Korean grammar

This article is a description of the morphology, syntax, and semantics of Korean. For phonetics and phonology,
see Korean phonology. See also Korean honorifics, which play a large role in the grammar.[1]

Note on romanization …

This article uses a form of Yale romanization to illustrate the morphology of Korean words. The Yale system
is different from the Revised Romanization of Korean seen with place names.

Under the version of Yale used here, morphemes are written according to their underlying form rather than
their spelling in the Korean writing system or pronunciation. Under this system, for example, the syllable which
is written in Korean as 었 is analyzed as ess even though the ss would be pronounced t before another
consonant. To avoid confusion, bold type will represent the morphology (in Yale), and italics will represent
Revised Romanization.

Classification of words …

The modern standard of word classification and the one taught in public schools was chosen by South
Korea's 1963 Committee on Education. This is the 9 pumsa (9 품사) system, which divides words into nine
categories called pumsa.[2][3]

The 품사 pumsa, also called 씨 ssi, are themselves grouped together according to the following outline.
Content words
Substantives
명사(名詞) myeongsa / 이름씨 ireumssi (nouns)
 대명사(代名詞) daemyeongsa / 대이름씨 dae-
Korean grammar
ireumssi (pronouns)

수사(數詞) susa / 셈씨 semssi (number words) Hangul 9품사

Verbs (broadly speaking) Hanja 9品詞
동사(動詞) dongsa / 움직씨 umjikssi (action verbs) Revised gupumsa
형용사(形容詞) hyeongyongsa / 그림씨 geurimssi Romanization
(descriptive verbs or adjectives)
McCune– kup'umsa
Modifiers Reischauer
관형사(冠形詞) gwanhyeongsa / 매김씨 maegimssi
(determiners, prenouns, or indeclinable adjectives)

부사(副詞) busa / 어찌씨 eojjissi (adverbs)

Other content words
감탄사(感歎詞) gamtansa / 느낌씨 neukkimssi (interjections or exclamations)
Function words
조사(助詞) josa / 토씨 tossi (particles or postpositions)
Both cardinal and ordinal numbers are grouped into their own part of speech. Descriptive verbs and action
verbs are classified separately despite sharing essentially the same conjugation. Verb endings constitute a
large and rich class of morphemes, indicating such things in a sentence as tense, mood, aspect, speech level
(of which there are 7 in Korean), and honorifics. Prefixes and suffixes are numerous, partly because Korean is
an agglutinative language.

There are also various other important classes of words and morphemes that are not generally classified
among the pumsa. 5 other major classes of words or morphemes are:

어미 eomi (verb endings)

지시어 jisieo / (demonstratives)
접속어 jeopsogeo (conjunctions)
접두어 jeopdueo (prefixes)
접미어 jeommieo (suffixes)
Substantives
E…
Postpositions
E…
조사(助詞), josa (also called as 토씨 tossi) are Korean postpositions, also known as case markers. Examples
include 는 (neun, topic marker) and 를 (reul, object marker). Postpositions come after substantives and are
used to indicate the role (subject, object, complement, or topic) of a noun in a sentence or clause. For a larger
list, see wikt:Category:Korean particles.

Case clitics
E…
Case clitics ( 격조사(格助詞) gyeok-josa) are clitics that mark the grammatical function of the word. Both
nouns and pronouns take case clitics. Pronouns are somewhat irregular. As with many clitics and suffixes in
Korean, for many case clitics different forms are used with nouns ending in consonants and nouns ending in
vowels. The most extreme example of this is in the nominative (subject), where the historical clitic i 이 is now
restricted to appearing after consonants, and a completely unrelated (suppletive) form ga appears after
vowels.

