Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101256

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Atmospheric Pollution Research

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Impact of vehicular movement on road dust resuspension and

spatiotemporal distribution of particulate matter during
construction activities
Dheeraj Alshetty, Ph.D, S.M. Shiva Nagendra, Ph.D. *
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, 600 036, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents the characteristics of ambient particulate matter (PM), resuspendable road dust and PM mass
Construction deposition in the human respiratory tract during preconstruction and construction phases. PM Emission Rates
Road dust resuspension (PMER) due to resuspension and spatiotemporal distribution were estimated and compared on construction roads
Spatiotemporal distribution
(CR) and non-construction roads (NCR) for both phases. The construction phase monitoring results demonstrated
Multiple-path particle dosimetry model
(MPPD)
that the silt load (SL) and PMER at CR (SL = 26–47 g/m2, PM10ER = 18.1–43.8 g/VKT, PM2.5ER = 4.3–10.6 g/VKT)
Silt load were significantly high when compared to NCR (SL = 3.0–12.5 g/m2, PM10ER = 0.3–7.5 g/VKT, PM2.5ER =
Particulate matter 0.1–1.8 g/VKT). Preconstruction phase results showed 15 to 20 times lesser values. Spatial and temporal vari­
ation studies showed that maximum PM concentrations (PM10 = 270.1, PM2.5 = 71.8, PM1 = 56.3 μg/m3) were
found during night at construction roads due to the movement of heavy-duty vehicles carrying excavated earth
overnight. Between 0 and 100 m length of road on either side of the construction sites, average PM10 concen­
trations were greater than 250 μg/m3. Similarly, for distance between 100 and 200 m, 200–400 m and 400–500
m, the PM10 values ranged between 200 and 250 μg/m3, 150–200 μg/m3 and 100–150 μg/m3 respectively. The
current study results clearly indicated that resuspension of road dust due to movement of heavy duty trucks
highly influence the PM concentrations in the surrounding environment of a construction site. The MPPD model
results indicated that the total deposition fraction of PM10 in construction workers airway during the con­
struction phase was 74–78%, followed by PM2.5(23–54%) and PM1(20–25%). Integration of sustainable prac­
tices, use of pollution control technologies and implementation of policies at a local scale are the way forward to
mitigate the pollution from construction activities.

1. Introduction
Urbanization has brought unprecedented growth in the real estate
and construction industry to accommodate the migrating population.
Demand for building construction is ever increasing, especially in
megacities where the population is greater than 10 million. The con­
struction industry has played a major role in improving the quality of
human life as it provides a built environment for human habitat. It also
serves as the most critical part of economy worldwide as it is one of the
major contributors to nations socio-economic growth and provides
employment to the large-scale population of skilled and unskilled
workers. It is reported that the construction industry contributes to a
GDP of more than 12% in US and is providing employment to over 10
million people(Edmund et al., 2018; Russell et al., 2007). Indian con­
struction industry is also growing at a rapid rate to meet the re­
quirements of urban residents (Arif et al., 2012). It is estimated that the
construction and real estate industry in India is projected to reach a
market size of 1 trillion USD by 2040 from 120 billion USD reported in
2017 and estimated to contribute 13% of the nation’s GDP. (IBEF,
2021).
However, the construction industry also has a substantial negative
impact on human health and environment, which cannot be ignored.
Construction activities are identified as a significant contributor to
ambient air pollution and construction dust emitted during such activ­
ities is one of the primary pollutants. Construction dust is a fine solid
particle suspended in air and due to its size and morphological

