the fetus as that who “ought to be treated as a person”
should be maintained. The same can be said here; a justified self-defense may push
one to erringly shun that “the fetus ought to be treated as a person.”
CHILD BEARING ENHANCEMENTS, SELF-IMPROVEMENT, AND GENERAL WELL-BEING
The applications in the field of medicine have put forward wonders in the area
of enhancement of human beings. Those who had difficulty in having children, for
instance, are now given options to better improve their chances of conceiving a
child. The Human Genome Project has promised personally designed drugs that can
better improve one’s health or recovery from sickness. Given the advancement of
human genetic mapping, predispositions to particular sicknesses and syndromes can
be detected earliest (as discussed above even during the first 10 to 12 weeks of
pregnancy). While these breakthroughs and applications are not evil in themselves,
personalist ethics provide us with a larger view in considering the relational and
communitarian dimensions of human person.
91 | P a g e
The cost of child-bearing techniques until now is exorbitantly high. While this
may not be an issue for those who can afford them, the number of adoptees and
children born in poor families deserve to also be considered in the decision.
Another issue to be considered in the present state of the child-bearing

enhancements has to do with the so-called “spares.” Present techniques of child-
conceiving enhancements involve the harvesting of egg cells from the mother.
Other self-enhancements and general well-being improvements that are now

available to those who can afford them ought to be evaluated also along the lines
of personalist ethics. While personal improvements such as the intake of glutathione
for aesthetic improvements can hardly be branded as evil or bad, ethicists warn of
the objectification that is peddled by such “self-actualization” products.
Other products or techniques (including surgery) that sell self-enhancements

should be countered or balanced with an appeal to personal growth that is not only
physical. Bodily aesthetic or self-actualization directions ought to be inclusive of
interior values such as kindness, solidarity, and compassion. While a moneyed person
may have access to such services or products, justice and the traditional concept of
common good demand a mitigation (individual as well as communal evaluation) of
these commercialized self-enhancements.
EXTRAORDINARY MEANS, EUTHANASIA, AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF A LIVING WILL
A brief examination of end of life ethical issues continues the view that is
consistently personalist in orientation.
Euthanasia or mercy-killing is the direct murder of another human being and is

thus unacceptable at this point in the Philippines. The value given to persons is inherent
and inviolable for personalist ethics that it excludes the direct and intentional killing of
a non-aggressor. End of life care ought to be improved to ensure the dignified dying
that is worthy of human persons. Pain management and hospice care, particularly for
those who suffer, should be explained clearly, made reachable and available,
especially for the poor in this country.
A distinction, however, should be made between euthanasia and the

termination of “extraordinary means” that simply allow the process of dying to take its
course. The stoppage of extraordinary means, without which the sick person is simply
allowed to have a dignified death, is not passive euthanasia. Extraordinary means are
additional or artificial ways that extend the life of a person, e.g., respirator. If the
chances of recovering are deemed by doctors as slim and the family no longer has
the means to continue the costly use of these means, taking away the respirator does
not mean the sick person who can no longer breathe on his own. The process of death
in this instance, is permitted to follow its course, and the person is simply allowed to go
through the process of a dignified death.
92 | P a g e
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: You are tasked to watch the movie, “Unplanned,” in which child-bearing
and abortion are primarily featured. After which, create a reaction paper and
elucidate the following questions in a concise manner (maximum of eight sentences).
The rubric for evaluation is provided below.
a. Movie Title: ____________________________________
b. Main Star/s: ____________________________________
c. Genre: ____________________________________
d. Release (year): ____________________________________
e. Length (time): ____________________________________
be filled out.)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
III. Questions
1. What is/are your reaction/s after watching the entire film? Support your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______
93 | P a g e
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______

3 – The movie 2 – The movie 1 – The movie 0.5 – The movie 0–
analyzation is analyzation is analyzation is analyzation is Has no
ANALYSIS
undeniably undeniably quite accurate. not accurate. explanation

accurate. Every accurate. Most Only few of the The details are
detail points of the details details contribute not relevant to
toward the topic. contribute to the to the the topic.
development of development of
the topic. the topic.
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
ARGUMENT
EVIDENCE/

answer.
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
CLARITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
TECHNI-

CALITY

OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
94 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this
95 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON: VIRTUE ETHICS: ARISTOTLE
WEEK: 12
SUB-TOPIC/S:
Ethics as the Art of Living Well
a. Eudaimonia
b. The Soul
c. Virtue, the Mean, and Practical Wisdom
d. Contemplation and Philosophical Knowledge
AN OVERVIEW: VIRTUE ETHICS
Virtue ethics emphasizes an individual’s character rather than following a set

of rules. If we can just focus on being good people or having a good character, the
right actions will follow, effortlessly. But how to become a virtuous person? There are
so many questions in our mind, when we talk about character virtues, such as, why
should we think that the character virtues give us well-being? Why should we think
that excellence of character is up to us? Can we blame people for bad character
and praise them for good character? And Why should we think that the kind of well-
being that fulfills our nature is the same as the happiness that everyone desires?
Virtue ethics can be achieved through practice because character is

developed through habituation, if you do a virtuous thing over and over again,
eventually it will become part of your character. It is a skill, something that we do,
something that we can learn and develop. For Aristotle, having virtue just means
96 | P a g e
doing the right thing, at the right time, in the right way, in the right amount, toward
the right people. Thus, in this module we will learn how to achieve the ultimate goal
of living a virtuous life
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of module 3, learners can:
a. Demonstrate understanding of virtues ethics:
b. Correctly identify required steps or actions to achieve eudaimonia by
analyzing from reading “The Virtue of Temperance”, and:
c. utilize virtue and practical wisdom to our lives.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of module 3, learners should be able to:
a. List 3 real goods of Aristotle that a person should obtain in order to live well;
b. Discuss the virtue ethics of Aristotle;
c. Interpret the practical wisdom and the 3 parts of soul and its functions.
Terminology to consider:
a. Eudaimonia - the condition of human flourishing or of living well.
b. Nicomachean ethics - a name normally given to Aristotle’s best-known

work
on ethics.
c. Soul - part of us that covers our will, affection and thoughts
d virtue - is a form of knowledge such as justice, piety, compassion, integrity,
and courage as united.
97 | P a g e
e. Virtue ethics - approach to ethics that emphasizes an individual’s
character as
the key element of ethical thinking, rather than rules about the acts
themselves or consequences.
ENGAGE
Directions: Answer the questions below in a concise manner (maximum of five

sentences)
1. How do you define a good life?