nominative - 이/가 i/ga for the subject, 께서 kkeseo for the subject who is respected
genitive - 의 ui
locative - 에 e "to" place or "in" place (e.g. "go to the hospital" or "I am in the hospital")
locative 2 - 에서 eseo "at" place or "from" place (e.g. "I work at the hospital" or "I came from Korea")

dative - 에게 ege "to" someone, 한테 hante "to" someone in a casual manner, 께 kke "to" someone who
is respected

에게서 egeseo "from" someone, 한테서 hanteseo "from" someone in a casual manner
ablative -
accusative - 을/를 eul/reul for the direct object

lative - 로/으로 ro/euro "onto" something or "with" something (e.g. "it is moving toward the city" or "I wrote
with a pen")
instrumental -로써/으로써 rosseo/eurosseo "with" something
essive - 로서/으로서 roseo/euroseo being "as" something (e.g. "as a teacher, I will help you")

ablative 2 - 로부터/으로부터 robuteo/eurobuteo something "from" source or origin (e.g. "modern cars
are developed from carriages")
comitative -와/과 wa/gwa, 랑/이랑 rang/irang, 하고 hago together "with" someone or something
vocative - 아/야 a/ya, 여/이여 yeo/iyeo "hey" someone being addressed

Informational clitics
E…
Informational clitics ( 보조사(補助詞) bo-josa) provide additional meanings to the words that they attach to.
They may override the case clitics, or be placed after other clitics.
Information clitics
Type After vowels After consonants

Topic* nun 는 neun un 은 eun

Additive* to 도 do
Or na 나 na ina 이나 ina
* The topic and additive markers mark the noun phrase with case markers. They override the nominative and
accusative case markers rather than being attached after those case markers.

Nouns
E…
Korean nouns 명사(名詞) myeongsa (also called 이름씨 ireumssi) do not have grammatical gender, and
though they can be made plural by adding the suffix 들 deul to the end of the word, in general the suffix is not
used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are
three apples" would use the plural "apples" instead of the singular "apple", the Korean sentence 사과가 세 개
있습니다 Sagwaga se gae itseumnida "(lit.) apple three(things) exist" keeps the word 사과 sagwa "apple" in its
unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.

The most basic, fundamental Korean vocabulary is native to the Korean language, e.g. 나라 nara "country", 날
nal "day". However, a large body of Korean nouns stem from the Korean pronunciation of Chinese characters
e.g. 산(⼭) san "mountain", 역(驛) yeok "station", 문화(⽂化) munhwa "culture", etc. Many Sino-Korean words
have native Korean equivalents and vice versa, but not all. The choice of whether to use a Sino-Korean noun
or a native Korean word is a delicate one, with the Sino-Korean alternative often sounding more profound or
refined. It is in much the same way that Latin- or French-derived words in English are used in higher-level
vocabulary sets (e.g. the sciences), thus sounding more refined – for example, the native Germanic "ask"
versus Romance "inquire".

Pronouns
E…
Korean pronouns 대명사(代名詞) daemyeongsa (also called 대이름씨 dae-ireumssi) are highly influenced by
the honorifics in the language. Pronouns change forms depending on the social status of the person or
persons spoken to, e.g. for the first person singular pronoun "I" there are both the informal 나 na and the
honorific/humble 저 jeo. In general, second-person singular pronouns are avoided, especially when using
honorific forms. Third-person pronouns are not well developed, and in most cases, a demonstrative 그 geu
"that" in combination with a noun such as 사람 saram "person" or 것 geot "thing" is used to fill the gap. Also,
only for translation and creative writing, a newly coined term, 그녀 geu-nyeo (literally, "that woman"), is used
aphoristically to refer to a female third person. A gender-neutral third person is covered by the demonstrative
그 geu (originally "that"). For a larger list of Korean pronouns, see wikt:Category:Korean pronouns.
Numerals
E…
Korean numerals 수사(數詞) susa (also called 셈씨 semssi) include two regularly used sets: a native Korean
set and a Sino-Korean set. The Sino-Korean system is nearly entirely based on the Chinese numerals. The
distinction between the two numeral systems is very important. Everything that can be counted will use one of
the two systems, but seldom both. The grouping of large numbers in Korean follows the Chinese tradition of
myriads (10,000) rather than thousands (1,000) as is common in Europe and North America.