Peer review under responsibility of Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control.
* Corresponding author. Environmental and Water Resource Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, 600036, India.
E-mail addresses: snagendra@iitm.ac.in, shivanagendra@yahoo.com (S.M.S. Nagendra).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2021.101256
Received 3 May 2021; Received in revised form 1 November 2021; Accepted 1 November 2021
Available online 2 November 2021
1309-1042/© 2021 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
D. Alshetty and S.M.S. Nagendra
characteristics, it poses a greater threat to human health (Boldo et al.,
2011; Dockery et al., 1993; Gurjar et al., 2010; Pope and Dockery, 2006;
Singh and Gupta, 2016; World Health Organization, 2013). Further, the
health risk of particulates is a function of its size distribution and source
(Mukherjee and Agrawal, 2018; Pope and Dockery, 2006). The activities
and equipment’s at the sites emit particulates of various sizes ranging
from few nanometers to 100 μm. It is reported in a study that a con­
struction activity increases the particulate concentration in the sur­
rounding environment by 16–40% (Yan et al., 2019). Further, the total
PM10 emissions due to construction activities were reported to be as high
as 7.7 and 6.27 tons per day for Bangalore and Mumbai cities, respec­
tively, which accounts for an approximate contribution of 15–20% in
any urban area (Gargava and Rajagopalan, 2016). In a study reported by
Guttikunda and Calori (2013) it was estimated that construction activ­
ities contribute to 30 tons/day of PM10 accounting for 9% emissions in
Delhi city. The construction dust is heterogeneous in nature as PM
characteristics such as size, shape, number, mass, and chemical
composition are specific to the activities and equipment used during the
process. It is also estimated that 47% of PM10 emissions are contributed
by transit of trucks on unpaved roads and 24% emissions from paved
roads during construction of pavements. Contributions from other con­
struction activities are concreting, storage (14%), crushing plant (13%),
earthworks (1%) and excavation (1%) (Giunta et al., 2019).
The occupational health impacts on construction practitioners have
been reported in the past. The exposure to construction dust may lead to
illness ranging from short term to long term effects and premature
deaths in some cases. Silicosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary dis­
ease (COPD) are reported to be the most common detrimental health
effects found among the workers due to long-term exposure of con­
struction dust (Bergdahl et al., 2004; Linch, 2002). However, research
on emissions and impact analysis from the construction equipment’s and
construction activities are still at an early stage (Zhang et al., 2017).
Demolition & site clearance, excavations and structural works are some
of the major activities responsible for PM emissions within the con­
struction site. However, activities such as spillage of excavated earth
during transportation, fugitive emissions, and road dust resuspension
due to heavy-duty vehicle movements are responsible for pollution in
the surrounding environment.
Uncertainties involved in construction practices and time-bound
completion of the projects make it challenging for the industry to con­
trol emissions and address occupational exposure and pollution in the
surrounding environment. The future growth potential of the rising
construction industry and its impact on health and the environment has
necessitated researchers to integrate sustainability into construction
activities (Dong and Ng, 2015; Goel et al., 2019). However, there is a
lack of research studies in developing nations to evaluate the current
impact of various construction practices on the ambient air pollution
levels in the surrounding environment. Past studies have focused on the
measurement of PM concentrations and associated health risk at con­
struction sites using real-time PM monitoring devices (Ahmed and
Arocho, 2019; Kinsey and Cowherd, 2005). The health impact of emis­
sions on construction workers is well studied to an extent, whereas the
knowledge of impact on the neighborhood residents and surrounding
ambient air is scarce. With the past literature and study site observa­
tions, it was inferred that the resuspension of road dust and fugitive
emissions were the major reasons for high PM concentrations in the
surrounding environment of a construction site (Alshetty et al., 2020;
Meng et al., 2016). The silt load on the roads approaching to construc­
tion area was visibly high and it is the major cause for increased expo­
sure among the commuters using these roads and the neighborhood
residents (Gajghate et al., 2012). The fine particulates in the road dust
are toxic as it is a mixture of particulates emitted from vehicular exhaust,
brake wear, tire wear, and road surface wear which are carcinogenic in
nature (Amato et al., 2009). Further, the heavy-duty vehicular move­
ment increases significantly high during construction activities. As a
result, it can contribute to PM emissions that need to be quantified.
2
Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101256
The purpose of this paper is to provide key insights with onsite data
collection and highlight issues related to the management of air pollu­
tion arising due to heavy duty vehicular movement that leads to resus­
pension of road dust in the nearby environment of a construction site.
Thus, in the current study, the pollution levels of PM10, PM2.5 and
resuspendable road dust from approach roads of construction site are
quantified in Chennai city. Only paved roads have been considered for
sampling during the study. The objectives of the study are (a) to deter­
mine the silt load, PM resuspension rates and change in 24 h average PM
concentrations in the surrounding environment for preconstruction and
construction phase scenarios, (b) to assess the on-road exposure to PM
concentrations in both the scenarios measured using optical PM
measuring instrument, (c) to map the spatial and temporal variation of
PM in the surrounding environment and (d) to predict the PM mass
deposition rates in the human respiratory tract due to exposure.
2. Methodology
2.1. Site description
Chennai is a coastal city located on the Eastern Coastal Plains in
southern part of India. It is located between 12◦ 9′ N to 13◦ 9′ N latitudes
and 80◦ 12′ E to 80◦ 19′ E longitudes with an average elevation of 6.7 m.
It is the fifth most populous city in India. The city features a tropical wet,
and dry climate and the variation in seasonal temperatures is very low.
The population density of Chennai city is about 23,657 persons per
square kilometer with an area of 442 km2 (Chanu et al., 2021). Chennai
being a coastal city, is characterised by sea breeze and land breeze which
may sometimes have an impact on air quality in localities near the
coastline. Fig. 1 shows the details of the study area of construction sites
in Chennai. The sampling sites are located in the heart of Chennai city
and the total paved road length inside the study area is approximately
12 km. The roads approaching construction sites were classified as
construction roads (CR), and other roads were classified as
Non-Construction Road (NCR). The nature of traffic on the roads
considered for study and the length of roads have been described in
Table 1.
In the study area, seven locations were selected for air quality
monitoring. Fig. 1 shows the schematic representation of all the major
paved roads and construction activities that were going on in the study
area. Three commercial complexes and one residential complex con­
struction were going on in the study area during the monitoring period.
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of study area in Chennai.
D. Alshetty and S.M.S. Nagendra
Table 1
Details of air quality monitoring sites at the construction work.
Location Length of Road Type of location
name in meters
NCR 1 250 NCR 1 is one of the busiest roads in the city. HCVs
are allowed to enter the study area through this
road.
NCR 2 148 Located near Gandhi road and accommodates the
passage of only two-wheelers and is surrounded
by a residential area.
NCR 3 1086 It is one of the major roads in the study area. The
movement of buses and cars is high on this road.
CR 1 1739 Surrounded by residential complexes, cars and
two-wheelers are the major proportion of vehicles
to be found on this road.
CR 2 1322 Open for movement of all vehicles, including
buses. One of the busiest roads in the study area
CR 3 854 Two-wheelers proportion is high on the road.
CR 4 1084 Located near the taramani area, this road is also
open for mixed traffic
Air quality monitoring stations were located at all the construction sites
to quantify the impact of construction activities on local air quality.
Monitoring at two locations, i.e., NCR 1 and NCR 3, was conducted to
assess the effect on air quality due to the movement of heavy-duty ve­
hicles within the study area. Whereas NCR 2 was selected as a back­
ground site that is neither influenced by construction activity nor the
movement of heavy-duty vehicles. NCR 2 site was open only for the
movement of two-wheelers and pedestrians.
2.2. Sample collection
In this study, air quality monitoring campaign was conducted at
various locations within the study area for two scenarios, i.e., (i) Pre­
construction phase and (ii) Construction phase. During the monitoring
period, PM10, PM2.5, traffic volume and road dust samples were
collected for at least 4 day at each location. Preconstruction phase
monitoring was conducted between Jan 2019 to April 2019, and con­
struction phase monitoring was done from October 2019 to February
2020. A summary of 24-h average PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations, size
distribution of particulate matter, silt load, emission factors for resus­
pendable road dust and spatial variation of PM concentration inside the
study area have been discussed in the present study.
Further, to assure the quality of samples during monsoon, the rain
events were recorded throughout the monitoring period and the samples
were collected only during the days when there was no rain consecu­
tively for three days and the roads were completely dry. The moisture in
road dust during rains will make it impossible to collect the dry samples.
Quality control was planned to discard the samples which may cause
bias in the results due to high moisture content in the road dust.
2.2.1. Resuspendable road dust
Samples were collected from a marked-out area in an interval of 24 h.
Initially, the area is cleaned with a blower and all the loose material in
the marked area is removed. The pavement is exposed to normal traffic
flow that leads to accumulation of dust due to the movement of vehicles,
wind action and other factors contributing towards it. The accumulated
dust sample was collected after 24 h (USEPA, 2011). The collected
sample was further sieved using IS sieve pans and the sample passing
through a 75 μm sieve, collected in a pan, is weighed and the silt load
(g/area/day) is estimated using equation (1).
( )
g (Mass of sample less than 75 microns)
Silt Load = (1)
day∗m2 Area of pavement under consideration
PM emission factors were calculated using predictive emission factor
equations as given in equation (2) (USEPA, 2011)
E = k * (sL)0.91 *(W)1.02 (2)
3
Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101256
E = PM emission factor unit matching unit of k
k = particle size multiplier, PM2.5 - 0.15 g/VKT, PM10 - 0.62 g/VKT.
VKT = Vehicle Kilometer Travelled
sL = silt load - g/m2
W = Average weight (tons) of vehicles on the road.
2.2.2. Traffic count
During the monitoring period, traffic density at all the sampling lo­
cations was recorded manually. Traffic data for the preconstruction and
construction phase are represented in five categories viz., Two Wheelers
(2-W), Three Wheelers (3-W), Cars, Light duty Commercial Vehicles
(LCV) and Heavy-duty Commercial Vehicles (HCV). Tempos, tractors
and mini goods carriers have been considered in LCV’s (GVW ≤3500
kg), whereas buses and trucks have been considered in HCV’s (GVW
>3500 kg) (Alshetty et al., 2020). Traffic count is used for calculating
the PM emission rate due to resuspension.
2.2.3. PM monitoring
The PM10 mass concentrations were monitored using a high volume
sampler, APM 460 NL (Envirotech Instruments Pvt. Ltd. India), with an
average flow rate of 1.1 m3/min and PM2.5 mass concentrations were
measured by APM 550 (Envirotech Instruments Pvt. Ltd. India) with an
average flow rate of 16.7 L/min. PM2.5 samples are collected in 46.2 mm
diameter PTFE filters with polypropylene support ring of pore size 0.2
μm (Whatman International Limited, USA) and PM10 samples collected
on glass microfiber filters of size 20.3 × 25.4 cm (Whatman Interna­
tional Limited, USA). Before and after exposure, filters are being
weighed by using an analytical microbalance (Sartorius, ME5-F) with a
±1 μg sensitivity. The filters are equilibrated in a desiccator at room
temperature at a relative humidity of 40–50% for 24-h. Field and lab­
oratory blank filters are collected and analyzed for PM10 and PM2.5 to
reduce gravimetric bias due to filter handling during and/or after
sampling. Filters are placed in an aluminium foil sealed cassette while
carrying from the field. The PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations (μg/m3) is
determined from the weight differences and airflow rate.
2.2.4. PM number and mass concentrations
Real-time particulate matter concentration at monitoring locations
was measured at 6-s interval using Portable Laser Aerosol Spectrometer
Model 1.109 (GRIMM Aerosol Technik GmbH & Co, Germany). Model
1.109 possesses 30 size channels. Measured data were analyzed with
GPS data to find the spatial variation. 24 h continuous measurements
were carried out during the study period and for analysis, the data was
divided into 6 h interval as morning, afternoon, evening and night hours
data to plot the temporal variation. The instrument was carried manu­
ally, and measurements were done by travelling on sampling roads
continuously throughout the study area. Measurements were made for
the preconstruction and construction phase to account for the variation
in concentrations. The average of these measurements was used to
prepare a spatial variation of PM concentrations.
2.3. Data analysis
The PM data from each study location with the 6-s resolution was
extracted using the (GRIMM Spectrometer Software 1178) in the
Microsoft Excel format. The data was further statistically analyzed using
the SPSS software package (IBM SPSS Statistics, version 22; IBM,
Armonk, NY, USA). QGIS (Version 2.18.18) was used to post-process the
data and plot spatial variation of particulate matter concentrations.
Origin 2018 was used to plot the graphs.
2.3.1. Particle dosimetry model
Deposition fraction (DF) is the most commonly used unit to represent
the deposition of particulates in the Human Respiratory Tract (HRT),
such as head, tracheobronchial and pulmonary. DF gives an under­
standing of the fraction of particle numbers deposited in the head and
D. Alshetty and S.M.S. Nagendra Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101256

