Sagar Institute of Science and Technology, Gandhi Nagar Bhopal

Affiliated by RGPV and BU Bhopal| Approved by AICTE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
MID SEMESTER EXAMINATION –II (APRIL 2019)
Subject –Electronic Instrumentation Subject Code – EX 6004
Duration: 2:00 Hours Maximum Marks: 42

Enrol. No………………………

Note: Attempt all questions.

All questions carry equal marks:

Q. Question Bloom’s
No. Taxonomy Marks CO
Level
1. a) Illustrate how the physical quantity are measured using transducers.
3(Apply) 7
Also classify the transducers with suitable examples
b)Sketch the block diagram of LVDT and analyse the differences
2(Understand) 7
between LVDT & RVDT
CO3
Or
a) Discuss the application of strain gauge in measurement of strain also
3 (Apply) 7
derive an expression for gauge factor
b)Elaborate the importance of multiplexing along with its type. 4 (Analysis) 7
2. a) Explain the circuit arrangement & working of Function Generator 2 (Understand) 7
b) Give the brief classification of noise&also explain the working of 3 (Apply) 7
Random Noise Generator
Or CO4
a) Describe the working of the Heterodyne wave analyzer with help of 2 (Understand) 7
neat diagram
b) Define Spectrum of Signal. Explain the application of Spectrum 3(Apply) 7
Analyzer in measurement of spectrum of signal
3 a) Enumerate the advantages of Digital instrument over Analog
2 (Understand) 7
instrument.
b) Sketch the circuit arrangement and explain the working of Dual 2 (Understand) 7
Slope Integration type voltmeter.
Or CO5
a) Explain the working of servo balancing potentiometer type DVM 2 (Understand) 7
b) What are different analog recorder available for recording the 2 (Understand) 7
events, describe the X-Y Recorder with the help of neat diagram

Course Outcome

CO3 Compare the different type of Transducers and their interfacing to the electronics control and measuring
system.
CO4 Identify the type of Signal Generators and use for various analysis.
CO5 Importance of digital instruments over the analog instruments and their interfacing for measurement and
 instrumentation.

Q1(a): Illustrate how the physical quantity are measured using transducers. Also classify the
transducers with suitable examples

ANS 1(a):
An instrumentation system consists of following main stages to perform a measurement &
records its result
1. An input device
2. A signal processing or conditioning device
3. An output device

Transducer: It is a device which when actuated converts one for of energy into another form
of energy. It is used to convert non-electrical quantities like pressure, displacement, pH value
into electrical signal & this electrical signal is measured using standard means
Stages in Transducer: The transducer basically consists of following two stages
1. Sensing
2. Transduction
Sensing or Detector Element:
It is the part of transducer which responds to a physical phenomenon or change on physical
phenomenon
The response of sensing element should closely follow the physical phenomenon
Transduction Element:The transduction element converts the output of the sensing element
into an electrical signal. This element is also called the secondary transducer.
The transducer is of many types, and they can be classified by the following criteria.
1. By transduction used.
2. as a primary and secondary transducer
3. as a passive and active transducer
4. as analogue and digital transducer
5. as the transducer and inverse transducer
1. Classification based on the Principle of Transduction
The transducer is classified by the transduction medium. The transduction medium may be resistive,
inductive or capacitive depends on the conversion process that how input transducer converts the input
signal into resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively.
2. Primary and Secondary Transducer
Primary Transducer – The transducer consists the mechanical as well as the electrical devices. The
mechanical devices of the transducer change the physical input quantities into a mechanical signal. This
mechanical device is known as the primary transducers.
Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer converts the mechanical signal into an electrical
signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends on the input mechanical signal.
3. Passive and Active Transducer
The transducer is classified as the active and passive transducer.
Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power from an external supply source is
known as the passive transducer. They are also known as the external power transducer. The capacitive,
resistive and inductive transducers are the example of the passive transducer.
Active Transducer – The transducer which does not require the external power source is known as the
active transducer. Such type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or current, hence known as a
self-generating transducer. The output signal is obtained from the physical input quantity.