Verbs (broadly speaking)

E…
Processual verbs
E…
Korean 동사(動詞) dongsa (also called as 움직씨 umjikssi) which include 쓰다 sseuda "to use" and 가다
gada "to go", are usually called, simply, "verbs." However, they can also be called "action verbs" or "dynamic
verbs," because they describe an action, process, or movement. This distinguishes them from 형용사(形容
詞) hyeongyongsa.
Korean verb conjugation depends upon the tense, aspect, mood, and the social relation between the speaker,
the subject(s), and the listener(s). Different endings are used depending on the speaker's relation with their
subject or audience. Politeness is a critical part of the Korean language and Korean culture; the correct verb
ending must be chosen to indicate the proper degree of respect or familiarity for the situation.

Descriptive verbs
E…
형용사(形容詞) hyeongyongsa (also called 그림씨 geurimssi) sometimes translated as "adjectives" but also
known as "descriptive verbs" or "stative verbs," are verbs such as 예쁘다 yeppeuda, "to be pretty" or 붉다
bukda, "to be red." English does not have an identical grammatical category, and the English translation of a
Korean hyeongyongsa is usually a linking verb + an English adjective. However, some Korean words which do
not match that formula, such as 아쉽다 aswipda, a transitive verb which means "to lack" or "to want for", are
still considered hyeongyongsa in Korean because they match the conjugation pattern for adjectives. For a
larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean adjectives.

Copulative and existential verbs

E…
The predicate marker 이다 (i-ta, ida, "to be") serves as the copula, which links the subject with its
complement, that is, the role 'to be' plays in English. For example, 대나무는 풀이다 (Taynamwu-nun phwul-i-
ta, Daenamuneun purida, "A bamboo is a grass") When the complement, which is suffixed by i-ta, ends in a
vowel, i-ta contracts into -ta quite often as in following example, 우리는 친구다 (Wuli-nun chinkwu-ta, Urineun
chinguda, "We are friends.") The past tense of 이다 is 이었다 (i-ess-ta, ieotda, "was"). However, if it is attached
after a vowel, it is always contracted into 였다 (yess-ta, yeotda, "was"). If not, it cannot be contracted.
To negate, a special adjective 아니다 (ani-ta, anida, "to not be") is used, being one of the two cases that take
complement, the other being 되다 (toy-ta, doeda). Two nouns take the nominative clitic 이/가 (i/ka, i/ga)
before the negative copula; one is the subject, and the other is the complement. For instance, in 대나무는 나
무가 아니다 (Taynamwu-nun namwu-ka ani-ta, Daenamuneun namuga anida, "A bamboo is not a tree."), 대나
무는 (taynamwu-nun, daenamuneun) is the subject and 나무가 (namwu-ka, namuga) is the complement. The
derived form 아니요 (aniyo, aniyo) is the word for "no" when answering a positive question.

이다 and 아니다 become 이야 (i-ya, iya), often 야 (ya, ya) after a vowel and 아니야/아냐 (ani-ya/anya,
aniya/anya) at the end of the sentence in 해체 (haeche, "informal, non-poilte speech level") form. In 해요체
(haeyoche. "informal, polite speech level") form, they become 이에요 (i-ey-yo, ieyo), often 예요 (yey-yo, yeyo)
after a vowel and 아니에요/아녜요 (ani-ey-yo/anyey-yo, anieyo/anyeyo) as well as the less common forms
이어요/여요 (i-e-yo/ye-yo, ieoyo/yeoyo) and 아니어요/아녀요 (ani-e-yo/anye-yo, anieoyo/anyeoyo).
The copula is only for "to be" in the sense of "A is B". For existence, Korean uses the existential verbs (or
있다 (iss-ta, itda, "there is") and 없다 (eps-ta, eopda, "there isn't"). The honorific existential verb for
adjectives)
있다 is 계시다 (kyeysi-ta, gyesida).
Supporting verbs/adjectives
E…
Sometimes, just using an adverb is insufficient to express the exact meaning the speaker has in mind. The
composition of a main verb (or adjective) and a supporting verb (or adjective) can be used in this case,
alongside some grammatical features. Suffixes including - / 아 어 -a/eo, -게 -ge, -지 -ji, and -고 -go are taken by
the main verb (or adjective), and the supporting verb (or a.) follows it and is conjugated.