lungs. Many approaches have been used in the past to calculate DF.
However, the Multiple Path Particle Dosimetry Model is the most pop­
ular model as the predicted results are reliable. It represents the anat­
omy of human lungs more realistic than any other model (Deepthi et al.,
2019). MPPD model uses inputs such as Airway morphometry, Inhalant
properties and Exposure conditions to predict the DFs. In the current
study, a stochastic lung model with 60th percentile was used to predict
the DFs in HRT. Functional residual capacity (FRC) and upper respira­
tory tract (URT) volume were considered to be 3300 ml and 50 ml
(Menon and Nagendra, 2018). Aerosol properties such as Mass Median
Aerodynamic Diameter (MMAD) and Geometric Standard Deviation
(GSD) were calculated for each scenario. Particle density may vary
depending on the composition of particles at the monitoring locations.
For the current study, the density was considered as 1.67 g/cm3, which
was obtained from equation (3) (Passi et al., 2021). The data of aerosol
mass and number were obtained from Grimm Spectrometer. All other
standard input data were considered from earlier literature (Deepthi
et al., 2020; Manojkumar et al., 2019; Zwozdziak et al., 2017).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Vehicular movement during construction and preconstruction phase
During monitoring period, traffic density at all the sampling loca­
tions was recorded manually (Table 2). Traffic count was used for
calculating the PM emission rate due to resuspension. The highest
number of vehicle count was found at NCR 1 (6097 veh/day) followed
by CR 1 road (2543 veh/day) during the preconstruction phase. Simi­
larly, the number of vehicles during construction were also found to be
highest at NCR 1 (7156 veh/day) followed by CR 1 road (3050 veh/day).
The movement of heavy-duty vehicles within the study area during the
construction phase was increased by 2–3 times. The increase in number
of vehicles at the NCR 2 site was marginal due to the movement of
construction workers. This site was open for movement of only two-
wheelers, and no construction activities were happening.
In the preconstruction phase, total count of vehicles on all the major
roads of study area were alike - ranging between 1500 and 2500 veh/