The physical quantity like velocity, temperature, force and the intensity of light is induced with the help
of the transducer. The piezoelectric crystal, photo-voltaic cell, tacho generator, thermocouples,
photovoltaic cell are the examples of the active transducers.
4. Analog and Digital Transducer
The transducer can also be classified by their output signals. The output signal of the transducer may be
continuous or discrete.
Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a continuous function.
The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of the analogue transducer.
Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input quantity into a digital signal or in the form of
the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.
5. Transducer and Inverse Transducer
Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an electric quantity is known
as the transducer.
Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a physical quantity,
such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has high electrical input and
low non-electrical output.

Q1(b): Sketch the block diagram of LVDT and analyse the differences between LVDT & RVDT

ANS 1(b):
LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which is a non-electrical
energy is converted into electrical energy. The most widely used variable-inductance displacement
transducer in Industry is a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). It is a passive type sensor.
It is an electro-mechanical device designed to produce an AC voltage output proportional to the relative
displacement of the transformer and the ferromagnetic core. 
Construction:The primary coil of linear variable differential transformers winding is wound
on the entire length of non-ferromagnetic liner or bobbin which is typically made of some ceramic or
plastic material. There are a total of two secondary coils which are always wounded on the top of the
primary coil. Both secondary coils are connected in opposite directions but in series. The following is
the circuit diagram or LVDT diagram also known as a block diagram.
A ferromagnetic core is attached to the metal or object which is needed to be measured sliding along the
axis of the tube and is also coupling it magnetically to that of primary and secondary windings which
are adjusted at the length of the core. The secondary windings of long stroke linear variable differential
transformer having both windings to be wounded at the exact same time through the use of custom
design and computerized winding machines. This technique saves time in manufacturing as well as it
also creates the secondary windings with that of distribution of symmetrical capacitance, hence
allowing to meet required specification with ease.

When the magnetic core is at the centre position or null position, the output voltages are being equal
and opposite in polarity and, therefore, the output voltage is zero. The Null Position of an LVDT is
extremely stable and repeatable. When the magnetic core is displaced from the Null Position, a certain
number of coil windings are affected by the proximity of the sliding core and thus, an electromagnetic
imbalance occurs. This imbalance generates a differential AC output voltage across the secondary coil
which is linearly proportional to the direction and magnitude of the displacement.

Differences between LVDT & RVDT:

The RVDT, which stands for Rotary Variable Differential Transducer, is also a rotary variable
differential transformer that operates in the same manner as the LVDT; however, the exception
is the rotary ferromagnetic core. Instead of sensing a linear motion as in the LVDT, the
application of RVDT are that it uses a rotary variable differential that senses angular
movement.

The linear range of measurement for an LVDT is approximately plus or minus 40 degrees,
whereas the RVDT is utilized to measure angular displacement. LVDT changes the linear
motion into an alternating electrical signal, whereas the RVDT changes the angular
displacement into an electrical signal.
RVDTs are durable and robust for repeatable position sensing mechanisms, useful for
numerous applications requiring a sensor that can withstand extreme conditions such as
vibration and shock.

RVDTs are used in space vehicles, cargo aircraft, military fighters, drones, experimental
aircraft, missiles, nuclear reactors, flight simulators, and high-speed railways. Typical
applications also include rotary actuators, valve positioning, and throttle level positioning.

Or
Q1(a): Discuss the application of strain gauge in measurement of strain also derive an expression for
gauge factor

ANS 1(a):
A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an object. When an external force is applied on an
object, due to which there is a deformation occurs in the shape of the object. This deformation in the
shape is both compressive or tensile is called strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge. When an
object deforms within the limit of elasticity, either it becomes narrower and longer or it become shorter
and broadens. As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end-to-end.
The strain gauge is sensitive to those small changes occur in the geometry of an object. By measuring
the change in resistance of an object, the amount of induced stress can be calculated.
The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense that small change, strain gauge has
a long thin metallic strip arrange in a zigzag pattern on a non-conducting material called the carrier, as
shown below, so that it can enlarge the small amount of stress in the group of parallel lines and could be
measured with high accuracy. The gauge is literally glued onto the device by an adhesive.
When an object shows physical deformation, its electrical resistance gets change and that change is then
measured by gage.
Strain gauge bridge circuit shows the measured stress by the degree of discrepancy, and uses a
voltmeter in the center of the bridge to provide an accurate measurement of that imbalance
In this circuit, R1 and R3are the ratio arms equal to each other, and R 2 is the rheostat arm has a value
equal to the strain gage resistance. When the gauge is unstrained, the bridge is balanced, and voltmeter
shows zero value. As there is a change in resistance of strain gauge, the bridge gets unbalanced and
producing an indication at the voltmeter. The output voltage from the bridge can be amplified further by
a differential amplifier.