Examples using -eo/a

E…
아 어 가다/오다 -a/eo gada/oda: to continue to do, while getting away/closer
- /

-아/어 버리다 -a/eo beolida: to end up doing (and I feel sad, or distressed, to see the result)

-아/어 보다 -a/eo boda: to try doing

-아/어지다 -a/eo jida (written without a space): to be done; to become adj.

-아/어하다 -a/eo hada (written without a space): to feel adj.

Examples using -ge
E…
 -게 되다 -ge doeda: to be done; to end up doing
-게 하다 -ge hada: to make sb do
Examples using -ji
E…
-지 않다 -ji anta, (-지 아니하다 -ji anihada, -잖다 -janhda): not to do; not to be adj.
-지 말다 -ji malda: not to do (in imperative, e.g. 하지 마! "Don't do that!")

-지 못하다 -ji motada: to be unable to do

Examples using -go
E…
-고 보다 -go boda: to do before realizing sth
-고 싶다 -go sipda: to want to do

-고 있다 -go itda: to be doing

Examples using other suffixes

E…
-어야 하다/되다 -eoya hada/doeda: to have to do
-아도 되다 -ado doeda: to be permitted to do

-(으)면 하다 -(eu)myeon hada: to hope to do

-(으)면 되다 -(eu)myeon doeda: to be okay or desirable to do

Modifiers
E…
Determinatives
E…
Korean 관형사(冠形詞) gwanhyeongsa (also called 매김씨 maegimssi) are known in English as
"determiners," "determinatives," "pre-nouns," "adnouns," "attributives," "unconjugated adjectives," and
"indeclinable adjectives." Gwanhyeongsa come before and modify or specify nouns, much like attributive
adjectives or articles in English. Examples include 각(各) gak, "each." For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean
determiners.

Adverbs
E…
Korean adverbs 부사(副詞) busa (also called 어찌씨 eojjissi) include 또 tto "again" and 가득 gadeuk "fully".
Busa, like adverbs in English, modifies verbs. For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean adverbs.

Other content words

E…
Exclamations
E…
Korean interjections 감탄사(感歎詞) gamtansa (also called 느낌씨 neukkimssi) as are also known in English
as "exclamations". Examples include 아니 ani "not". For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean interjections.

Sentence structure …

Korean is typical of languages with verb-final word order, such as Japanese, in that most affixes are suffixes
and clitics are enclitics, modifiers precede the words they modify, and most elements of a phrase or clause
are optional.

Compound sentence
E…
A compound sentence is a sentence where two or more independent clauses are equally connected. The
verb endings used for connecting the clauses include -고 -go "and", -(으)며 -(eu)myeo "and", -(으)나 -(eu)na
지만 -jiman "but".
"but", and -

이제 겨울이 가고 봄이 돌아 왔지만 이곳은 여전히 춥다. "The winter is now gone and the spring has
come back, but the weather here still remained cold."

Complex sentence
E…
A complex sentence is a sentence where one or more dependent clauses are subordinatedly connected to
the independent clause. A lot of endings are used to indicate a wide variety of meanings, making the clause
suffixed by one of them subordinate to the other clause. The difference from an adverb clause is not very
apparent.