___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________
2. What is happiness?
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________
3. What makes you happy as a student?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
EXPLORE
98 | P a g e
Directions: Kindly read “The Virtue of Temperance” found below. Share your
view/thoughts towards it in a concise manner (maximum of five sentences)
The Virtue of Temperance
Pope John Paul II
Virtue is not something abstract detached from life, but, on the contrary, it
has deep “roots” in life itself, it springs from the latter and forms it. Virtue has an
impact on man’s life, on his action and behavior. It follows that, in all the
reflections of ours, we are speaking not so much of the virtue of man as a living and
acting “virtuously”, we are speaking of the prudent, just and courageous man, and
finally, precisely today, we are speaking of the “temperate (or “sober”) man.
The term “temperance” itself seems in a certain way to refer to what is

“outside man”. We say, in fact, that a temperate man is one who does not abuse
food, drinks, pleasures, who does not drink alcohol to excess, who does not deprive
himself of
consciousness by the use of drugs, etc. This reference to elements external to man
has its basis, however, within man. It is as if there existed in each of us a” higher self”
and a “lower self”. In our “lower self”, our “body” and everything that belongs to it is
expressed: its needs, its desires, its passions of a sensual nature particularly. The virtue
of
temperance guarantees every man mastery of the “lower self” by the “higher self”.
Is this humiliation of our body? Or a disability? On the contrary, this mastery gives
higher value to the body. As a result of the virtue of temperance, the body and our
senses find the right place which pertain to them in our human condition.
A temperate man is one who is master of himself. One in whom passions do

not prevail over reason, will, and even the “heart”. A man who can control himself.
If this is so, we can easily realize what a fundamental and radical value the virtue of
temperance has. It is even indispensable, in order that man may be fully man, It is
99 | P a g e
enough to look at someone who, carried away by his passions, becomes a
“victim” of them - renouncing of his own accord the use of reason (such as, for
example, an alcoholic, a drug addict) - to see, clearly that: to be a man mens
respecting one’s; own dignity, and therefore, among others thing, letting oneself be
guided by the virtue of temperance.
Directions: Watch the video “Heinz Dilemma” from YouTube:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5czp9S4u26M and share your personal views
about it, then answer the following: (maximum of five sentences)
a.How would you respond to Heinz dilemma? If you were Heinz would you do the
same?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______________________
b. Why should people do everything they can to avoid breaking the law? How does
this
relate to Heinz’s dilemma?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______________________
EXPLAIN
EUDAIMONIA
Aristotle assumes that any activity, practical or theoretical, aims towards some
end or good. He gives the following examples to elucidate this proposition: health for
100 | P a g e
the practice of medicine, ship for shipbuilding, and
victory for generalship in war, among others. However,
these are still provisional goals to another goal.
Aristotle is not simply interested in finding out the

different ends of purposes for human life. He wants to
find out what our chief end is. He is interested in finding
out what all our lives essentially and ultimately aim to do.
The chief good for the human person must not be
something one aims at for the sake of something else.
Aristotle named the chief good for the human

person as happiness or eudaimonia. For him, happiness
is the self-sufficient, final, and attainable goal of human life. In his words:
Happiness above all seems to be of this character, for we always choose it

on account of itself and never on account of something else. Yet, honor,
pleasure, intellect, and every virtue we choose on their own account – for
even if nothing resulted from them, we would choose each of them – but
we choose them also for the sake of happiness, because we suppose that,
through them, we will be happy. But nobody
chooses happiness for the sake of these things, or more, generally, on

account of anything else.
In addition, the chief good is not achieved by one grant act or one big
decision, for it is something one constantly strives for. He says, “One swallow does not
make a spring nor does one day. And in this way, one day or a short time does not
make someone blessed and happy either.” This implies that happiness is a lifelong
activity. One cannot be complacent in times of good fortune because happiness is
more than one’s fate – it is something we decide to do for ourselves.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) wrote his Nicomachean Ethics
(which is attributed to his son, Nicomachus) with these questions in mind. As one of
Plato’s most prolific students, he shares with his teacher the fundamental assumption
that what radically distinguishes the human person from other forms of being is his/her
possession of reason (logos). For both of these thinkers, the ultimate purpose cannot
be fully understood without understanding the place of reason in ordering one’s life.
More so, Aristotle considers that morality is not merely a matter of knowing the good
but actually doing or practicing the good habitually. We become what we are by
what we do and not merely by what we know. For him, we can only fully understand
what being human
101 | P a g e
essentially aims to do and do the necessary things
to fulfill our function (ergon) in the most excellent
way possible.
Socrates on Eudaimonia
Socrates, like Plato, believed that virtue (or

arête, the very idea of virtue) was a form of
knowledge—specifically, a knowledge of good
and evil (Bobonich, 2010). That is, he saw numerous
virtues—justice, piety, courage as united. That is, all were one, and they were
all knowledge.
Socrates viewed this knowledge as required for us as humans to achieve the ‘ultimate
good’, which was eudaimonia. And by ‘us’, Socrates meant the individual
(Waterman, 1993; Deci & Ryan, 2006).
Plato and Eudaimonism
In a somewhat similar vein, Plato believed that

individuals naturally feel unhappiness when they do
something they know and acknowledge to be wrong
(Price, 2011). Eudaimonia, according to Plato, was the
highest and ultimate aim of both moral thought and
behavior.
Nonetheless, while Plato was believed somewhat to

have refined the concept, he offered no direct definition for it. As with Socrates, he
saw virtue as integral to eudaimonia.
Six Ways of Living
Aristotle suggested that there were six basic pursuits or ambitions that might
shape individual lives. He explained these as:
● Pleasure, always looking for the “feel-good” factor;

● Wealth and material things;
● Status, respect, and fame or influence
● Power, and being able to persuade others of your point of view, or get your
own way;
● Knowledge, and;
102 | P a g e
● A morally virtuous and ethical
approach.
THE SOUL
Meaning of the spirit, soul and body
It seems not too difficult to

distinguish the body from the soul and
spirit. The body is physical and with the five senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell and
touch) it connects and interacts with the outer world. The soul and spirit are much
more difficult to separate from each other. Many Christians hold to the opinion that
the soul is the part of us that covers our will, affections and thoughts. The soul is the
part of us that connects with our fellow human beings. The spirit is the part that
connects to God and covers matters like faith, trust, worship and so on. The spirit is
seen as the innermost part of our being. It is enveloped by our soul, which in turn is
enveloped by our body. The spirit then is the part that needs regeneration in the
person who does not know God.
THE SOUL HAVING THREE PARTS
The Mind Being a Part of the Soul
The soul is of three parts—the mind,

the will, and the emotion. This is clearly and
definitely proved by the Word of God.
Proverbs 2:10 gives us the spiritual ground to
prove that the mind is a part of the soul. This
verse says, “Wisdom will enter your heart, /
And knowledge will be pleasant to your
soul.” Because knowledge is a matter of the
mind, this proves that the mind is a part of the
soul.
103 | P a g e
The Will Being a Part of the Soul
The second part of the soul is the will. Job 7:15