/
Particulate concentration in mass
Density of particle g cm3 = ( ) (3)
Particle concentration in numbers × 109 × π6 × D × 10− 4 3

day. Whereas the percentage distribution of different categories of ve­

where, PM mass concentration is in μg/m3, number concentration is in
particles/liter, and D = diameter of aerosol in μm.
Deposition Dose (DD) is the mass of particulate deposited in HRT due
to exposure for a specific time and is estimated with equation (4). It is
used for assessing human health risk. DD is the function of deposition
fraction (DF), PM exposure concentration (PM in μg/m3), tidal volume
(TV in m3/breath), breathing frequency (f in breaths/min) and exposure
time (t in mins). For the current study, deposition doses in adults due to
exposure of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 during preconstruction and con­
struction phases have been calculated and evaluated.
DD = DF x PM x TV x f x t
hicles varied significantly on these roads. The total traffic composition
has been dominated by two-wheelers, followed by three-wheelers and
four-wheeler. Heavy Duty vehicle count is more on CR 2 and NCR 3
roads as the bus shuttle in the study area passes through this route,
whereas the number of cars were more on CR 1 road. However, during
the construction phase, the highest traffic count was found at NCR 1 and
CR 1 with the movement of large number of heavy-duty vehicles during
the night-time. The number of two-wheelers and cars remained the same
whereas the number of heavy-duty vehicles was increased significantly
on all the roads during construction. The least number of vehicles were
found on NCR 2 as it was open only for two-wheelers movement.
(4)

3.2. Silt load and PM emission rates at construction roads (CR) and non-
construction roads (NCR)

2.4. Quality assurance and quality control
The instruments were calibrated with methods given in the manu­
facturer’s handbooks to ensure data quality control and quality assur­
ance. Preceding each monitoring campaign, background and flow
controls were carried out. In order to prevent filter overload, the PTFE
filters used in particles collection were superseded at regular time in­
tervals. The instruments were followed in operation by the protocols
recommended by the manufacturer.
Silt load was quantified at all roads in the study area for both the
preconstruction and construction phase. The monitoring locations dur­
ing construction phase were classified as approach roads to construction
areas and normal roads. CR 1, CR 2, CR 3 and CR 4 were identified as
approach roads to construction areas, where it is expected to have a high
silt load compared to other locations. Fig. 2 shows the variation of silt
load in different locations. For the preconstruction phase, the highest silt
load was observed on NCR 1 with a value of 4.8 g/m2/day and is fol­
lowed by CR 4 and NCR 3 roads with the values of 2.6 and 2.2 g/m2/day,

Table 2
Traffic characteristics.
Preconstruction (PC) Phase Monitoring (Jan–Apr ‘19) Construction (C) Phase Monitoring (Oct’19-Feb’20)

2-W 3-W Cars LCV HCV 2-W 3-W Cars LCV HCV

NCR 1 2574 ± 402 527 ± 59 2938 ± 497 39 ± 5 19 ± 4 3458 ± 425 489 ± 83 3105 ± 433 48 ± 7 56 ± 14
NCR 2 2384 ± 293 0 0 0 0 2765 ± 174 0 0 0 0
NCR 3 1092 ± 98 386 ± 76 726 ± 86 86 ± 12 69 ± 9 984 ± 231 458 ± 62 897 ± 176 75 ± 15 85 ± 25
CR 1 864 ± 89 257 ± 25 1381 ± 136 25 ± 2 16 ± 3 1094 ± 135 298 ± 58 1498 ± 383 84 ± 17 76 ± 20
CR 2 1233 ± 70 39 ± 3 398 ± 92 98 ± 3 85 ± 10 1469 ± 292 39 ± 7 465 ± 114 109 ± 23 146 ± 31
CR 3 1156 ± 54 11 ± 4 467 ± 104 37 ± 4 7±2 1201 ± 186 29 ± 6 547 ± 106 65 ± 12 56 ± 15
CR 4 967 ± 92 265 ± 30 185 ± 18 109 ± 18 16 ± 3 1432 ± 285 326 ± 52 209 ± 39 134 ± 20 69 ± 15

PC = Preconstruction Phase; C = Construction Phase; CR = Construction Road.