Derivation of Gauge Factor:The gauge factor is defined as the unit change in resistance per unit
change in length. It is denoted as K or S. It is also called sensitivity of the strain gauge.
Q1(b): Elaborate the importance of multiplexing along with its type.

ANS 1(b):
Multiplexing is used in cases where the signals of lower bandwidth and the transmitting media is
having higher bandwidth. In this case, the possibility of sending a number of signals is more. In this,
the signals are combined into one and are sent over a link that has greater bandwidth of media than
the communicating nodes.
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) –
In this, a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and each source transfers its signals in
the allotted frequency range. There is a suitable frequency gap between the 2 adjacent signals to avoid
over-lapping. Since the signals are transmitted in the allotted frequencies so this decreases the
probability of collision. The frequency spectrum is divided into several logical channels, in which
every user feels that they possess a particular bandwidth. A number of signals are sent simultaneously
at the same time allocating separate frequency bands or channels to each signal. It is used in radio and
TV transmission. Therefore, to avoid interference between two successive channels Guard bands are
used. 
3. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) –
This happens when data transmission rate of media is greater than that of the source, and each signal
is allotted a definite amount of time. These slots areso small that all transmissions appear to be
parallel. In frequency divisionmultiplexing all the signals operate at the same time with different
frequencies, but in time division multiplexing all the signals operate with same frequency at different
times. 

It is of the following types: 

1. Synchronous TDM
The time slots are pre-assigned and fixed. This slot is even given if the source is not ready with data
at this time. In this case, the slot is transmitted empty. It is used for multiplexing digitized voice
streams. 

2. Asynchronous (or statistical) TDM  

The slots are allocated dynamically depending on the speed of the source ortheir ready state. It
dynamically allocates the time slots according to different input channel’s needs, thus saving the
channel capacity. 
Q2(a): Explain the circuit arrangement & working of Function Generator

ANS 2(a):
A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types
of waveforms as its output signal. The most common output waveforms are sine-
waves, triangularwaves, square waves, and sawtooth waves. The frequencies of such waveforms may be
adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred kHz.
Actually, the function generators are very versatile instruments as they are capable of producing a wide
variety of waveforms and frequencies. In fact, each of the waveforms they generate is particularly
suitable for a different group of applications. The uses of sinusoidal outputs and square-wave outputs
have already been described in the earlier Arts. The triangular-wave and sawtooth wave outputs of
function generators are commonly used for those applications which need a signal that increases (or
reduces) at a specific linear rate. They are also used in driving sweep oscillators in oscilloscopes and the
X-axis of X-Y recorders.
Many function generators are also capable of generating two different waveforms simultaneously (from
different output terminals, of course). This can be a useful feature when two generated signals are
required for a particular application. For instance, by providing a square wave for linearity
measurements in an audio-system, a simultaneous sawtooth output may be used to drive the horizontal
deflection amplifier of an oscilloscope, providing a visual display of the measurement result. For
another example, a triangular-wave and a sine-wave of equal frequencies can be produced
simultaneously. If the zero crossings of both the waves are made to occur at the same time, a linearly
varying waveform is available which can be started at the point of zero phase of a sine-wave.
Another important feature of some function generators is their capability of phase-locking to an external
signal source. One function generator may be used to phase lock a second function generator, and the
two output signals can be displaced in phase by an adjustable amount. In addition, one function
generator may be phase locked to a harmonic of the sine-wave of another function generator. By
adjustment of the phase and the amplitude of the harmonics, almost any waveform may be produced by
the summation of the fundamental frequency generated by one function generator and the harmonic
generated by the other function generator. The function generator can also be phase locked to an
accurate frequency standard, and all its output waveforms will have the same frequency, stability, and
accuracy as the standard.
A frequency control network used here whose frequency is controlled by the variation in the magnitude
of current. The current sources 1 and 2 drives the integrator.
By using Function Generator, we can have a wide variety of waveforms whose frequency changes from
0.01 Hz to 100 KHz. The two current sources are regulated by the frequency-controlled voltage.
A constant current is supplied to the integrator by current supply source 1. Due to this, the voltage of
the integrator rises linearly with respect to time. This linear rise is according to the output signal voltage
equation:

Any increase or decrease in the current will resultantly increase or decrease the slope of the voltage at
the output and thus controls the frequency.
The Voltage Comparator Multi-vibrator present here cause variation in the state of the integrator output
voltage at a previously determined maximum level. Due to this change of state, the current supply from
source 1 cuts off and switches to supply source 2.
A reverse current is supplied to the integrator by current source 2. This reverse current cause drops in
the output of integrator linearly with time. As before this time also, when the output attains a
predetermined level, the comparator again changes its state and switches to current supply source 1.
Thus we will have a triangular wave at the output of the integrator whose frequency depends on current
by the supply sources as we can see in the block diagram shown above. A square wave signal is
obtained at the output of the comparator.
The resistance diode network employed in the circuit changes the slope of that triangular wave with
distortion less than 1%. The output amplifier thus helps to provide two waves at the output
simultaneously. This captured signal can be displayed by using an oscilloscope.
Q2(b): Give the brief classification of noise&also explain the working of Random Noise Generator

Ans2(b):
Random noise generator produces a wideband noise for testing of various types of electronic circuits &
systems.Noise is a signal whose amplitude & frequency varies randomly w.r.t timeThe random noise
contain is a non-periodic signal. Hence output spectrum of random noise generator cannot give unique
signal.

Noise s/g can be classified on the basis of frequencies as follows:

1. White Noise
2. Pink Noise
3. USASI Noise
White Noise:
White noise is a random signal which has a flat power spectral density. It can be said that it contains
equal power within any frequency band with fixed width.For white noise signal the analogy has been
drawn from “White Light”. The white noise covers range from 20Hz to 25 kHz. It has upper cut off
frequency of 50 kHz.
Pink Noise:
For pink noise the lower frequency has larger amplitude, similar to “Red Light”It has a voltage
spectrum inversely proportional to the square root of frequency. It is used in Bandwidth analysis
USASI:
It simulates the energy distribution of speech and music frequencies. It is generally used in the testing of
audio amplifiers & loudspeakers

Frequency response of noise

The instrument offers the possibility of using a single measurement to indicate performance over a
wide frequency band, instead of many measurements at one frequency at a time. The spectrum of
random noise covers all frequencies and is referred to as White noise, i.e. noise having equal power
density at all frequencies (an analogy is white light). The power density spectrum tells us how the
energy of a signal is distributed in frequency, but it does not specify the signal uniquely, nor does it tell
us very much about how the amplitude of the signal varies with time. The spectrum does not specify the
signal uniquely because it contains no phase information.

The method of generating noise is usually to use a semiconductor noise diode, which delivers
frequencies in a band roughly extending from 80-220 kHz. The output from the noise diode is amplified
and heterodyned down to the audio frequencyband by means of a balanced symmetrical modulator. The
filter arrangement controls the bandwidth and supplies an output signal in three spectrum choices, white
noise, pink noise and USASI noise.

Or
Q2(a): Describe the working of the Heterodyne wave analyzer with help of neat diagram

ANS 2(a):

The electronic instrument that analyzes the periodic signal in the RF range and above MHz ranges, is
called heterodyne wave analyzer. It is also known as a superheterodyne wave analyzer. Its working
principle is heterodyne (mix) of high IF (intermediate frequency range) with the input signal, which is
to be analyzed. The frequency components of the signal are fed to the passband IF amplifier due to the
tuning of the local oscillator. The IF amplifier is rectified and applied to the meter circuit to display the
output.