says, “My soul would choose,” and 6:7 says, “My soul
refuses.” To choose and to refuse are both decisions and
functions of the will. These passages prove that the will
must be a part of the soul. Since we must make a
decision to bind our soul to vow to the Lord, this also
proves that the will must be a part of the soul. It would
be good for the brothers and sisters, especially the
young ones, to remember all these verses. They should
pick up the burden to learn this.
The Emotion Being a Part of the Soul
The emotion comprises many things, including love, hatred, joy, and grief. Song
of Songs 1:7 and Psalm 42:1 show us that to love is a function of the soul.. Since these
are emotions, this also proves that the emotion must be a part of the soul.
The verses of the Scriptures above are the ground to say that within the soul
there are three parts—the mind as the leading part with the will and the emotion.
These are the best verses to prove this, but they are not the only ones. If we study the
entire Scriptures, it is hard to find anything other than these three parts in the soul.
These three parts comprise all the functions of the soul.
Aristotle postulates that happiness is an activity of the soul. The obvious question
is, of course, what he means for the “soul.” For him, the soul is the part of the human
being that animates the body. Body and soul are inseparable for Aristotle, but he
emphasizes the role of the soul more than that of the body in elucidating his ethics.
The soul is composed of both rational and irrational elements.
The rational part of the soul has two parts: the speculative (responsible for
knowledge) and the practical (responsible for choice and action). The speculative
part is concerned with pure thought and is essentially the base of contemplation,
104 | P a g e
while the practical intellect is in charge of action and the practical determination of
the proper means to attain at a specific end.
On the other hand, the irrational part of the soul has two parts: the vegetative
and appetitive. The vegetative part is in charge of the nutrition and growth of human
beings as well as the involuntary functions of the body such as breathing to digestion,
and the like. However, the appetitive part, according to him, shares in the rational
element in the soul. Its task includes to reign in such passionate demands that seek
fulfillment oftentimes without any rational and practical considerations.
Finally, giving into passions keeps a person from flourishing and derails him/her
from his/her true end as a person. Aristotle is not saying that it is wrong to have such
desires. It is only natural to have such passions for they are a constitutive part of having
a soul. However, people who aim to be happy must be responsible for such desires
and keep them in check. For Aristotle, moral virtue is necessary in making sure that
desires do not control the behavior.
VIRTUE, THE MEAN, AND PRACTICAL WISDOM
The Greek word for virtue is arête which means excellence. By excellence, the
Greeks thought of how a thing fulfills its function (ergon) in accordance with its nature.
For example, a knife cuts excellently, is sharp, durable, and dependable for different
tasks, then it may be said that it is an excellent knife – it does what it is supposed to do
in the best way possible. It may then be called a “virtuous knife”. To be virtuous, in
other words, is to exhibit one’s capacity to fulfill one’s essence or purpose in such a
way that one’s potentiality as a particular being may be said to be actualized in the
most excellent way.
In the case of human beings, Aristotle says that there are two kinds of virtues –
moral and intellectual. Briefly, moral virtue has to do with excellence in the
performance of decisions relating to moral and practical activity, while intellectual
virtues have to do with one’s capacity to harness reason’s contemplative capacity
for arriving at knowledge.
Aristotle emphasizes the role of practice and habit in the formation of moral
virtue. No person is born morally virtuous. However, all persons have the latent
potentiality to be so, if only they habitually do excellent deeds.
As moral for virtues themselves, Aristotle says that these are states of character
that enable a person to fulfill his/her proper function as a human being. These states
of character are aimed at an intermediary point between excess and deficiency – in
a mean (mesotes) that can be considered as the appropriate response to the
demands of different situations.
Virtue is a state of character which makes a person good and capable of

fulfilling his/her end (telos) as a human person. By state of character, Aristotle
105 | P a g e
emphasizes a certain consistency or constancy in one’s character in facing different
situations. To be morally virtuous, one must be able to respond to situations not just
with the correct feeling or action but in the proper degree, at the right time, towards
the right people, and for the right reasons.
For Aristotle, virtue is a state of one’s character that is the result of choice. This
choice is governed by prudence or practical wisdom (phronesis). Phronesis is the
human person’s instrument in dealing with moral choices. It is a kind of knowledge
that deals with practical matters and not just with ideas or concepts. Also, phronesis
is the intellectual virtue responsible for bringing the human person closer to his/her
chief good in the realm of morality.
THE PRINCIPAL VIRTUES AND VICES
EXCESS (VICE) MEAN (VIRTUE) DEFICIENCY (VICE)
Rashness Courage Cowardice
Self-indulgence Moderation Insensibility
Prodigality Liberality Meanness
Vulgarity Magnificence Paltriness
Vanity Proper Pride Smallness of Soul
Ambitiousness Proper Ambition Lack of Ambition
Irascibility Good Temper Lack of Spirit
Boastfulness Truthfulness Self-depreciation
106 | P a g e
Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness
Obsequiousness Friendliness Surliness
Bashfulness Modesty Shamelessness
Envy Proper Indignation Malice
The important point is the role that moderation plays in a good life. As Aristotle
said, excellence is the mean between the extremes. Doing good work for the world,
sacrificing for your family, or being a great scholar are all wonderful things to do, but
they are part of living well, not the whole of a good life. Again, the good life consists
in the possession, over the course of a lifetime, of all those things that are really good
for us.
A truly virtuous action is performed by someone who is not simply compelled to

do so. A person does a virtuous act and chooses to act in such a way for the sake of
being virtuous. A virtuous person is someone who has been so used to acting virtuously
that it
becomes tremendously difficult for anything or anyone to convince him/her to act

otherwise. To a certain degree, vices are no longer an option for a truly virtuous
person. Such a person actively keeps himself/herself disposed towards the mean by
way of habituation (ethos).
It should be noted that certain actions admit no middle point or mesotes. Some
actions are simply bad, so there is no “virtuous” way of performing them such as
adultery, theft, and murder and cannot be deemed virtuous in any situation.
Contemplation an Philosophical Knowledge
For Aristotle, the main functions of the intellectual virtues, namely, phronesis and
sophia, are to aid human persons in matters concerning moral choice and the
attainment of knowledge of first principles or eternal truths, respectively. If practical

wisdom serves as a guide for action in everyday life, the act of contemplation is a
pursuit of philosophical wisdom. Aristotle subordinates practical wisdom to
contemplation because he believes that it is the kind of activity most proper to human
persons considering the fact that reason is human’s most defining attribute. For him,
contemplation is an act that can be loved for its own sake because it has no other
107 | P a g e
aim than to reveal the most fundamental truths of existence. In other words, no person
may be considered happier than a person who has the time and the leisurely
disposition for contemplation. However, it must be remembered that human life is not
exclusively devoted to thought; it is most of the time engaged in action and practical
matters. Thus, phronesis still plays a crucial role in the attainment of one’s chief good,
which is eudaimonia.
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: As discussed above, Aristotle has given much consideration to virtue