NCR = Non-Construction Road; 2-W = 2 Wheeler, 3-W = 3-Wheeler, LCV = Light Duty Commercial Vehicles, HCV = Heavy Duty Commercial Vehicles.

4
D. Alshetty and S.M.S. Nagendra Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101256

Fig. 2. Silt Load and PM Emission rates at the study area during pre-construction and construction phase.

respectively. The least silt load was found on NCR 2 road (0.9 g/m2/
day). The silt load is a function of traffic count, road surface roughness,
vehicle speed and wind action (Kumar and Elumalai, 2018). However, as
vehicle speed and wind speed are almost constant within the study area,
the reason for high silt load on CR 4 and NCR 3 roads can be accounted
to road surface roughness and higher traffic count of HCV’s. In con­
struction phase, the silt load measured on approach roads to the con­
struction site varied between 26 and 47 g/m2/day. Silt load at normal
traffic site was found to be 12.5 and 9.6 g/m2/day. Similarly, the least
load was observed on NCR 2 with a value of 3.0 g/m2/day. It had the
least influence on construction activities and heavy-duty vehicle
movement.
PM emissions were quantified using predictive emission factor
equations as given in USEPA, AP-42. PM emissions are a function of silt
load, traffic count and the average weight of traffic. Using the traffic and
silt load data, PM10 and PM2.5 emissions in g/VKT were calculated for all
the sampling locations during the construction and preconstruction
phase. The results have been shown in Fig. 2. Emission rates varied
between 0.023 and 0.556 g/VKT for PM2.5 and 0.095–2.299 g/VKT for
PM10. As the emission rates are function of silt load and vehicular count,
the PM10 and PM2.5 emissions were highest for NCR 1 followed by CR 2
(PM2.5 = 0.446 g/VKT and PM10 = 1.845 g/VKT) and NCR 3 (PM2.5 =
0.439 g/VKT and PM10 = 1.813 g/VKT).
During the construction phase, PM emission rates (ER) at normal
traffic site were found to be ranging between 0.069 g/VKT to 1.812 g/
VKT for PM2.5 and 0.285 g/VKT to 7.492 g/VKT for PM10. At roads
approaching construction sites, PM10 ER as high as 43.803 g/VKT and
PM2.5 ER as high as 10.598 g/VKT was observed at CR 2 road. Spillage of
materials from vehicles and deposition of fugitive emissions from con­
struction activities are responsible for high silt load on the urban roads
near construction zone. Poor maintenance of construction vehicles is
also responsible for the silt depositions. Spillage of excavated material
while transporting the materials, soil on the tires and fugitive de­
positions are the major reasons for high silt load on the roads during
construction work.
3.3. Construction worker exposure to PM concentration
The daily average of PM concentrations collected during the pre­
construction and construction phase at 7 locations in the study area have
been reported in Table 3. During the preconstruction phase, the PM10
and PM2.5 constructions were found to be within the prescribed limit of
National ambient air quality standards (NAAQS). The permissible values
of 24-h average PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations for residential and rural
areas are 100 μg/m3 and 60 μg/m3 respectively. The measured PM10
concentrations varied between 56 ± 5.3 μg/m3 and 93.9 ± 13.1 μg/m3
with the highest concentrations at NCR 2 and lowest at CR 3 road.
Similarly, PM2.5 concentrations varied between 31 ± 2 μg/m3 and 55.3
± 5 μg/m3. The high concentrations at NCR 2 can be attributed to
vehicular emissions and resuspension of road dust due to high traffic
movement on the adjacent road outside study area.
Highest concentrations were found at CR 2 (PM10 = 156 ± 25.2 μg/
m3 and PM2.5 = 43.3 ± 7.5 μg/m3) followed by CR 3 (PM10 = 142.3 ±
33.2 μg/m3 and PM2.5 = 50 ± 17.4 μg/m3). The high concentrations of
PM at approach roads of construction sites can be attributed to the high
silt load and high PM EFs. Probable reasons for high silt load can be dry
deposition of construction dust emitted continuously from various ac­
tivities, equipment, fugitive dust emissions and spillage of earth mate­
rials from heavy-duty earthmovers and carriage vehicles. PM emission
rates during the construction phase also have shown a similar trend as
PM concentrations indicating that resuspension of road dust is the only
source of high concentrations during the monitoring period. Further, the
PM2.5/PM10 ratio during construction phase at all the approach roads
was less than 0.5, which also shows the dominance of coarse particles
ranging from 2.5 μm to 10 μm that indicates the major contribution from
road dust resuspension. During the preconstruction zone, the PM2.5/
PM10 was found to be greater than 0.5, where the finer particle mass is
dominating.
3.4. Spatial and temporal variation of PM during construction and
preconstruction phases

