NOIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

A PROJECT REPORT

On

REGENRATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the Award

of

DIPLOMA

in

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Name of Supervisor: MR. HARIOM RAWAL

Name of the students: PRASHANT JAISWAL
Designation: Asst. Professor
Roll No. : DE/EE/1801/002

Name of student: SHIVKANT

Roll No. : DE/EE/1802/003

 Roll No. : DE/EE/1801/001
Name of the students: ABHISHEK RAY

Plot No. – 1, Sector – 17 A,

Yamuna Expressway, Gautam Budh Nagar, Uttar Pradesh – 201310

2020 - 2021
 DECLARATION

I the undersigned solemnly declare that the project report “REGENRATIVE

BRAKING SYSEM” is based on my own work carried out during the course
ofourstudy under the supervision of MR. HARIOM RAWAL.

I assert the statements made and conclusions drawn are an outcome of my Project work.
I further certify that

The work contained in the report is original and has been done by me under the
general supervision of my supervisor.

The work has not been submitted to any other Institution for any
other degree/diploma/certificate in this university or any other
University of India or abroad.

We have followed the guidelines provided by the university in writing the report.

Whenever we have used materials (data, theoretical analysis, and

text) from other sources, we have given due credit to them in the text
of the report and giving their details in the references.

Date: - Student Name: PRASHANT JAISWAL

Roll No.: DE/EE/1801/002
i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work embodied in this Project report entitled ‘REGENRATIVE BRAKING
SYSEM’

being submitted by PRASHANT JAISWAL DE/EE/1801/002, SHIVKANT DE/EE/1802/003 and

ABHISHEKRAY DE/EE/1801/001 for partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Diploma in
Electrical Engineering to Noida International University, Gautam Budh Nagar(U.P.) is an authentic work
carried outby him under my supervision and guidance. To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied
in the Project Report has not been submitted to any other University/Institute for the award of any Degree or
Diploma.

Supervisor Name with Signature

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project is done as a semester project, as a part course titled ‘‘REGENRATIVE BRAKING SYSEM”
We are really thankful to our course the Head of the Department Mr. Anupam Kumar Yadav,
UniversityPolytechnic, Noida International University Greater Noida for his invaluable guidance and
assistance,without which the accomplishment of the task would have never been possible. We also thank
Mr. HariomRawal for giving this opportunity to explore into the real world and realize the interrelation
without whicha Project can never progress. We are also thankful to parents, friend and all staff of Noida
InternationalUniversity, for providing us relevant information and necessary clarifications, and great
support.
iii
 Abstract

Regenerative braking systems (RBS) are an effective method of recovering the energy released and at the
same time reducing the exhaust and brake emissions of vehicles. This method is based on the principle of
converting the kinetic energy created by the mechanical energy of the motor into electrical energy.
iv
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………..1-2

CHAPTER 2: GENERAL PRINCIPLE…………………………………………3-7

CHAPTER 3: THEORY………………………………………………… ………8-9

CHAPTER 4: FRICTION BREAKING…………………………………………10-12

CHAPTER 5: WORKING……………………………………………………….13-16

CHAPTER 6: REGENRATIVE BRAKING EFFICIENCY…………………….17-18

CHAPTER 7: PART USED IN MY PROJECT………………… ………………19-24

CHAPTER 8: RESULTS------------------------------------------------------------------- 25-25

CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION------------------------------------------------------------- 26-26

REFRENCES……………………………………………………………… …. 27-29
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1. Practical Regenerative Braking…………. ------------------------------------------4

FIGURE 2. One Pedal driving………………………..----------------------------------------. 4

FIGURE 3. Types of Brakes………………………….. -----------------------------------------8

FIGURE 4. The Thermal energy generated………… -----------------------------------------8

FIGURE 5. Coasting time , speed and distance…… ---------------------------------------- 13

FIGURE 6. Fly wheel Regenrative Braking……… …--------------------------------------- 15

FIGURE 7. Ultracapacitor energy capacity………… . ----------------------------------------18

FIGURE 8. RBS on Skoda Fabia………………………-----------------------------------------18

FIGURE 9. Dynamo………………………………… .. ----------------------------------------20

FIGURE 10. Shaft………………………………… ….. ----------------------------------------21

FIGURE 11. Switch…………………………… ……… ----------------------------------------22

FIGURE 12. A/C Motor………………………… …….. ---------------------------------------23

FIGURE 13. Assembly Diagram…………………… …. ---------------------------------------24

v
The project Dark Detector aims / executing the behavior of Light Dependent Resistance (Photo Resistor)
made by Cadmium Sulphide, so that we can use this device in multipurpose fields like: Blind Person
Accessibility Device, Security Alarm, Dark Line

Detector in Packaging Industry, alongwith CCTV Cameras in Security Systems, Visitor Counting in a Hall,
Train or Matro-trains Geographical Locations etc. we can also use this device in advanced development in
Security Systems at Sensitive Zones and Border or Military Areas.
 In this project I am using LDR as a ‘dark / light sensing device’. And Timer IC555 as a Logical
Operation IC (Integrated Circuit).

