Lecture 2

Periods in the History of the English Language

1. Henry Sweet and his division of the history of English

Each of the periods is marked by a set of specific features of phonology,
grammar, and vocabulary, and may be also defined in these terms. Henry Sweet
classified them as the Period of Full Endings, which means that any vowel may be
found in an unstressed ending (e.g. OE sunu), the Period of Levelled Endings, which
means that vowels of unstressed endings were leveled under a neutral vowel [ə]
represented in spelling by the letter e (e.g. OE sunu – ME sune), and the period of
Lost Endings (e.g. NE sun).

2. Historical periodization as offered by Boris Khaimovich

According to B. Khaimovich, the history of the English language is divided
into three periods: Old English, Middle English, and New English. As landmarks
separating the three periods, he uses very important events, which had a great
influence on the history of English:
 The Anglo-Saxon invasion of the 5th century is taken as the beginning of the
Old English period.
 The Norman Conquest of the 11th century is regarded as the beginning of the
Middle English period.
 The introduction of printing in the 15 th century is the beginning of the New
English period.

3. Tatiana Rastorguyeva’s periodization of the English language

According to T. Rastorguyeva, the history of English is divided into the seven
periods:
I Early OE (also: Pre-written OE) c. 450 – c. 700
II OE (also: Written OE) c. 700 – 1066
III Early ME 1066 – c. 1350
IV ME (also: Classical ME) c. 1350 – 1475
 V Early NE 1476 – c. 1660

VI Normalization Period c. 1660 – c. 1800

(also: Age of Correctness,
Neo-Classical period)
VII Late NE, or Mod E c. 1800 . . . . . .
(including Present-day English) since 1945 . . . .

4. The division of the history of English as suggested by Vladimir Arakin

Arakin’s periodization is a traditional one because it is based on the extra
linguistic, which means that periodization connotes the character of the society
speaking the language. So, he divided the history of English into the following
periods:
 the Ancient English Period dated between the first centuries AD and the 7 th –
8th c. This is the period of the languages of the Old English tribes;
 the Old English Period dated between the 7th and 11th c. This is the period of
the language of the establishing English nationality. The end of this period is
marked by the Norman Conquest of England;
 the Middle English Period dated from the beginning of the 12 th c. to the 15th c.
This is the period of the language of the established English nationality
transforming gradually into the nation. The end of this period is marked by the
Wars of Roses (1455-1485);
 the New English Period dated from the end of the 15th c. to present. It is
subdivided into two periods: a) the Early New English Period – the period of
establishing standards of the national language; and b) the Late New English
Period – the period of the established standards of the national language.

5. The periods of the development of English as offered by Alan Markman and

Erwin Steinberg
The American linguists A. Markman and E. Steinberg also admit that it is not
possible to precisely divide the history of the English language into periods. In their
periodization they use the dates of written documents. As it is impossible to
determine the exact date of the earliest Old English texts, the beginning of the Old
English is recognized as 450 AD, when the Germanic tribes landed on the island. The
year of the last chapter of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 1154, is regarded as the end of
the Old English Period. The end of the Middle English Period coincides with the
death of the famous writer Thomas Malory – 1471, which is also the time of the
introduction of printing in England and Caxton’s activities. The Early New English
Period (1500 – 1700) is the period of England’s two prominent poets – William
Shakespeare and John Milton. The year of 1700, which is the year of John Dryden’s
death, is recognized as the end of the Early New English Period.
Lecture 3

The Formation of the English Nation

1. Pre-Saxon inhabitants of the British Isles.

We are so accustomed to thinking of English as an inseparable adjunct to the
English people that we are likely to forget that it has been the language of England
for a comparatively short period in the world’s history. It was introduced into the
island about the middle of the fifth century. Yet this part of the world had been
inhabited by humans for thousands of years: 50,000 according to more moderate
estimates, 250,000 in the opinion of some. During this long stretch of time, the
presence of a number of cultures can be detected; and each of these cultures had a
language.
What we know of the earliest inhabitants of England is derived wholly from
the material remains that have been uncovered by archaeological research. The
classification of these inhabitants is consequently based upon the types of material
culture that characterized them in their successive stages.
Generally speaking, the Stone Age is thought to have lasted in England until
about 2000 B.C., although the English were still using some stone weapons in the
battle of Hastings in 1066. Stone, however, gradually gave way to bronze, as bronze
was eventually displaced by iron about 500 or 600 B.C. Because the Stone Age was
of long duration, it is customary to distinguish between an earlier and a later period,
known as Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age and the Neolithic (New Stone) Age.
Paleolithic humans, the earliest inhabitants of England, entered at a time when
this part of the world formed a part of the continent of Europe, when there was no
English Channel and when the North Sea was not much more than an enlarged river
basin. The people of this period were short of stature, averaging about five feet, long-
armed and short-legged, with low foreheads and poorly developed chins. They lived
in the open, under rock shelters or, later, in caves. More than one distinct group is
likely to be represented in this early stage of culture. Their language disappeared with
the disappearance of the race, or their absorption into the later population. We know
nothing about the language or languages of Paleolithic culture.
“Neolithic” is likewise a convenient rather than scientific term to designate the
peoples who, from about 5000 B.C., possess a superior kind of stone implement,
often polished, and a higher culture generally. The predominant type in this new
population appears to have come from the south and, from its widespread distribution
in the lands bordering on the Mediterranean, is known as the Mediterranean race. It
was a dark race of slightly larger stature than the Paleolithic population. The people
of this technologically more advanced culture had domesticated the common
domestic animals and developed elementary agriculture. Their language has not
survived.
The first people in England about whose language we have definite knowledge
are the Celts.