ethics. With this, search and watch a movie in which virtue ethics, eudemonia, and
phronesis are exemplified and elucidate the following questions in a concise manner
(maximum of eight sentences). The rubric for evaluation is provided below.
a. Movie Title: ____________________________________
b. Main Star/s: ____________________________________
c. Genre: ____________________________________
d. Release (year): ____________________________________
e. Length (time): ____________________________________
be filled out.)
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
III. Questions
1. Why did you choose this movie? In which part of the movie do you think is
alike/similar to Aristotle’s virtue ethics?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
108 | P a g e
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________
Assessment Rubric A
ANALYSIS
3 – The 2 – The movie 1 – The movie 0.5 – The 0–
movie analysis is analysis is movie
analysis is undeniably quite analysis is Has no
undeniably accurate. accurate. not explanatio
accurate. Most of the Only a few of accurate. n
Every detail details the details The details
points contribute to contribute to are not
toward the the the relevant to
topic. developmen development the topic.
t of the topic. of the topic.
EVIDENCE/
shows at shows at shows 3 to 5 shows at Has no
least 9 least 6 to 8 correct/valid most 2 explanatio
correct/vali correct/valid evidences to correct/vali n
d evidences evidences to support d evidences
to support support his/her to support
his/her his/her answer. his/her
answer. answer. answer.
109 | P a g e
CLARITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
explanation explanation explanation is explanation
is clear, has is clear, has a somewhat is not clear Has no
a very good good clear and has and has a explanatio
flow of transition, a rough very rough n
discussion, most of the transition transition of
every detail details are from one ideas.
is connected idea to
connected to each another.
to each other.
other.
TECHNICALITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
has no error has 1 to 2 has 3 to 4 has at least Has no
in grammar, errors in errors in 5 errors in explanatio
spelling, grammar, grammar, grammar, n
and spelling, and spelling, and spelling,
punctuatio punctuations punctuations and
ns. . . punctuatio
ns.
OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
Quiz 1
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly but concise: Please read the rubric
B attached in the module before you answer the questions:
1. How does Aristotle explain happiness as the ultimate purpose of human

existence?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. How do our moral acts relate to the ultimate purpose of life?
110 | P a g e
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
3. How do virtuous people differ from vicious people?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
II. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the correct answer in the blank space provided
at the end of the statement/question and justify your answer
1. Which of the following is a contribution of virtue ethics?

a. Virtue is of a very personal nature
b. People of good character can do bad
c. Encourage the cultivation of human excellence
d. People of bad character can do good.
Justification: _____________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. How did Aristotle think that virtue could be acquired?
a. It is impossible to become virtuous
b. One must have a conversation experience in which one experiences

the
good directly;
c. It is born
d. Virtue is acquired through education and training
Justification: ___________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
111 | P a g e
3. The function of man is an activity of the soul in conformity with
a. feeling c. love
b. reason d. Truth
Justification: ___________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
ASSESSMENT RUBRIC B
RELEVANCE
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
explanati explanation explanation explanation
on is is relevant to is quite is not clear Has no
directly the topic. relevant to and has a explanatio
relevant Most of the the topic. very rough n
to the details Only a few of transition of
topic. contribute to the details idea. The
Every the contribute to details are
detail developmen the not relevant
points t of the developmen to the topic.
toward topic. t of the
the topic. topic.
EVIDENCE/
on shows shows at shows 3 to 5 shows at Has no
at least 9 least 6 to 8 correct/valid most 2 explanatio
correct/v correct/valid evidences to correct/valid n
alid evidences to support evidences to
evidence support his/her support
s to his/her answer. his/her
support answer. answer.
his/her
answer.
112 | P a g e
CLARITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
on is is clear, has is somewhat is not clear Has no
clear, has a good clear and and has a explanatio
a very transition, has a rough very rough n
good flow most of the transition transition of
of details are from one ideas.
discussion connected idea to
, every to each another.
detail is other.
connecte
d to each
other.
TECHNI-CALITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
on has no has 1 to 2 has 3 to 4 has at least 5 Has no
error in errors in errors in errors in explanatio
grammar, grammar, grammar, grammar, n
spelling, spelling, and spelling, and spelling, and
and punctuation punctuation punctuation
punctuati s. s. s.
ons.
OVERALL SCORE:
REFERENCES
Prescribed Textbook
Ethics C & E
Publishing Company
References
Mandaluyong City.
113 | P a g e

Press
Moral problems, 2nd
Kiddler, Rushworth (2003). “How Good people make Tough Choices: Resolving the
Dilemmas of Ethical
Living: New York: harper Collin Mackenzie,J. S. (2000). “AManual of Ethics: Delhi:
Surject
Publication.
Prepared by:

NOTE:
This is module is protected by copyright. Please contact Mr. Nes De Asis if you wanted
to reproduce this.
114 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON: The Natural Law, St. Thomas Aquinas
WEEK: 13
SUB-TOPIC/S: a. Etsi Deus Non Daretur
b. Conscience and Natural law
c. Three Contemporary Questions
d. The Relational and Perfection of Love in Aquinas
AN OVERVIEW: THE NATURAL LAW
The natural law is a part of Divine Law understood by men through reason. God
created the world according to Natural Laws – predictable, God-driven systems
whereby life is sustained and everything functions smoothly, the reason why Aquinas
recognized basic goods such as life, reproduction, educating one’s offspring, seek
God, live in society, avoid offense and shun ignorance.
For Aquinas, we don’t need the bible or religion class, or church in order to
understand the natural law. Instead, our instinct shows us the basic good, and reason
allows us to drive the natural law from them. The Natural Law involves inclination and
reason. Inclination needed to recognize what is good, and reason needed to know
how to pursue goods. If the moral law comes from God’s Eternal Law, the Divine Law
is good and avoids evil. But, how do we know that one is acting in accordance with
the good? In Natural Law ethics, conscience serves as the guide in making moral
decisions. But, how do we know that one’s actions obey conscience?
115 | P a g e
There is a connection between law and morals and that law must be just and
fair, therefore, man-made law must conform to higher principles of right conduct
discoverable through reason. Thus, in this module, we will learn that reason is the
source of the moral law and it directs us towards the good which is the ultimate goal
of the person’s actions.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module 4, learners can:
a. Demonstrate knowledge gained from the natural law and its relation to
ethics;
b. Explain how natural law is an imprint of the Divine Will on the free person,
and;
c. Observe and practice the role of natural law in crafting an ethical life.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the module 4, learners should be able to:
a, Describe the two functions of conscience;
b. List four characteristics of natural law, and;
c. Justify why natural law lies in human intelligence.
Terminology to Consider:
● Natural law - is a theory in ethics and philosophy that says that human beings
possess intrinsic values that govern our reasoning and behavior
● Conscience - the sense or consciousness of the moral goodness or
blameworthiness of one's own conduct, intentions, or character together with
a feeling of obligation to do right or be good.
● Etsi Deus Non Daretur - translated means 'as though God did not exist.
116 | P a g e
ENGAGE

three sentences).
a. What does it entail when one says natural? Conscience?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
b. When was the last time you felt “conscientious”?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
EXPLORE
Activity 2DIRECTIONS: Kindly read the short article found below. Share your view and
perspective towards it in a concise manner (maximum of three sentences). Note
that in this part you are encouraged to be factual with what you perceive.
In October 2016, newspapers reported that Pantaleon Alvarez, Speaker of the