The portable aerosol spectrometer (GRIMM) was used to monitor the

particulate matter concentration of the entire study area. Significant
Table 3 spatial and temporal variations were found in the study area, especially
24-h average PM concentrations at the study area for preconstruction and con­ during construction phase. Spatial and Temporal variations for the
struction phase. preconstruction and construction phase are shown in Figs. 3 and 4,
Location Preconstruction Construction respectively. The higher concentrations during morning and evening in
the preconstruction phase can be attributed to the vehicular movement,
ID PM10 PM2.5 PM10 PM2.5
whereas high concentrations during night time in the construction phase
NCR 1 84.3 ± 14 51 ± 3 103 ± 7 56 ± 5.3
were majorly due to movement of heavy duty vehicles carrying exca­
NCR 2 93.9 ± 13.1 55.3 ± 5 83.7 ± 9.5 43.7 ± 4.7
NCR 3 66.3 ± 9.6 38 ± 5.6 96.7 ± 13.1 39 ± 3.6 vated earth and other materials. The maximum PM10, PM2.5 and PM1
CR 1 64 ± 7.2 34.3 ± 4 122 ± 24 36.7 ± 4.9 concentrations at night in the construction phase were found to be
CR 2 72 ± 7.5 33 ± 2.6 156 ± 25.2 43.3 ± 7.5 270.1 μg/m3, 71.8 μg/m3 and 56.3 μg/m3, respectively. The inversion
CR 3 56 ± 5.3 31 ± 2 142.3 ± 33.2 50 ± 17.4 conditions in the morning time may also result in higher concentrations
CR 4 76.3 ± 4.2 33.7 ± 3.2 120 ± 22.1 47.3 ± 5.1
due to low mixing height and subsequently resulting in poor dispersion.

5
D. Alshetty and S.M.S. Nagendra
Fig. 3. Spatial Variation of PM10 concentrations in the study area.
Fig. 4. Temporal Variation of PM10 concentrations in the study area.
The contribution of finer particulates was high during the pre­
construction phase, whereas the contribution of coarser particles was
higher during construction phase, which clearly indicates that the
resuspension of road dust is the major PM10 contributor during con­
struction activities. From the spatial variation analysis, the approach
roads to construction sites such as CR 1, CR 2, CR 3 and CR 4 showed a
peak in PM concentrations. Spatial variation results revealed that the
approach roads of the construction site contribute high silt load and PM
emissions up to 500 m of road length on either side. Between 0 and 100
m, the average PM10 concentrations were found to be greater than 250
μg/m3. The average PM10 values between 100 and 200 m on either side
of the construction site were found to be ranging between 200 and 250
μg/m3. Similarly, for distance between 200-400 m and 400–500 m, the
PM10 values were ranging between 150 and 200 μg/m3 and 100–150 μg/
m3 respectively. From the measurements, it is evident that the high silt
load at approach roads of construction is responsible for high PM con­
centration in the surrounding area of construction activities.
3.5. Characteristics of meteorological factors during the study period
The meteorological factors such as humidity, temperature, wind
speed and direction have a significant impact on the ambient air
pollutant concentrations (Mukherjee and Agrawal, 2017). The daily
average ambient temperature during the preconstruction and con­
struction phases were ranging from 29 to 32 ◦ C and 25 to 29 ◦ C
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Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101256
respectively. Further relative humidity varied between 45% and 89%
during the preconstruction phase and 37–85% during the construction
phase. When the humidity increases, particulate agglomerates and
subsequently the density of the particle increases that will lead to dry
deposition. As a result, particle number reduces and ambient PM10
concentration decreases (Sisterson et al., 1985). The study area being a
coastal city, the humidity is comparatively higher which may lead to dry
deposition mechanism and reduce PM10 concentrations. In the current
study, the variations in the range of maximum relative humidity values
during both the phases of construction were found to be negligible (2%).
The impact of meteorology on the PM concentrations was analyzed
using wind-rose during the monitoring period, as shown in Fig. 5. During
the preconstruction phase, the predominant wind was found to be from
the southwest direction with a maximum wind speed in the range of
2.1–3.6 km/h. Whereas, during construction phase, the wind was found
to be predominant from the Northeast direction with a maximum wind
speed in the range of 0.5–2.1 km/h. The lower wind speed and calm
conditions of 0.7% during the construction phase might have led to poor
dispersion conditions and accumulation of pollutants in the atmosphere,
leading to high PM concentrations. Further, the correlation of meteo­
rological factors and PM concentrations showed that the pollutant
concentrations are negatively correlated to temperature and wind speed.
The lower wind speed and atmospheric inversion conditions have been
reported to be the major influencers of pollutant accumulation in the
atmosphere (Gulia et al., 2015). From the results, it is evident that, the
impact of meteorology on the ambient air pollution is marginal when
compared to the impact of vehicular movement. In the current study, the
effect of sea breeze has not been considered as the study area was 4 kms
away from the coast and was a built-up area with denser green cover.
Also, the road dust samples, and PM measurements were made at ground
level, due to which the effect of sea breeze may not have significant
impact on the local meteorology at the ground.
3.6. PM deposition dose in the human respiratory tract (HRT)
From MPPD results, it was found that the total deposition fraction of
PM10 in the human airways during the construction phase was 74–78%,
followed by PM2.5(23–54%) and PM1(20–25%). Exposure doses of PM
mass in various regions of HRT were calculated for both the phases and
are summarized in Table 4. It was observed that the dose during con­
struction phases for PM10 and PM2.5 were 5.5 and 4 times the pre­
construction phase. However, deposition for PM1 was found to be almost
similar. This is due to the contribution of resuspension of road dust to the
coarser fraction of PM. The exposure concentrations and deposition dose
were found to be highest for the construction phase during the night
followed by morning, evening, and afternoon.
However, during the preconstruction phase, the lowest concentra­
tions and deposition dose were found during night time. The results and
D. Alshetty and S.M.S. Nagendra Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101256

Fig. 5. Windrose diagram during preconstruction and construction phase.