The block diagram of the heterodyne wave analyzer is shown below.

 The input RF signal that is to be analyzed is given to an input attenuator to attenuate the amplitude
of the signal. The output signal will be in the range of 0-18 MHz.
 The output of the input attenuator is fed to the untuned amplifier to amplify the RF signal and its
output is fed to the first mixer.

 The signal of the first mixer is heterodyned with the signal from the local oscillator in the frequency
range of 30-48MHz. The output of the first mixer will be in the 30MHz frequency range i.e., IF
signal.
The IF amplifier amplifies the IF signal obtained from the first mixer.

 This amplified IF signal of 30MHz is heterodyned (mixed) with the Crystal oscillator signal
frequency 30MHz in the second mixer. As the frequencies of the signals are the same, the output
frequency of the second mixer is 0 Hz.

 This output signal with 0 Hz is applied to an active low pass filter which has a frequency range of 0-
1500MHz.

 The output of the active LPF is fed to the meter circuit to display the reading of the selected RF
signal in the range of volts or decibels.

Q2(b): Define Spectrum of Signal. Explain the application of Spectrum Analyzer in measurement of
spectrum of signal
ANS 2(b):
Spectrum is defined as the energy distribution across the frequency spectrum of a given electrical signal
The spectrum analysis is divided into two major categories on an account of instrumentation limitation
& capabilities as follows:
1. Audio Frequency Analysis (AF)
2. Radio Frequency Analysis (RF)

The spectrum analyzer fundamentally measures the spectrum content of the signal i.e. fed to the
analyzer. For example, if we are measuring the output of a filter, let us say low pass filter, then the
spectrum analyzer would measure the spectrum content of the output filter in the frequency domain. In
this process, it would also measure the noise content and display it in the CRO,As displayed in the
block diagram, the working of the spectrum analyzer can be fundamentally categorized as producing a
vertical and a horizontal sweep on the cathode ray oscilloscope. We know that the horizontal sweep of
the measured signal would be with respect to frequency and the vertical sweep would be with respect to
its amplitude.To produce the horizontal sweep of the measured signal, the signal at the radio frequency
level is fed to the input attenuator, which attenuates the signal at the radio frequency level. The output
of the attenuator is fed to the low pass filter to eliminate any ripple content in the signal. Then it is fed
to an amplifier, which amplifies the magnitude of the signal to a certain level.

In this process, it is also mixed with the output of the oscillator which is tuned at a certain frequency.
The oscillator helps to generate an alternating nature of the fed waveform. After getting mixed with the
oscillator and amplified, the signal is fed to the horizontal detector, which converts the signal into the
frequency domain. Here in the spectrum analyzer, the spectral quantity of the signal is represented in
the frequency domain.
For the vertical sweep, the amplitude is required. To get the amplitude, the signal is fed to the voltage
tuned oscillator. The voltage tuned oscillator is tuned at the radio frequency level. Generally, resistors
and capacitors combination is used to obtain the oscillator circuits. This is known as RC oscillators. At
the oscillator level, the signal gets phase shifted by 360 degrees. For this phase shifting, different levels
of RC circuits are used. Usually have 3 levels.
Sometimes even transformers are also used for phase-shifting purposes. In most cases, the frequency of
the oscillators is also controlled using a ramp generator. The ramp generator is also sometimes
connected to a pulse width modulator to obtain a ramp of pulses. The output of the oscillator is fed to
the vertical sweep circuit. Which provides amplitude on the cathode ray oscilloscope.