House of Representatives, was intending to draft a bill which would amend the
country’s Family Code, thereby allowing the legalization of same-sex unions. This
117 | P a g e
would result in the possibility of two men together or two women together being
identified as a couple with rights guaranteed and protected by the law. However, as
one newspaper report revealed, even before anything could be formally proposed,
other fellow legislators had already expressed to the media their refusal to support any
such initiative.
The reasons given in the news article vary, ranging from the opinion that seeing
two men kiss is unsightly, to the statement that there is something “irregular” about
belonging to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, transgender (LGBT) community, and to the
judgment that two people of the same sex being together is unnatural.
We are used to hearing people justify doing something by making the appeal
that what they maintain is what is “natural,” and therefore acceptable. Likewise,
people would judge something as unacceptable on the basis that it is supposedly
“unnatural.” Thus, we are no longer surprised when we hear people condemn and
label many different things as “unnatural”: maybe receiving blood transfusions, eating
meat, or, as our news report shows, engaging in sexual relations that one might
consider deviant. We
also realize that sometimes we might find ourselves astonished or perplexed as to what
different people might consider “unnatural.”
In order to proceed, it is therefore necessary to ask: “What do the words natural

and unnatural mean? Sometimes, the word “natural” seems to be used to refer to
some kind of intuition that a person has, one which is so apparently true to him that is
unquestioned. For example, a woman may claim that it is simply “unnatural” to any
kind of insect, and what this means is that she personally finds herself averse to the
idea of doing so. In other instances, the word is used to justify a certain way of
behaving by seeing its likeness somewhere in the natural world. For example, a man
might claim that it is okay for him to have more than one sexual partner, since, in a
pride of lions, the alpha male gets to mate with all the she-lions. In yet other instances,
the word “natural” is an
appeal to something instinctual without it being directed by reason. For example, a

man may deem it all right if he were to urinate just anywhere because after all he sees
it as “natural” functions of humans. Lastly, we also easily find people using the word
“natural” to refer to what seems common to them given their particular environment.
For instance, Filipina may suppose that eating three full meals of rice and ulam every
day is what is “natural” because everyone she knows behaves in that way.
EXPLAIN
118 | P a g e
Etsi Deus Non Daretur
Thomas Aquinas begins from the

standpoint of faith. His perspective
presupposes the existence of a God
who is the author (source) and the
goal (end) of all reality. This Creator for
Thomas, however, relates in freedom
to recognize through reason, the very
principle of foundations of all things. In
accordance with this functional
knowledge, the human person can
choose to act in such a way that is
worthy of one’s very reality. On who
can reach the wisdom at the very
heart of all things is obliged to act in
accordance with his/her dignity. The
human being then is said to be gifted
with “the ability to know the highest good” that engages him/her in freedom in
“choosing to act on the good that he/she ought to do.” Freedom here is knowing the
best goal and being able to reach for it through decisive action. This is expressed
interiorly, that is in the very heart, of every human person as the dictate of “doing
good and avoiding evil.”
The reality of the human person who is able, through his/her intellect, to decide
in freedom and, through his/her will, to move himself/herself voluntarily in accordance
with the good that he/she can follow the very will of God who has “created man in
His own image” (Genesis 1, 27). Man in His fullness shares life with plants and animals
but goes beyond them in his voluntary action and freedom in decisions.
Human freedom for St. Thomas, therefore is an imprint of the divine will in the
very being of the human person. The Divine Will can be understood as governing all
that is; man’s task is to act in such a way that his/her participation in the full unfolding
of nature directs it to fulfillment.
This law impinges on the very freedom of the human being to know his/her
options and voluntarily will to take action. The rational human person’s participation,
ability to discern what is good from what is not, is the very presence of the dictates of
the law within him/her, and is also the imprint on him/her of the Creator (Divine Will).
Etsi Deus non daretur is an expression that highlights the validity of this ethical
system with or without faith in the Creator God. Literally, Etsi Deus non daretur means
“even if there is no God.” This implies that the wisdom of the ethical system that is
natural
119 | P a g e
law is valid and binding for the human person even if we bracket belief in God.
However, it has to be noted that Etsi Deus non daretur does not advocate atheism or
protest against the faith.
Conscience and Natural Law
The ability of man to know is important in his/her

acting ethically. Hence, if one follows St. Thomas’ discussion
on conscience, one is inclined to conclude that “it is the
proper functioning of reason in moving the human person
towards an end goal that is fitting of his/her dignity.” One
cannot do the right if one does not know what it is. The
famous dictate then to follow the conscience absolutely is
tied up to an obligation to educate it. However, not
knowing St. Thomas Aquinas is not an excuse. Even if one
does not know, he/she is obliged to know. If one acts badly
out of ignorance and does not act to rectify the situation by
bothering to learn, that person is accountable according to
the Angelic Doctor.
On the other hand, there are different kinds of conscience

that may lead us to wrongdoing: callous, perplexed, scrupulous, and
ignorant/uninformed. The ignorant/uninformed conscience simply lacks education,
while the perplexed conscience needs guidance in sorting out one’s confusion. More
so, the callous conscience results in the long-time persistence in doing evil that the
self is no longer concerned whether he/she does good or bad. Lastly, the scrupulous
conscience fails to trust one’s ability to do good and hence, overly concerns itself with
avoiding what is bad to the point of seeing wrong where there really is none.
There are four characteristics of natural law, the universal, it is the human nature
which is shared by all men, though realized differently according to their respective
culture; obligatory, because the tendencies of our human nature are the laws of our
desires and actuations, which we can not ignore without dire consequences;
recognizable, because man, being self-reflexive, is aware of his nature of what he is
and what he is capable of and what is expected of him by his own kind; and
immutable and unchangeable, because, although change is a rule of life, human
nature in its essentiality and substantiality remains permanent and unchangeable.
Three Contemporary Questions
There are relevant questions that can help the Filipino student appreciate Thomistic
Natural Law. These three questions: Who am I?; Who do I want to be?; and How can
I get there?, have originated from the writing of Alasdair Macintyre.
Who am I? This refers to the identity of the human person. If one is endowed
with his/her own facticity, history, and abilities, his/her present reality is accessible to
120 | P a g e
him/her through self-knowledge and reflection. The reality of human identity is that it
is something defined yet also always in process.
Who do I want to be? The human person’s self-knowledge is dynamic, that is, it
is always open to the direction set by what one wants to make himself/herself. Self-
knowledge here is malleable towards self-determination. Ethical acts give direction
through freedom to build up the self towards a particular goal.
How can I get there? This fully utilizes the sound judgment of human reason and
evaluates the best route to get to the goal decided upon. The last question breaks
down the task to be done into the particulars of actions and daily routine.
The human person does not only access reason to assess his/her personal
identity and personal goal; he/she is also gifted with the will to command the self to
go through the steps and, hence, be able to do the transition from knowledge to a
fully determined self.
The Relational and Perfection of Love in Aquinas
Thomistic natural law is not Christian simply