Table 4
Deposition Dose of PM (μg) in the human respiratory tract.
PM10 PM2.5 PM1

T H TB P T H TB P T H TB P

PC M 26.88 22.63 1.42 2.83 1.69 0.54 0.45 0.70 1.05 0.24 0.33 0.48
PC A 12.88 10.54 0.97 1.38 1.79 0.47 0.52 0.80 1.26 0.29 0.40 0.57
PC E 21.90 18.43 1.51 1.96 2.00 0.64 0.54 0.83 1.12 0.26 0.35 0.51
PC N 9.52 7.87 0.67 0.98 1.14 0.30 3.37 0.51 0.73 0.17 0.23 0.33
CM 82.92 69.18 5.11 8.64 8.12 5.13 0.95 2.04 1.13 0.48 0.25 0.40
CA 16.73 14.04 0.94 1.75 0.94 0.27 0.27 0.40 0.58 0.13 0.18 0.26
CE 29.40 24.70 1.61 3.09 1.25 0.40 0.34 0.52 0.70 0.15 0.22 0.33
CN 258.07 216.09 15.00 26.95 16.73 10.75 1.89 4.09 1.38 0.36 0.42 0.60

findings of the current study were in line with the values reported by
(Avino et al., 2016; Deepthi et al., 2019; Lv et al., 2021; Madureira et al.,
2020; Manojkumar et al., 2019; Rajput et al., 2019). It was concluded
that a commuter travelling through the approach roads of construction
at morning peak hours is exposed to 3.5 times the mass of PM during
construction phase that he will inhale on the same route during the
pre-construction phase. As expected, the highest mass exposures were
found during the night time of construction phase (Lv et al., 2021).
4. Discussion
The present study found that the construction activities in urban
areas have detrimental effects not only within the construction area but
also it has a significant impact on the surrounding environment. Road
dust resuspension and fugitive emissions are the major reasons for air
pollution in the surrounding environment. It was observed that the silt
load was exceptionally high during the construction period. High con­
centrations of silt load and PM emissions observed in this investigation
were similar to the results reported by Alshetty et al. (2019). Exposure
levels observed during construction phase were high, especially during
the night and early morning hours. On the other hand, during the pre­
construction phase, the pollutant concentrations were well within the
specified NAAQS. Currently, in most of the developing nations, air
quality deterioration due to construction activities is being overlooked.
In this regard, government intervention is necessary to identify major
impact factors and implement policies at the local scale to reduce
environmental impact. It was reported that air pollution due to con­
struction activity is causing significant environmental and health im­
pacts in developing nations (Xing et al., 2018). Further, air pollution at
construction zones and surrounding environments can be managed by
promoting the use of pollution control technologies and integration of
sustainability in construction industry to reduce environmental impact.
4.1. Air pollution and health effects due to construction activities
From the current study, it was evident that construction dust was
accumulated on urban roads. As a result of road dust resuspension, the
commuters and residents in the surrounding environment are exposed to
high PM concentrations. The silt load deposited on roads during con­
struction phase were found to be exceptionally high. Short-term expo­
sure to pollutants may lead to acute and chronic health issues. Further,
the chemical characteristics of PM, such as adherence of heavy metals
and PAH, may lead to a high health risk of carcinogenicity (Najmeddin
and Keshavarzi, 2019; Peng et al., 2011). It is reported in the past source
apportionment studies that construction activities are responsible for
more than 20% of PM pollution in an urban environment (Ahmed and
Arocho, 2019; Amato et al., 2009; Chelani et al., 2008). It is also evident
from past literature that the threat due to construction activities is
significantly high, especially in Asian developing nations (Jung et al.,
2019; Xie, 2011). The studies on occupational exposure of construction
workers in the past also have revealed significant cases of illness. A
cohort study with 317,629 construction workers reported that occupa­
tional exposure to construction dust increases mortality due to COPD
with a relative risk of 1.12 (Bergdahl et al., 2004).
Apart from occupational health risk reported in past studies, the
current investigation proves that the high concentration of construction
dust is not limited to the construction site and has a significant impact on
the surrounding environment. In the present study, the air quality was
found to be deteriorated up to an extent of 1 km. Thus, there is a need to
frame strategic development action plans and potential interventions to
mitigate air pollution.
4.2. Control measures
To improve the air quality at construction site and surrounding
environment, the emissions can be reduced at the source, during