The role of IC555 in this project is only to sense threshold light shading or resistance by LDR
through IC’s Pin No.1 & 2. i.e. when the resistance of LDR is around 500K.Ohms - 1 Mega Ohms
(approx.)……. the pin Number 1 and 2 of IC act like a Switch in its internal mechanism as showing
in the below figure: hence immediately the PIN No. 7 & 8 will give sufficient voltage/ current
(around 5-12 volts) so that a 3-12 Volt Buzzer can produce a audible Buzzing Noise, these noise can
be easily audible to us to analyze the exact location of the ‘Light Source’ or ‘Dark Area’ – what-so-
ever….
INTRUDUCTION (IC 555)
 The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, delay, pulse generation,
and oscillator applications. Derivatives provide two (556) or four (558) timing circuits in one
package.  It was commercialized in 1972 by Signetics.  Numerous companies have made the
original bipolar timers and similar low-power CMOS timers too. In 2017, it was said over a billion
555 timers are produced annually by some estimates, and "probably the most popular integrated
circuit ever made.

 The timer IC was designed in 1971 by Hans Camenzind under contract to Signetics.  In 1968, he was
hired by Signetics to develop a phase-locked loop (PLL) IC. He designed an oscillator for PLLs such
that the frequency did not depend on the power supply voltage or temperature. Signetics
subsequently laid off half of its employees due to the 1970 recession, and development on the PLL
was thus frozen.  Camenzind proposed the development of a universal circuit based on the oscillator
for PLLs and asked that he develop it alone, borrowing equipment from Signetics instead of having
his pay cut in half. Camenzind's idea was originally rejected, since other engineers argued the
product could be built from existing parts sold by the company; however, the marketing manager
approved the idea.
 The first design for the 555 was reviewed in the summer of 1971. Assessed to be without error, it
proceeded to layout design. A few days later, Camenzind got the idea of using a direct resistance
instead of a constant current source finding later that it worked. The change decreased the required 9
pins to 8 so the IC could be fit in an 8-pin package instead of a 14-pin package. This revised design
passed a second design review with the prototypes completed in October 1971 as the NE555V
(plastic DIP) and SE555T (metal TO-5).  The 9-pin copy had been already released by another
company founded by an engineer who attended the first review and retired from Signetics; that firm
withdrew its version soon after the 555 was released. The 555 timer was manufactured by 12
companies in 1972 and it became a best selling product (Optional: We can also give this input /
multiple inputs to a computer system by using advanced devices like “Micro Controller
Programming” – so that we can easily determine / conclude dark / bright area in our sensitive zones.

 Name: Several books report the name 555 comes from the three 5 kilohm resistors inside the chip.
However, in a recorded interview with an online transistor museum curator, Hans Camenzind said
 "It was just arbitrarily chosen. It was Art Fury (Marketing Manager) who thought the circuit was
gonna sell big who picked the name '555'.”

 Design
 Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and
15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP-8).  Variants available
include the 556 (a DIP-14 combining two complete 555s on one chip),  and 558 / 559 (both a DIP-16
combining four reduced-functionality timers on one chip).
 The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 °C to +70 °C, and the SE555 part number
designated the military temperature range, −55 °C to +125 °C. These were available in both high-
reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package) packages. Thus the full
part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T.
 Low-power CMOS versions of the 555 are also available, such as the Intersil ICM7555 and Texas
Instruments LMC555, TLC555, TLC551.  
 CMOS timers use significantly less power than bipolar timers; CMOS timers also cause less supply
noise than bipolar version when the output switches states.
Internal schematic
 The internal block diagram and schematic of the 555 timer are highlighted with the same color
across all three drawings to clarify how the chip is implemented:
 Green: Between the positive supply voltage VCC and the ground GND is a voltage divider consisting
of three identical resistors, which create two reference voltages at 1⁄3 VCC and 2⁄3 VCC. The latter is
 connected to the "Control" pin. All three resistors have the same resistance, 5 kΩ for bipolar timers,
100 kΩ (or higher) for CMOS timers.
 Yellow: The comparator negative input is connected to the higher-reference voltage divider
of 2⁄3 VCC (and "Control" pin), and comparator positive input is connected to the "Threshold" pin.
 Red: The comparator positive input is connected to the lower reference voltage divider of 1⁄3 VCC, and
comparator negative input is connected to the "Trigger" pin.