because it is an ethics reconcilable or
compatible with faith. It is a disciplined system
that finds ultimate foundation and perfection
in the reality of God. While through Etsi Deus
non daretur we are afforded the autonomy
of a reasonable ethics independent from
faith, ultimately this ethics is given full
meaning and
perfection in a relationship with God. The

highest perfection of man for St. Thomas is in his/her wanting to be with God. In other
words that are used by believers, “The ethical man is not the perfect man but one
who wants to be saved by cooperating in freedom with what is attainable for
him/her.”
ELABORATE
DIRECTIONS: As discussed above, Aquinas has given much consideration to natural

law. With this, choose one topic out of the many topics/issues found below. Kindly
provide your own reflection and insight (apply an evidence for justification) in a
concise manner (maximum of ten sentences). The rubric for evaluation is provided
below.
121 | P a g e
Choose one among these topics:
a. abortion;
b. living-in together even if not married;
c. pre-marital sex (engaging to sex before marriage); and
d. divorce.
1. Is your chosen topic/issue morally acceptable? Why or why not? Share your
reflection and insight. Attach/include an evidence for justification (can be a Republic
Act, Bible verse/s, etc.).
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
RELEVANCE
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
explanatio explanati explanati explanati
n is on is on is quite on is not Has no
directly relevant relevant clear and explanat
relevant to to the to the has a very ion
the topic. topic. topic. rough
Every Most of Only a transition
detail the details few of the of idea.
points contribute details The details
toward the to the contribute are not
topic. develop to the relevant to
developm the topic.
122 | P a g e
ment of ent of the
the topic. topic.
EVIDENCE/
n shows at on shows on shows on shows Has no
least 9 at least 6 3 to 5 at most 2 explanat
correct/va to 8 correct/v correct/v ion
lid correct/v alid alid
evidences alid evidence evidences
to support evidence s to to support
his/her s to support his/her
answer. support his/her answer.
his/her answer.
answer.
CLARITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
n is clear, on is on is on is not Has no
has a very clear, has somewhat clear and explanat
good flow a good clear and has a very ion
of transition, has a rough
discussion, most of rough transition
every the details transition of ideas.
detail is are from one
connecte connecte idea to
d to each d to each another.
other. other.
TECHNI-
CALITY 2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
n has no on has 1 on has 3 on has at Has no
error in to 2 errors to 4 errors least 5 explanat
grammar, in in errors in ion
spelling, grammar, grammar, grammar,
and spelling, spelling, spelling,
and and and
123 | P a g e
punctuati punctuati punctuati punctuati
ons. ons. ons. ons.
OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
DIRECTIONS: identify the following concepts being described. Write your answer in
the blank space provided at the end of the statement. (Note that in this part you are
encouraged to remember the topic/s discussed.)
1. It is an ordinance of reason, promulgated for the common good by one who

has charge of society. __________
2. It is a law as the inner law of our true being, of our essentially created nature,
which demands that we actualize what follows from it. ___________
3. It refers to the law as the exemplar of divine and wisdom as directing all actions
and movements. ___________
4. It is the practical judgment of reason telling us what should be done because
it is good, or what should be avoided because it is evil. _____________
5. A medieval friar whose work reconciling ancient Greek and Christian
philosophies developed the theory of natural law. ________________________
6. This approach to ethics assumes a society comprising individuals whose own
good is inextricably linked to the good of the community. ___________
7. It refers to a set of universal rules that should apply to everyone. ____________
8. A habit of doing an evil acquired through the repetition of an evil act. ________
9. An Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist who is still considered one of the
greatest thinkers in politics, psychology and ethics. __________________
10. A set of rules for action, known without revelation and legislated by God.
___________
124 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Prescribed Textbook
Ethics C & E
Publishing Company
References
Mandaluyong City.
Albert m, et.al (2018), “Ethics Foundations of Moral Valuation,”: Rex Book Store
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this
125 | P a g e
ETHICS
Module Prepared by:
09107187337
***SIR NES***
SUBJECT CODE: GE 8b
TOPIC OR LESSON: Deontological Ethics: Immanuel Kant
WEEK: 14
SUB-TOPIC/S: a. Autonomous Reason, Goodwill, and Duty
b. Obligation is Understood as “Man as an End in Himself/Herself,”
Autonomous, and Universalizable
c. Kantian Ethics and Religion
AN OVERVIEW: DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
Deontological ethics are ethical theories that place emphasis on the

relationship between duty and the morality of human actions. With this, an action is
considered morally good because of some characteristics of the action itself, not
because the product of the action is good. For Kant, the moral worth of an action is
determined by the human will which is the only thing in the world that can be
considered good without qualifications. Good will is exercised by acting according
to moral duty/law. Moral law consists of a set of maxims which are categorical in
nature – we are bound by duty to act in accordance with categorical imperatives.
There are three formulations of Kant’s categorical imperatives, first, act only
according to the maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become
a universal law without contradiction; second, act in such a humanity way that you
treat humanity whether in yourself or to other, always at the same time as an end and
never simply as a means. But using people only to get what we want and consistently
disrespecting their human worth is against moral law. In this module, we will learn the
value of every human being and how to respect them equally.
126 | P a g e
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of module 5, learners can:
a. Demonstrate understanding of categorical imperative;
b. Correctly identify the role of duty in crafting an ethical life, and;
c. Observe and practice the principles of the categorical imperative in
moral dilemma.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the module 5, learners should be able to:
a. List two ways Kantianism is similar to utilitarianism.
b. Discuss maxim in Kantian Ethics
c. Define deontological ethics
Terminology to consider:
Moral agent: An agent is a person who performs an action; a moral agent is a person
with the capacity to act morally.
Maxim: rule or principle
Will: the faculty of deciding, choosing, or acting
Deontology: is derived from the Greek deon, “duty,” and logos, “science.” It is an
ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong.
ENGAGE
127 | P a g e
three sentences). Note that in this part you are encouraged to underwrite what you
feel.
a. How can you say that a particular act is good? How about bad?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
______________________
b. Share your experience of honesty, integrity and responsibility
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________
c. What is your idea about deontology?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
EXPLORE
During the flag ceremony of that Monday morning, January 24, 2017, the
mayor of Baguio City awarded a certificate from the City Government that
commended Reggie Cabututan for his “extraordinary show of honesty in the
performance of their duties or practice of profession.” Reggie is a taxi driver who, just
three days before the awarding, drove his passenger, an Australian named Trent
Shields, to his workplace. The foreigner, having a little sleep and was ill the previous
128 | P a g e
day, left his suitcase inside the taxi cab after he reached his destination. The suitcase
contained the laptop, passport and an expensive pair of headphones, which Trent
claimed amounted to around P260,000.
Consider closely the moment when Reggie found that Trent had left a suitcase
in his taxi cab: If he were to return the suitcase, there was no promise of an award
from the City Government of Baguio and no promise of a reward from the owner.
What if he took the suitcase and sold its contents? That could surely help him
supplement his daily wages. Life as a taxi driver in the Philippines is not easy. A little
extra cash would go a long way to put food on the table and to pay tuition fees for
his children.
Yet, Reggie returned the suitcase without a promise of a reward. Why?