길을 걷다가 문득 하늘을 보았더니 달이 참 아름답게 떠 있었다. "I was walking along the street when I
suddenly stopped to look up at the sky; the moon was there which was truly beautiful."
Noun clauses
E…
Followed by noun clause marker -( ) 으 ㅁ -(eu)m or -기 -gi, a sentence can serve as a noun. The markers are
attached to the last verb of the sentence. For example, if you want to include a sentence 그가 갑자기 떠났다.
(Ku-ka kapcaki ttena-ss-ta., Geuga gapjagi tteonatda., "He left all of a sudden.") into another sentence 무언가
를 친구가 나에게 알려 주었다. (Mwuenka-lul chinkwu-ka na-eykey ally-e cwu-e-ss-ta., Mueongareul chinguga
na-ege allyeo jueotda., "My friend informed me of something."), then the verb 떠났다 (ttena-ss-ta, tteonatda)
combines with -(으)ㅁ (-(u)m, -(eu)m) to make a noun clause 떠났음 (ttena-ss-um, tteonasseum): the
resulting sentence is 그가 갑자기 떠났음을 친구가 나에게 알려 주었다. (Ku-ka kapcaki ttena-ss-um-ul
chinkwu-ka na-eykey ally-e cwu-e-ss-ta., Geuga gapjagi tteonasseumeul chinguga na-ege allyeo jueotda., "My
friend informed me that he left all of a sudden.").
 으 ㅁ -(eu)m is used in more formal settings, meanwhile -기 -gi is used casually.
Note that -( )

나는 그가 이미 죽었음을 몰랐다. "I didn't know that he was already dead."

그녀가 범인임은 명백하다. "That she is the criminal is clear."
일하기(가) 싫다. "I don't feel like working."
먹기(에) 좋게 자른 채소 "vegetables chopped for the convenience of eating"
Adjective clauses
E…
This is the most widely used subordinate clause, even substituting the aforementioned noun clause by taking
part in the form -는 것 -neun geot "the thing which". -는 -neun marks the present tense, -(으)ㄹ -(eu)l stands
for the future tense, and -(으)ㄴ -(eu)n and -던 -deon are for the past tense, though -(eu)l also acts without
meaning any tense as in -ㄹ 때 (-l ttae "when"). See Korean verbs.

저번에 우리 서울 올라갔을 때 치킨 먹었던 데 기억나냐? "Do you remember where we had chicken when
we were in Seoul?"

내가 살던 고향은 꽃 피는 산골 "My homeland where I lived was a mountain town in which flowers
bloomed."

Accompanied by several dependent nouns, adjective clauses can comprise idiomatic expressions, such as -
ㄹ 것이다 -l kkeos-ida for the future conjugation, -ㄹ 것 같다 -l kkeot gatda, "I suppose...", -ㄹ 수(가) 있다/없
다 -l ssu(ga) itda/eopda "It is possible/impossible...", -ㄹ 리가 없다 -l liga eopda "It makes no sense that..."
그는 여태 한 번도 늦은 적이 없었다. 오늘 역시 그는 제 시간에 올 것이다. "He has never been late so far.
Today, as usual, he'll be in time."

Adverb clauses
E…
Endings like -이 -i, -게 -ge, -도록 -dorok, and so forth derive adverbial clauses. -이 -i is not commonly used in
making clauses except for 없이 eops-i "without"; -게 -ge is in common use in this sense instead.

그는 말 없이 나를 쳐다보았다. "He looked at me without a word."

물 먹게 그릇 좀 다오. "Please bring a cup for me; I need some water."
재미 있게 노는 아이들 "children playing with fun"
황금 보기를 돌 보듯 하라. "See gold as if seeing a stone."
A lot of caution is needed when faced with -게 하다 -ge hada and -게 되다 -ge doeda, which may mean just
"do -ly" and "become sth -ly", but also can make causative and passive verbs, respectively, which consist of
main and supportive verbs.
 정원을 아름답게 하다 (causative) ↔ 발레를 아름답게 하다 (adverbial; causative if intended)
방이 깔끔하게 되다 (passive) ↔ 격파가 깔끔하게 되다 (adverbial; passive if intended)
Verbal clauses
E…
Usually in the form 무엇은 무엇이 어떻다, the whole clause serves as one adjective predicate. Just look at
the examples.