(IC 555)
 Purple: An SR flip-flop stores the state of the timer and is controlled by the two comparators. The
"Reset" pin overrides the other two inputs, thus the flip-flop (and therefore the entire timer) can be
reset at any time.
 Pink: The output of the flip-flop is followed by an output stage with push-pull (P.P.) output drivers
that can load the "Output" pin with up to 200 mA for bipolar timers, lower for CMOS timers.
 Cyan: Also, the output of the flip-flop turns on a transistor that connects the "Discharge" pin to the
ground.
Pinout : The pinout of the 8-pin 555 timer and 14-pin 556 dual timer are shown in the following table. Since
the 556 is conceptually two 555 timers that share power pins, the pin numbers for each half is split across
two columns.
In the following table, longer pin names are used, because manufacturers never standardized the abbreviated
pin names across all datasheets.
Modes : The 555 IC has the following operating modes:
Astable (free-running) mode – the 555 can operate as an electronic oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp
flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation and so
on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length (e.g., selecting
a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor and the period of the output
pulse is determined by the temperature). The use of a microprocessor-based circuit can then convert the
pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means.
Monostable (one-shot) mode – in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator. Applications
include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-free switches, touch switches, frequency divider,
capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM), and so on.
Bistable (flip-flop) mode – the 555 operates as an SR flip-flop. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.
Schmitt Trigger (inverter) mode - the 555 operates as a Schmitt trigger inverter gate which converts a noisy
input into a clean digital output.

 LDR or a Photoresistor: A photoresistor or light –dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-

controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photo-resistor decreases with increasing incident
light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity.

A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated
switching circuits. [in this project – function of the LDR is to sense the sunlight or torch light so that
the LED may go on or off accordingly].
 IC 555 (Timer IC): The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator,
and as a flip-flop element. Introduced in 1971 by American company Signetics. It is now made by
many companies in the original bipolar and also in low-power CMOS types. [in this project I used
this IC to act as a flip flop switch & because it is easily available in the market / the circuit is easily
available on internet and in most project hobby books].
Battery (or Dry Cell): A Dry cell is a type of chemical cell, commonly used today, in the form of batteries,
for many electrical appliances. It was developed in 1886 by the German scientist Karl Gassner. A common
dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5  -
12 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc–manganese dioxide combination).
(in the project I have used 9volt Dry Cell). [the role of the 9V battery in this circuit is to give power to the
whole circuit as well as LED acting as street light] .

 Diode: is a two- terminal electronic

component that conducts primarily in one
direction; it has low (ideally
zero) resistance to the flow of current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in
the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of
 semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. Semi-
conductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The first semiconductor
diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals
such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as
selenium or germanium are sometimes used. [in this project I used the Diode – just to give
direction to output pulse from the output terminals].

Variable Resistance (Potentio-meter): A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the
resistance can be changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. A potentiometer is a three-
terminal resistor with a continuously adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob or by
a linear slider.  It is called a potentiometer because it can be connected as an adjustable voltage divider to
provide a variable potential at the terminal connected to the tapping point. [In this project – the role of
‘Potentiometer’ is to adjust the amount of light on LDR].

 Zero PCB: Here I am using Zero PCB also

known as multi purpose project PCB easily available in the traditional and online market. With
lowest price (price is suitable for research work students). i.e. 50-100 INR.
 There are many version of Zero PCB available in the market but I have choosen simple 5-10 Square
Inch Version for portability and durability.