Perhaps, he had previously returned lost luggage to passengers. Maybe, it was his first
time to do so. Maybe, he received a reward before, or maybe he knows some fellow
taxi drivers who did or did not receive rewards from passengers after they returned
lost luggage. However, the point is that there was no promise of a reward. A reward,
in the first place, is not an entitlement. It is freely given as an unrequired gift for one’s
service or effort. Otherwise, it would be a payment, not reward, if someone
demanded it.
Why did Reggie return the suitcase? For now, let us suppose his main reason
was simply because it was right to return lost property to the rightful owner, no matter
how tempting it is to keep it for oneself. Is it possible that Reggie’s reason for returning
the luggage was not because of any reward whether psychic or physical? “It is simply
the right thing to do,” Reggie might have told himself.
What if Reggie did not return the suitcase, destroyed the lock, then took and
sold its valuable contents? What is wrong about keeping and benefitting from the
value that someone misplaced? “It is his fault; he was mindless and careless,” Reggie
could have thought. As the saying goes: Finders keepers, losers weepers. On one
hand, Reggie could have mused: “He will learn to be more mindful of his things from
now on.” Yet, Reggie returned the suitcase without the promise of a reward.
As we previously said, perhaps, Reggie believed that it was the right thing to
do. Even if he felt that he could have benefitted from the sale of the valuable items
in the suitcase, he must have the principle that it is the right thing to do the right thing.
Reggie could be holding on to this moral conviction as a principle of action.
To hold a moral conviction means believing that it is one’s duty to do the right
thing. What is duty? Why does one choose to follow her duty even if doing otherwise
may bring her more benefits?
EXPLAIN
129 | P a g e
Autonomous Reason, Good Will, and Duty
Kant insists that every time we confront moral situations

there are formally operative a priori principles that can be
brought to the fore. Highlighting these a priori truths can
better help the learner of ethics sort through his/her task of
living ethically. Kant’s research on ethics has named these
as reason, goodwill, and duty. These are, for Kant,
respectively the foundation (reason), source (goodwill),
and motivation (duty) or ethical living.
What is ethical necessarily always implies the use of

reason. Human acceptance of external mandates also
makes use of this same reason. Kant then tells us that reason
in itself can only be the sensible foundation of what is
ethical for man. Kant then bids his students sapere aude that is “dare to think for
yourselves.” Autonomous reason ventures to know what is ethical not only the
authority of what is external to the self but grounded on (reason) itself. The loudness
of external authorities cannot bend the autonomy of reason that on its own knows
what should be done. What others say in turn is only acceptable if it is found to be
reasonable by the use of one’s autonomous reason.
Kant calls “duty” the obligation that follows what reason deems as the action
which is most worthy of our humanity. This duty is founded on human reason, that is, it
passes through the sorting made by our autonomous and discursive reason. Our duty
is that which the reason determines as our obligation. Inasmuch as duty is the doable
obligation for the human person, it is not a duty if it is impossible for man to do it. Duty,
while founded on human reason for determination, is at the very same time originating
from goodwill as a voluntary action that is doable for human beings.
The good that is reachable for the will of the human person is, therefore, owned
by him/her as a duty. This then excludes any other external or internal motivation for
the human person for doing what he/she ought to do: whether he/she likes it or not;
be it success or failure; whether it comes with applause or accusation; his/her reason
and goodwill simply binds him/her to do what he/she ought to do because it is his/her
duty.
Obligation is Understood as “Man as an End in Himself/Herself”
Obligation for the human person is something one’s reason elects and his/her goodwill
owns simply as something she ought to do. Obligation is simply a must, a “categorical
imperative” or a duty that is defined by reason as doable for man’s volition and,
therefore, should be carried out by the human person. In this sense, “Man as an end
in himself/herself” means the obligation cannot be passed on to others. That is, if
confronted by a particular situation, the human person in his/her own integrity as
reason and goodwill is obliged to do his/her duty as the agent of action.
“The buck stops here,” that is, the human person is himself/herself the center of
action and responsibility in a given ethical situation. His/her obligation is his/hers and
130 | P a g e
it is his/her participation in this particular ethical event. He/she is autonomous in
reasoning and willing to execute his/her defined duty.
“Man as an end in herself” conjoined with this responsibility to reach for duty
that is universalizable necessarily demands that other human persons ought to be
treated not as instruments in the execution of what one should to do but as fellow
reasonable beings, ends in themselves. They are reasonable human beings too before
whom the self stands accountable.
Kantian Ethics and Religion
Immanuel Kant fully established the

independence of his ethics from religion via
the recognition of reason as the foundation,
goodwill as the source, and duty as the
motivation of what obliges the human
person. In his essay “Religious within the
Limits of Reason,” Kant went as far as setting
up his ethical system as that which is
definitive in the recognition of true religion.
A “religion is not true to itself,” according to