토끼는 귀가 크고, 기린은 목이 길다. "A rabbit has big ears and a giraffe has a long neck.", or word-for-
word, "A rabbit is big-eared, and a giraffe is long-necked."

라면은 값도 싸고 맛도 좋지만 건강에는 좋지 않다. "Instant ramen is cheap and tasty but not healthy."
나는 배가 좋건만 친구는 사과를 사 왔다. "I like pears, but my friend appeared with apples."
Quotation clauses
E…
Although the example above 그가 갑자기 떠났음을 친구가 내게 알려 주었다. might be used in a novel, it is
unbearably awkward to say in more-general situations. Quotation clauses as in 내 친구가 "걔 갑자기 가 버리
데."라고 하더라. (direct quotation) or in 내 친구도 걔가 갑자기 가 버렸다고 하더라. (indirect quotation) are
used instead. The particle (이)라고 (i)rago is for direct quotation, and the verb endings like -다고 -dago, -(느)
냐고 -(neu)nyago, -라고 -rago, and -자고 -jago are used for indirect quotation, for declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and suggesting sentences respectively. Exceptionally, sentences employing a verbal particle 이다
ida and an adjective 아니다 anida are suffixed with -rago in place of -dago for declarative ones.

뭐라고요? "What?" or "What did you say?"

경찰은 자세한 경위를 조사하고 있다고 밝혔다. "The police announced that they are investigating the
details."

The last syllable -go is often dropped. Furthermore, if the verb hada means 'to say' and is right next to the
고 하다 -go hada is abridged, becoming -다 -da, which of course can conjugate.
syllable -go, then -

뭐라디? (뭐라고 하디?)

내가 뭐랬어. (내가 뭐라고 했어.) 괜히 기운만 빠졌네. "Do you remember what I said? You only got tired
for nothing."

Subordinate clauses
E…
Verbs can take conjunctive suffixes. These suffixes make subordinate clauses.

One very common suffix, -ko - 고 -go, can be interpreted as a gerund if used by itself, or, with a subject of its
own, as a subordinating conjunction. That is, mek.ko 먹고 meokgo means approximately "eating," koki lul
mek.ko 고기를 먹고 gogireul meokgo means "eating meat," and nay ka koki lul mek.ko 내가 고기를 먹고 nae-
ga gogi-reul meog-go means "I eat meat and..." or "My eating meat."

Another suffix, somewhat similar in meaning, is se 서 -seo which is, however, attached to long stem of a verb.
The long stem of a verb is the one that is formed by attaching -e⁄a 어/아 -eo/-a after a consonant.

Both sometimes called gerunds, the verb form that ends in se and the one that ends in -ko juxtapose two
actions, the action in the subclause and the action in the main clause. The difference between them is that
with se the action in the subclause necessarily came first, while -ko conveys more of an unordered
juxtaposition. se is frequently used to imply causation, and is used in many common expressions like manna
se pan.kapsupnita 만나서 반갑습니다 Manna-seo bangapseumnida (literally, "Since I met you, I'm happy" -or-
"Having met you, I'm happy"). If -ko was used instead, the meaning would be closer to "I meet you and I'm
happy," that is, without any implied logical connection.