 SWITCH :
 The role of a switch in any circuit is to just control flow of electrons. Either Digital or Analogue
signals.
 We need to choose switch according to voltage and ampere of the current / voltage flowing in the
particular area of the circuit.
We always need to take good quality switches for our projects. Either Student level or Industrial Projects
 IC 555 x 1 
 L.D.R. (Light Dependent Resistance) x 1
[Normal Rating – general purpose]
 Variable Resistance (Potentiometer) x1
[5-10 Kilo Ohms approx.]
 PCB (Printed Circuit Board) x1
(2.5” x 1.5” size approx)
 Switch (normal on off switch) x1
 Battery (9 Volts) x1
 Base Board (5-10 mm thick Sunboard) x1
 Wires (Multi Colour ½ Meter or 1 Meter) x 1 Mtr.
 Nut Bolts or Screw ½ cm or 1 cm height x 2-4 Nos.
[or as per availability] Optional.
 Soldring Wire (1-2 Mtr.) x 1 Mtr.
 Cable Tie or Fevibond Rubber Adhesive x 1 No.
 Some Decorative materials xxx
Circuit Diagram for Dark Detector

Analogue Circuit 1 (Optional)

This is a Double Transistor Based LDR circuit same as my own circuit but the difference is :

1. Higher Failure Rate.

2. Less Accuracy.
3. Transistors may not work below 5 volts.
4. Non professional circuit.
5. We can’t use these circuit/s in Digital Projects like ATMEGA or Microcontrollers.

Abbreviations :
 B or BT : Battery
 LDR : Light Emitting Diode
 VR : Variable Resistance
 IC : Integrated Circuit
 DC : Direct Current
 TR : Trigger
 R : Receiver or Resistance (Both)
 D : Diode (optional)
 VCC : Voltage at the Common Collector
(or Collector Supply Voltage)
 TR : Transmitter / Receiver
 BZ : Buzzer

WORKING (1)
 This circuit uses a popular timer I.C which is 555. Now when I.C 555 is connected as comparator
with pin 6 connected with positive supply, the output goes high-1 when the trigger pin 2 is at lower
than 1/3 level of the supply voltage. Conversely the output goes low-0 , when it is above 1/3 level.
So small change in the voltage of pin 2 is enough to change the output of pin 3 from 1 to 0 and 0 to
1.
 The output has only two states high and low and can not remain in any intermediate stage. It is
power by 9V battery for portable use. The circuit is economic in power consumption. Pin 4,6&8 is
connected to the positive supply and pin 1 is grounded. To detect the present of light we have used
LDR and a source of light. LDR is a special type of resistance whose value depends on the
brightness of the light which is falling on it. It has a resistance of about 1 mega ohms when in total
darkness, but a resistance of only about 2-5 k ohms when brightly illuminated.
It responds to a large part of the light spectrum. The source of light and LDR is so adjusted in the
night lamp (or LED) that light will directly fall on the LDR but when there is no light in the
atmosphere and LDR will be under darkness. We have made a potential divider circuit with LDR
and 100 K variable resistance connected in series. Voltage is directly proportional to conductance so
more voltage we will get by this divider when LDR is getting light and low voltage in darkness.
Divided voltage is given to pin 2nd of 555.
 Now as soon as LDR gets dark the voltage of the pin 2 drops 1/3 of the supply voltage and pin 3 gets
high and LED glows. We can also use two LED at output pin 3, for present LED 1 and for absent
LED 2. For this method one LED is connected as forward bias and other is connected as reverse bias
to indicate both high and low conditions. To limit the current of LED resistance is used in series.
APPLICATIONS OF MY CIRCUIT / GADGET (1)
 To detect darkness as well as light source with this same circuit.
 We can also use this as an Intruder Alarm if fitted near our office or house gate.
 
 Pouch cutting mechanism in small / large scale automation industries. (by detecting dark dot it will
give digital commend to micro-controller and then micro-controller will give RUN command to the
cutter blade of the machine.
 Automatic Street Light – we can change buzzer into 5 Volts relay in this case to control 220V AC
mains either in home or in street light.
  
 Automatic Night Lamp: we can make automatic night lamp with the use of this circuit so that when
sun sets – it will give 5 volts to pin no 3 & 4 in such a manner that the relay on pin no 3 & 4 will
trigger the light source in home or office.
 There are almost 10,000/- more applications of this circuit in modern life – all application(s) are not
possible to mention here in this investi-gatory project.
 So many social distance sensors, position sensors, railway sensors, visitor sensors, Airport in
Airplane Sensors etc.
 Sensitive Zone Alarm Using My Circuit Diagram

Automatic Garage Door

DIAGRAMATIC EXPLANATION
WHY MY CIRCUIT IS BEST (Because It Need Less Components
How To Connect Relay in These LDR Circuits

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.com)
 Google (www.google.co.in)
 Hobby Electronic Circiuts (BPB Publication Delhi).
 SMM Electronic Lab Consultants India.