Q3(a): Enumerate the advantages of Digital instrument over Analog instrument

ANS 3(a):
Following are the advantages of digital instruments over analog instruments:
Detection of low-level signals
Analog instruments use permanent magnet moving coil instrument (PMMC) movement for indication.
This movement cannot be constructed with a full-scale sensitivity of less than 50 mA. Any
measurement using a PMMC movement must draw a current of 50 mA from the measured quantity for
its operation for full scale deflection if conventional voltmeters are used. This would produce great
loading effects especially in electronic and communication circuits. Electronic voltmeter avoids these
loading errors by supplying the power required for measurement by using external circuits like
amplifiers. The amplifier not only supply power for the operation but make it possible for low level
signals which produce a current less than 50 mA for full scale deflection, to be detected which
otherwise cannot be detected in the absence of amplifiers.
High Input Impedance
The conventional PMMC voltmeter is a rugged and an accurate instrument but its main problem is that
it lacks both high sensitivity and high resistance. The electronic voltmeter can have high input
resistances with the input resistances remaining constant over all ranges instead of being different at
different ranges, hence less loading effects.
High Frequency Range
The response of electronic voltmeters can be made practically independent of frequency within
extremely wide limits.
Some electronic voltmeters permit the measurement of voltage from direct current to frequency of the
order of MHz The high frequency range may also be attributed to low input capacitance of most
electronic devices. The capacitance may be of the order of a few pF.
Accuracy
Since there are few moving parts (or even no moving parts) in the digital instruments, they are generally
more accurate than the analog instruments. The human error involved in the reading digital instruments
is very small, which adds to the accuracy of these instruments. However, the overall accuracy of any
digital instrument will largely depend on accuracies of the larger number of individual electronic
components used for building the instruments.
Better Resolution
The resolution (smallest reading perceivable) of analog instruments is limited by space on the scale
marking and also by the ability of the human operator to read such small deviations in scale markings
whereas in a digital instrument the measured value is displayed directly on LED or LCD panel whose
resolution is solely determined by resolution of the analog to digital converter (ADC). Use of 12 bit (or
higher) ADC can make a digital instrument to read as small as 0.001 V in 0-5 V range.
Storage capability
Digital instruments readings can be stored for future reference. Since the value displayed is obtained
through an ADC, the digital data can easily be stored in a microprocessor or PC memory. Such storage
facility can only be made available in analog instruments by the use of chart recorders where the
pointers has an ink source that keeps on marking the values on a roll of moving paper.

Q3(b): Sketch the circuit arrangement and explain the working of Dual Slope Integration type
voltmeter.
ANS 3(b):
The dual slope integrating type DVM integrates the input voltage Vi. The slope of the integrated signal
is proportional to the input voltage under measurement. After certain period of time, say t1, the supply
of input voltage Vi is stopped, and a negative voltage Vr of the integrator is applied.
Then the output signal of integrator experiences a negative slope, which is constant and proportional to
the magnitude of the input voltage.

At the start a pulse resets the counter and the F/F output to logic level ‘0’. S i is closed and Sr is open.
The capacitor begins to charge. As soon as the integrator output exceeds zero, the comparator output
voltage changes state, which opens the gate so that the oscillator clock pulses are fed to the counter.
(When the ramp voltage starts, the comparator goes to state 1, the gate opens and clock pulse drives the
counter.) When the counter reaches maximum count,i.e. the counter is made to run for a time ‘t 1’ in this
case 9999, on the next clock pulse all digits go to 0000 and the counter activates the F/F to logic level
‘1’. This activates the switch drive, e i is disconnected and er is connected to the integrator. The
integrator output will have a negative slope which is constant, i.e. integrator output now decreases
linearly to 0 volts. Comparator output state changes again and locks the gate. The discharge time t 2 is
now proportional to the input voltage. The counter indicates the count during time t 2. When the negative
slope of the integrator reaches zero, the comparator switches to state 0 and the gate closes, i.e. the
capacitor C is now discharged with a constant slope. As soon as the comparator input (zero detector)
finds that e0, is zero, the counter is stopped. The pulses counted by the counter thus have a direct
relation with the input voltage.
During charging

During discharging

Subtracting above equations:

If the oscillator period equals T and the digital counter indicates n 1 and n2 counts respectively,

Now, n1 and er are constants.

From above Eq. it is evident that the accuracy of the measured voltage is inde pendent of the integrator
time constant. The times t1 and t2 are measured by the count of the clock given by the numbers n 1 and
n2 respectively. The clock oscillator period equals T and if n 1 and er are constants, then last equation
indicates that the accuracy of the method is also independent of the oscillator frequency.
The dual slope technique has excellent noise rejection because noise and superimposed ac are averaged
out in the process of integration. The speed and accuracy are readily varied according to specific
requirements; also an accuracy of ± 0.05% in 100 ms is available.