Kant, if it goes against what man “ought to
do” as defined by his/her autonomous
reason and goodwill that reaches for universalizability. Only false religion or cult falls
unreasonably to superstition and does away with duty as an obligation for his/her
goodwill. It is, therefore, such Kantian ethics that is foundational for religion and not
vice versa.
Kant, however, is not against religion. For him the value of religion rests on its
reality as an openness of ethics to “what one can hope for.” Religion for Kant is the
very openness of ethics to the complementary strength that is provided by hope.
Unlike Aristotle, Kant does not define “happiness” as the motivation for his ethics of
duty. What is ethical is indifferent to happiness for Kant and is purely motivated by
duty itself. One does the obligation to reach for happiness, that will be self-serving for
Kant and self-interest here moves away from the purity of duty.
For Kant, the ethical human person is like someone who woos in courtship the
person one likes. He/she cannot oblige the other to give him/her a positive answer by
means of saying “yes.” In short, the answer cannot be forced in the same way that
happiness is something one expects to collect after a lifelong striving of doing one’s
duty.
ELABORATE
131 | P a g e
DIRECTIONS: As discussed above, Kant has given much consideration to foundation
(reason), source (goodwill), and motivation (duty/obligation). With this, look for a
Filipino newspaper and identify a moral issue where one can use categorical
imperative to discern the duty of the persons involved. Kindly provide your own
reflection and insight in a concise manner (maximum of eight sentences). The rubric
for evaluation is provided below. (Note that in this part you are encouraged to think
logically)
1. Does your chosen news article prove the categorical imperative of Kant? In what
way do you say so? Share your reflection and insight. Attach/include/paste the news
article you have chosen.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________
RELEVANCE
3 – The 2 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
on is is relevant to is quite is not clear Has no
directly the topic. relevant to and has a explanatio
relevant Most of the the topic. very rough n
to the details Only a few of transition of
topic. contribute to the details idea. The
Every the contribute to details are
detail developmen the not relevant
points t of the developmen to the topic.
toward topic. t of the
the topic. topic.
EVIDENCE/
on shows shows at shows 3 to 5 shows at Has no
at least 9 least 6 to 8 correct/valid most 2 explanatio
correct/v correct/valid evidences to correct/valid n
alid evidences to support evidences to
evidence support his/her support
s to his/her answer. his/her
support answer. answer.
his/her
answer.
132 | P a g e
CLARITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 0.5 – The 0–
on is is clear, has is somewhat is not clear Has no
clear, has a good clear and and has a explanatio
a very transition, has a rough very rough n
good flow most of the transition transition of
of details are from one ideas.
discussion connected idea to
, every to each another.
detail is other.
connecte
d to each
other.
TECHNI-CALITY
2 – The 1.5 – The 1 – The 1.5 – The 0–
on has no has 1 to 2 has 3 to 4 has at least 5 Has no
error in errors in errors in errors in explanatio
grammar, grammar, grammar, grammar, n
spelling, spelling, and spelling, and spelling, and
and punctuation punctuation punctuation
punctuati s. s. s.
ons.
OVERALL SCORE:
EVALUATE
Directions; Identify the following concepts being described. Write your answers in the
blank space provided after each statement.
1. Ethical theories that place special emphasis on the relationship between duty
and the morality of human actions. ____________
2. A German philosopher to define deontological principles. ___________
3. It is the central philosophical concept in the deontological moral philosophy of

Immanuel Kant, and may be defined as a way of evaluating motivations for
action. ___________
133 | P a g e
4. It is a form of a moral test that invites us to imagine a world in which any
proposed action is also adopted by everyone else, and it is the foundational
principle for deontological, or duty-based, ethics. _____________
5. A set of universal moral principles that apply to all human beings, regardless of
context or situation. ______________
II. True or False; Write your answers in the blank space provided for:
1. Kant’s moral theory is based on his view of the human being as having the
unique capacity for rationality. ______
2. Kant argues that there is no single supreme principle of morality. _____
3. Maxim is a rule of conduct that is unconditional or absolute for all agents, the
validity or claim of which does not depend on any desire or end. ______
4. According to Kant, it is always irrational to behave immorally. _____
5. Kant claims that people have freedom of will that can be demonstrated by
experience. _____
REFERENCES
Prescribed Textbook
Ethics C & E
Publishing Company
References
Mandaluyong City.

Press
134 | P a g e
Moral problems, 2nd
Kant Immanuel (2007) Kant’s Critique of Practical reason and other Works on the
Theory of Ethics
Paul, Richard (2001). “The Miniature Guide of Understanding the Foundations of

Ethical Reasoning:
Ramos, Christine R. (2006), 2nd Ed. “Introduction to Philosophy” Rex BookStore,

Publishing Co.
Prepared by:

NOTE:
reproduce this
135 | P a g e

Ethics by Sir Nes JR

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ethics by Sir Nes JR

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIVERSITY OF THE EASTERN PHILIPPINES

PRM Campus, Catubig, Northern Samar

MODULE # ACCUMMULATED SCORES

OVER ALL SCORES

OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC

Why is there a need to study ethics at all as a subject in college? Clearly,

a. share views and perspectives about ethics and its interrelated

THE STUDY OF ETHICS AND CULTURAL CONCEPTIONS OF THE GOOD

It can therefore, be noted that the conception of the good is shaped by

THE MORAL ACT

One way of ensuring the rationality and impartiality of moral decisions is

Human acts, in turn, determine the reality of the person. Though

Eating and breathing are not usually thought about as ethical or

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS by MANAGEMENT STUDY GUIDE

Primarily it is the individual, the consumer, the employee or the human

ART AND OFFENSE

In 2011, the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) mounted an exhibit

A case such as this allows us to consider questions on aesthetics such as

I. Imagine a scenario in which an image of someone who is the object of

1. Is this an ethical issue? Why or why not?

2. Does the question of the rightness or wrongness of this depend on which

shows at least 9 shows at least 6 shows at 3 to 5 shows at most 2 explanation

explanation has explanation has explanation has 3 explanation has Has no

no error in 1 to 2 errors in to 4 errors in at least 5 errors explanation

Why is ethics important?

Mr. Nestor JR Pajares De Asis, LPT

OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC

The idea of viewing organizations as cultures—where there is a system of

Interestingly, though, the origin of organizational culture as an

EDS has, however, continued to thrive despite the departure of its

a. compare and contrast gawi and gawa;

DIRECTIONS: Kindly retort the following questions in a concise manner

a. What is gawi? Gawa?

DIRECTIONS: Attempt to analyze the different scenarios, activities, and cultures

GAWI AND GAWA HABITUATION

Freedom figures closely into action and inclination. Freedom, as defined,

Finally, a worker who produces for the society is judged skilled or

ETHICS AND ETHOS

Ethics, as concerned with “praxis” for Aristotle, properly focuses on the

PLATO’S INSIGHT INTO THE GOOD

An academic introduction to the discipline of ethics is incomplete

(Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oJs5u_GAYA)

In summary, Plato directs humanity to the nobility that is reachable

DIRECTIONS: Create a Venn diagram showing the comparison and contrasting

RUBRIC FOR EVALUATION SCORE

concept/point of view view has concept/point explanation

of view has somehow compared and of view did not

shows at least 5 shows at least 3 shows 2 shows only 1 explanation

explanation has explanation has explanation has 3 explanation has Has no

no error in 1 to 2 errors in to 4 errors in at least 5 errors explanation

Marc Oliver D. Pasco, V. Fulluente Suarez, and Agustin Martin G. Rodriguez,

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oJs5u_GAYA

Mr. Nestor JR Pajares De Asis, LPT

OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC

Human decisions always have consequences. Whenever one decides to do

c. Share a relevant experience where your decision skills were tested.

When considering the moral permissibility of wiretapping, we calculate the

THE GREATEST HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE

PLAYING ONLINE GAMES STUDYING

Mill presents an important point in his utilitarian theory of morality. He recognizes

TO THE OBJECTION THAT HAPPINESS IS UNATTAINABLE

TO THE OBJECTION THAT UTILITARIAN MORALITY IS INCOMPATIBLE WITH SELF-SACRIFICE

TO THE OBJECTION THAT SOCIAL CONCERN IS A RARE MOTIVE FOR ACTION

_________ _ ___________