These are both subordinating conjunctive suffixes and cannot (in the more formal registers, at least) derive
complete sentences of their own without the addition of a main verb, by default the verb iss 있. 내가 고기를
먹고 있다 (Nay ka koki lul mek.ko issta, naega gogireul meoggo issda) therefore means "I am eating meat."
The difference between this and the simple sentence 내가 고기를 먹는다 (nay ka koki lul meknun ta, naega
gogileul meogneunda, "I eat meat") is similar to the difference in Spanish between "Estoy almorzando" and
"Almuerzo," in that the compound form emphasizes the continuity of the action. The -se 서 form is used with
the existential verb iss 있 for the perfect. 문이 열려 있다 (Mwuni yellye issta, mun-i yeollyeo issda, "the door
has been opened") can be the example, although it would convey different meaning if the very syllable se
were visible, 문이 열려서 있다 'because the door is opened, it exist', meaning of which is not clear, though.
Questions …

Questions in Korean are formed using interrogatory verb endings such as - / ㅂ 습니까 -(seu)mnikka. The verb
ending usage varies according to the speech level.

Interrogative verb endings and speech level.

Formal Informal

Polite
Hasipsio - /ㅂ 습니까 -(seu)mnikka Haeyo
-아/어요 -
Hao -오/소 -(s)o a/eoyo

-나 -na, -ㄴ/는가 -(neu)nga (procedural verbs), -(으)ㄴ가 -(eu)nga

Hage
Impolite (others) Hae -아/어 -a/eo
Haera -냐 -nya, -니 -ni
 Imperatives …

으 십시오 -(eu)sipsio. The verb

Imperatives in Korean are formed using imperative verb endings such as -( )
ending usage varies according to the speech level.

Imperative verb endings and speech level.

Formal Informal

Polite
Hasipsio -( )으 십시오 -(eu)sipsio Haeyo -(으)세요 -(eu)seyo
Hao -(으)시오 -(eu)sio

Hage -게 -ge
Impolite Hae -아/어 -a/eo
Haera -아/어라 -a/eora, -(으)렴 -(eu)ryeom

Suggestions …

Suggestions in Korean are formed using suggestion verb endings such as -( ) 으 ㅂ시다 -(eu)psida. The verb
ending usage varies according to the speech level.

Suggestion verb endings and speech level.

Formal Informal

Hasipsio —
Polite 아 어요 -a/eoyo
Haeyo - /
Hao 으 ㅂ시다 -(eu)psida
-( )

Hage -(으)세 -(eu)se

Impolite Hae - /아 어 -a/eo
Haera -자 -ja

Exclamations …

Exclamations in Korean are formed using exclamatory verb endings such as - 구나 -guna. The verb ending
usage varies according to the speech level.
Exclamatory verb endings and speech level.
Formal Informal

Hasipsio —
Polite Haeyo - 네요 -neyo
Hao -구려 -guryeo
Hage -군 -gun
Impolite Hae -네 -ne
Haera -구나 -guna

Negation …

The negation in Korean can be expressed in the following three forms.

Negation using 안 an, 아니 ani, -지 않다 -ji anta, and -지 아니하다 -ji anihada
This form of negation signifies the absence of volition. It may imply that the agent did not act even
though the situation allowed to do so.

Negation using 못 mot and -지 못하다 -ji motada

This form of negation signifies the absence of ability. It may imply that the agent could not act even if
the agent intended to do so.

Negation using - 지 말다 -ji malda

This form of negation is used for imperatives and suggestions.

In addition, the negation can be achieved through the use of verbs with negative meaning, such as 아니다
anida, 없다 epda, and 모르다 moreuda.
Tense and aspect …

The tense and aspect can be expressed using a variety of non-terminal suffixes and special constructions.
The tense is expressed differently when the verb is used at the end of the sentence and when it is used to
modify other phrases.
Tense
End of sentence Modifier

Procedural verb Others Procedural verb Others

ㄴ는
Present - / - -(neu)n- -∅- (as is) 는 -neun
- -(으)ㄴ -(eu)n

-(으)ㄴ -(eu)n —
Past -았/었- -(a/eo)ss-
-던 -deon (progressive), -았/었던 -(a/eo)tdeon (perfect)

Future -겠- -gess-, -ㄹ 것이다 -l geosida -(으)ㄹ -(eu)l

In addition, the progressive aspect can be expressed using -고 있다 -go itda and -ㄴ/는 중이다 -(neu)n jung-
ida forms for procedural verbs. The perfect aspect can be expressed using -아/어 있다 -a/eo itda form.