Or
Q3(a): Explain the working of servo balancing potentiometer type DVM
ANS 3(a):
The input voltage is applied to one side of a mechanical chopper comparator, the other side being
connected to the variable arm of a precision potentiometer. The output of the chopper comparator,
which is driven by the line voltage at the line frequency rate, is a square wave signal whose amplitude is
a function of the difference in voltages connected to the opposite side of the chopper. The square wave
signal is amplified and fed to a power amplifier, and the amplified square wave difference signal drives
the arm of the potentiometer in the direction needed to make the difference voltage zero. The servo-
motor also drives a mechanical readout, which is an indication of the magnitude of the input voltage.

This DVM uses the principle of balancing, instead of sampling, because of mechanical movement. The
average reading time is 2 s.
3 1/2 – DIGIT
The number of digit positions used in a digital meter determines the resolution. Hence a 3 digit display
on a DVM for a 0 –1 V range will indicate values from 0 – 999 mV with a smallest increment of 1 mV.

Normally, a fourth digit capable of indicating 0 or 1 (hence called a Half Digit) is placed to the left.
This permits the digital meter to read values above 999 up to 1999, to give overlap between ranges for
convenience, a process called over-ranging. This type of display is called a 31/2-digit display, shown in
Fig. above.

Q3(b): What are different analog recorder available for recording the events, describe the X-Y
Recorder with the help of neat diagram

ANS 3(b):
The analog recorders are further classified as follows:
1. Graphic recorder
i. Strip chart recorder
ii. X-Y recorder
2. Oscillographic recorder
3. Magnetic tape recorder

X-Y Recorder:
X-Y recorder is an instrument which gives a graphicrecord of the relationship between two variables.
X-Y recorder is one which records the variation of onephysical quantity against another physical
quantity. It is used to measure voltage, current, frequency,power factors etc.
X-Y recorder consists of a pair of servosystems, driving a recording pen in two axis on stationary paper
chart.Attenuators are used to bring the input signal to the levels acceptable by the recorder.Two input
signal are applied to the two channels of X input & Y input.

the input signals is attenuated in the range of 0-5 mV, so that it can work in the dynamic range of the
recorder. The balancing circuit then compares the attenuated signal to a fixed internal reference voltage.
The output of the balancing circuit is a dc error signal produced by the difference between the
attenuated signal and the reference voltage. This dc error signal is then converted into an ac signal with
the help of a chopper circuit. This ac signal is not sufficient to drive the pen/arm drive motor, hence, it
is amplified by an ac amplifier. This amplified signal (error signal) is then applied to actuate the servo
motor so that the pen/arm mechanism moves in an appropriate direction in order to reduce the error,
thereby bringing the system to balance. Hence as the input signal being recorded varies, the pen/arm
tries to hold the system in balance, producing a record on the paper.
The action described above takes place in both the axes simultaneously. Hence a record of one physical
quantity with respect to another is obtained.
Some X—Y recorders provides x and y input ranges which are continuously variable between 0.25
mV/cm and 10 V/cm, with an accuracy of ± 0.1% of the full scale. Zero offset adjustments are also
provided.
The dynamic performance of X—Y recorders is specified by their slewing rate and acceleration. A very
high speed X—Y recorder, capable of recording a signal up to 10 Hz at an amplitude of 2 cm peak to
peak, would have a slewing rate of 97 cm/s and a peak acceleration of 7620 cm/s.
An XY Recorder Working may have a sensitivity of 10 µV/mm, a slewing speed of 1.5 ms and a
frequency response of about 6 Hz for both the axis. The chart size is about 250 x 180 mm. The accuracy
of X—Y recorder is about ± 0.3%.
The X-Y recorders are used in laboratories and industrial process control.
Some of the uses are listed.
1. Speed – Torque characteristics of motor.
2. Lift – Drag wind tunnel rest.
3. Regulation curves of power supplies.
4. Plotting stress – strain curves.
5. Hysterisis curve