2. Celtic tribes.
The lack of written records means that we know relatively little about language
use in Britain before the Anglo-Saxon invasions. The first inhabitants we do know
about are the Celts or Scots, who probably inhabited Ireland first and spread from
there to the Isle of Man and Scotland, the Cymric or Brythonic Celts arriving later.
Apart from them there were the Picts, who have left a number of inscriptions in the
ogham alphabet from around the fourth century A.D., and who probably were also
eventually Gaelic speakers. So, before the Anglo-Saxon invasion Great Britain was
inhabited by Celtic tribes: the Picts and the Scots in the North and the Britons in the
South.

3. Romans
In 55 B.C. Celtic Britain began to be raided by the Romans. Under the
leadership of Julius Ceasar, the Roman troops in 54 B.C. reached the Thames but
failed to subdue the Britons. In 43 A.D. under Emperor Claudius, the Roman invasion
of Britain was more successful. By the end of the first century A.D. under Domitian,
Britain became a Roman province. During the Roman occupation which lasted until
the beginning of the 5th c. the Latin language had supposedly spread over some parts
of Britain, especially over urban areas. Such elements of Roman civilization as paved
roads and strongly fortified military camps which were introduced into Britain had
greatly changed the looks of the country. Some of the Roman military camps later
became centers of many English towns.
At the beginning of the 5th c. the Roman legions had to be withdrawn from
Britain to defend the city of Rome as the latter was invaded and ruthlessly plundered
by the Goths. The independence of the Britons was but of short duration.

4. Germanic invasion
In 449 the first Germanic invaders – the Jutes – crossed the Channel and began
making a forcible settlement in the South-East, in Kent. They were followed by the
Saxons who gradually occupied the territory along the Thames and to the south of the
river. The last to come were the Angles who settled to the north of the Saxons.
It goes without saying that the invaders met with stubborn resistance and
succeeded in establishing themselves only after much fighting. That was why their
advance was very slow.
When the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes settled on the island of Great Britain, they
were separated from all their kinsmen, which resulted in the differentiation of their
speech. The slight difference between their dialects and those of other Germanic
tribes had a tendency to grow, and in the course of time it brought about the
development of a separate language – the English language.
On the other hand, the fact that the Angles, Saxons and Jutes came to live
together on the same island and fought the same enemy contributed much to their
being gradually united into one people – the English people.
Therefore the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Great Britain is usually considered the
beginning of the history of the English people and the history of the English
language.
As a result of the invasion, seven Germanic kingdoms were formed in Britain.
The Angles formed three kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. The
Saxons also founded three kingdoms: Wessex, Essex, and Sussex. The Jutes founded
one kingdom – Kent.
Among the historical events that influenced the development of the English
language of that period we must mention the introduction of Christianity in the 7 th c.
It resulted in an extensive adoption of Latin words and the substitution of the Latin
alphabet for a special Germanic alphabet, called Runic, used before that.

5. Scandinavian invasion of England and its influence on English

By the end of the Old English period Britain had grown into a feudal country,
though with a feudal system less developed than those on the continent.
Britain suffered much from the Scandinavians who in the 8th c. began to raid
the British coast and eventually founded extensive settlements in the North and East
of England. Only the kingdom of Wessex remained independent. In 878 Alfred, king
of Wessex, gained an overwhelming victory over the Scandinavians and made them
sign the Wedmore Treaty. The Scandinavians had to withdraw from Wessex and
Western Mercia, but they remained in all other parts of England they occupied and
that territory came to be known as “the Danelaw”. In 1017 the whole of England was
subjected to the conquerors. The level of the social development and culture of both
the Scandinavians and the English was almost the same. The languages of the two
peoples were also structurally similar since they both belonged to the Germanic
group of the Indo-European family. Many common words of both languages were
identical and a Scandinavian and an Englishman could practically understand each
other even though each of them was speaking their own language. The process of
language intermingling, which was more intensive in the North and East of England,
ended in the disappearance of the Scandinavian tongue in Britain, English remaining
the only language spoken there. English was exposed to Scandinavian influence for a
long time, which is especially noticeable in its vocabulary (about 650 borrowed
Scandinavian words) and extended to other aspects of the language as well.
6. The Norman Conquest and its influence on English
The Scandinavian rule in England lasted for 25 years (1017-1042). In 1066 the
country was invaded by the Normans. By origin the Normans were Scandinavian
people who in the 9th c. occupied a large territory on northern coast of France and
named it Normandy. In the course of time the invaders adopted French culture and
learned the French language. Besides, they embraced Christianity so that by the time
of the Norman Conquest their civilization was in fact French.
On the 14th of October 1066 William, the duke of Normandy, won the battle of
Hastings and soon after became a king of England, known as William the Conqueror.
The greater part of the English nobility was either killed or it fled from the country
and their places were filled by William’s French followers.
The Norman invasion caused great changes of a social and political character
in the life of Britain and, of course, influenced the development of the English
language as well. After the invasion the key positions in government began to be held
by French speaking Normans. The British nobility that had survived also had to use
French and adjust itself to the French way of life if it wanted to remain part of the
ruling class. Thus French gradually began to be used in governmental offices, in
courts of justice and in schools. All writing was done in French for about a century
and a half and English writing practically disappeared. So far as spoken English is
concerned, its domain was restricted to the regions populated by common people and
soldiers.
Under such circumstances the process of intermingling went on much slower
than was the case with the Scandinavians. At first the number of bilingual people in
the community grew, then due to subsequent historical events French began to be
ousted first in everyday communication, then in schools, courts of justice and
government institutions. By 1385 the practice of English had been totally
reestablished. Out of the struggle with French, English emerged victorious but its
vocabulary was replenished by a great number of French borrowings. The Norman
Conquest also had a definite influence on English spelling and pronunciation.