7
D. Alshetty and S.M.S. Nagendra
transport or at the receptor. The control of direct emissions from con­
struction activities at source is challenging due to the uncertainties
involved in the work and the poor knowledge of emissions. The emis­
sions at the source can be addressed effectively by adopting suitable
control technologies and good practices. Further, Greenspace develop­
ment in the construction area can also be considered to reduce PM
concentrations during transport. It has been proven from past studies
that green cover can reduce PM pollution significantly (Wu et al., 2018).
However, the capability of trees varies from species to species, and it can
be quantified with Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) (Shannigrahi
et al., 2004). To reduce the exposure at receptors, the face mask respi­
rators and air purifiers are some of the technologies that can be used.
However, the awareness regarding importance of PPEs needs to be
raised among the workers who neglect the use of face mask for comfort
and ease of work. Smog towers and ambient air purification systems
have been installed at highly polluted cities as pilot study, but they may
not be effective in controlling pollution at a larger scale in an urban
environment (Guttikunda and Jawahar, 2020). However, dust arrestors
such as WAYU and CYCLOFINE (Shiva Nagendra et al., 2020) can be
used to contain the PM emissions within the specified area of con­
struction activities.
Dust suppressants have also been successfully used to address the
resuspension of road dust, and their effectiveness have been studied by
some of the researchers. Amato et al. (2014) have studied the effec­
tiveness of calcium magnesium acetate (CMA) and MgCl2 in reducing
road dust resuspension in the city of Barcelona and concluded that there
was a marginal reduction in PM levels. However, the results were not
found to be statistically significant. Contrastingly some of the studies
conducted in Norway (Aldrin et al., 2008) and Sweden (Norman and
Johansson, 2006) have found reductions in PM10 levels of up to 56% and
35% using dust suppressants. It is evident from various literature that
climatic conditions play an important role in the effectiveness of sup­
pressants. The detailed review on road dust resuspension by Gulia et al.
(2019) gives a better insight on challenges faced in countries like India
to control road dust resuspension. Theoretical cost analysis was con­
ducted with three different suppressants (CMA, MgCl2 and CaCl2) for
Delhi city and it was found that CaCl2 was most effective with 21%
reduction in PM10 concentrations and a cost of 4 million INR (only for
materials) was estimated per week for selected road networks. Con­
ventional practices such as enforcing barrier erections and constant
watering next to construction sites can be some of the economical so­
lutions in managing deposition and resuspension of road dust in tropical
countries like India.
4.3. Sustainable construction
From the current study and past literatures, it is evident that con­
struction practices are responsible for air quality deterioration, and it
has a significant impact on the natural environment over time. To
combat the rising demand of the construction industry and meet the
requirements of the increasing population, it is necessary to integrate
sustainable practices by reducing the consumption of resources and
minimizing the impact on environment. The more effective approach to
integrate sustainability in construction is to consider environmental is­
sues along with social and economic factors in the decision-making
process at a stage even before the design is conceptualized (Chang
et al., 2015). In recent years, various researchers have been working on
improvising construction practices. Several tools and indicators have
been proposed by regulators and governing bodies to promote sustain­
ability among construction firms. Building performance assessment is
one of the tools used by experts in industry to achieve sustainability
(Ding, 2008; Goel et al., 2019; Hwang et al., 2020). However, it is still
debatable on the effectiveness of such assessment tools as it requires a
multi-dimensional approach to address the uncertainties and complexity
involved in construction project management. One such sustainability
index was developed using a multi-criteria approach to address the
8
Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101256
environmental issues (Ding, 2008).
In most of developing nations, the acceptance of sustainability in
construction operations is very less, and there is a lack of policies and
governing bodies. A sound understanding of all the factors affecting the
adaptability of sustainable practices is necessary, based on which a
detailed strategy and potential interventions need to be framed. Such
policies are need of the hour for air pollution hotspots like Delhi, where
all the major activities are being stopped due to air quality deterioration
in the winter season. A novel approach for including eco-friendly
practices without affecting socio-economic aspects of the industry
needs to be worked out. Further, possible strategies to create awareness
among consumers also needs to be explored (Siew, 2016).
5. Conclusion
The current study was conducted with an objective to assess the
impact of construction activities on road dust resuspension and PM
concentrations in the surrounding environment. Silt load, PM emission
rates, spatial and temporal variation of PM concentrations were
analyzed to achieve the objective. Results showed that Silt load and PM
emissions were found to be increased significantly during the con­
struction phase. Silt load measured on approach roads to construction
site varied between 26 and 47 g/m2/day and silt load at normal traffic
site was found to be 12.5 and 9.6 g/m2/day. Heavy-duty vehicles
movement was also found to increase by two times during the con­
struction phase. It is evident from the result that the resuspension of
road dust is one of the major reasons for high PM concentrations in the
surrounding environment of construction zone. Spatial and temporal
variations showed that the highest PM concentrations were found near
to construction areas, especially during night and morning times. The
maximum PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 concentrations at night in the con­
struction phase were found to be 270.1 μg/m3, 71.8 μg/m3 and 56.3 μg/
m3, respectively. Thus, it is reasonable to predict that exposure to con­
struction dust will lead to acute health and environmental crisis in the
near future. From the current study, it is concluded that construction
activities are responsible for high silt load on urban roads approaching
construction area and resuspension of dust are high on these roads
where the heavy-duty vehicles of construction are moving. Spillage of
materials from vehicles and deposition of fugitive emissions from con­
struction activities are responsible for high silt load on the urban roads
near construction zone. Poor maintenance of construction vehicles is
also responsible for the silt depositions. However, the construction in­
dustry being one of the major contributors to nations development and
employment, it is not feasible to impose restrictions on building con­
structions in urban areas. Thus, in order to mitigate the air pollution
problem due to construction industry, integration of sustainable prac­
tices, use of pollution control technologies and implementation of pol­
icies at a local scale are the way forward.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Credit author statement
Dr. S M Shiva Nagendra: Conceptualization, Methodology, Vali­
dation, Supervision, Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Dheeraj Alshetty:
Investigation, Formal Analysis, Writing- Original draft, Data Curation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
D. Alshetty and S.M.S. Nagendra
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank all the technicians, undergrad stu­
dents, research associates and staff of Air Quality Lab at IIT Madras for
helping to collect the data and shifting the instruments during the study
period.
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