Number …

Korean has general number.[4] That is, a noun on its own is neither singular nor plural. It also has an optional
plural marker - 들 -deul, which is most likely to be used for definite and highly animate nouns (primarily first-
and second-person pronouns, to a lesser extent nouns and third-person pronouns referring to humans, etc.)
This is similar to several other languages with optional number, such as Japanese.

However, Korean -deul may also be found on the predicate, on the verb, object of the verb, or modifier of the
object, in which case it forces a distributive plural reading (as opposed to a collective reading) and indicates
that the word is attached to expresses new information.

For instance:

ex: 많이들 먹다가들 가거라

mani-deul meokdaga-deul gageora
manidɯl mʌk̚taɡadɯl kaɡʌɾa
a lot-ADV-PL eat-and-PL go-IMP
'You guys eat well and go.'

In this case, the information that the subject is plural is expressed.

To add a distributive meaning on a numeral, 씩 ssik is used.

ex: 학생들이 풍선을 하나씩 샀어요
haksaengdeur-i pungseon-eul hana-ssik sass-eoyo
hak̚sɛŋdɯɾi pʰuŋsʰʌnɯl hanas͈ik̚ sʰas͈ʌjo
 student-PL-NOM balloon-ACC one-each buy-PRET-INT-POL
"The students bought a balloon each."

Now "balloon" is specified as a distributive plural.

Subject–verb agreement …

While it is usually stated that Korean does not have subject–verb agreement, the conjugated verbs do, in fact,
show agreement with the logical subject (not necessarily the grammatical subject) in several ways. However,
agreement in Korean usually only narrows down the range of subjects. Personal agreement is shown partly
on the verb stem before the tense-aspect-mood suffixes, and partly on the sentence-final endings.

Korean distinguishes:

Honorific subjects from non-honorific subjects in the second or third person via a verb suffix. See Korean
honorifics.

Korean distinguishes first person from non-first in emotion verbs, in that the form "A 는 B가 싫다" A dislikes
B for example is hardly used for 3rd-person subjects in most registers, and only used inside questions in
case of 2nd-person subjects. (A prominent exception is in novels or stories, where it is understood that the
narrator is omniscient and can authoritatively describe what's going on inside A's mind.) On the contrary,
the form "A 가 B를 싫어하다" can be used freely for 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-person subjects.
first person from third person, partially, in the future and the past tense.

inclusive first person from exclusive first person, and first person from third person, in the jussive mood[5]

Korean does not distinguish:

singular from plural on the verb (though this is systematically marked on pronouns)

second person from third person in statements

second person from first person in questions

The following table is meant to indicate how the verb stem and/or the sentence ending can vary depending on
the subject. The column labeled "jussive ending" contains the various jussive sentences endings in the plain
style.
 Person agreement on final ending
Person
Jussive ending

-getda -겠다 (common)

-(eu)rida -(으)리다
-(eu)ryeonda -(으)련다
1st sg (volition)

-(eu)ma -(으)마

1st pl (suggestion) -ja -자

2nd, 3rd (command) -a/eora -아/어라

Valency …

Valency in Korean
E…
An intransitive verb, an adjective, or a noun plus the predicate particle 이다 -ida requests one argument, the
subject, though it may be omitted. ( 한 자리 서술어)
비가 내린다. "It is raining."
하늘이 푸르다. "The sky is blue."
지금은 아침이다. "It is morning now."
A transitive verb needs two arguments; one is the subjects, and the other can either be an object, a
complement, or an essential adverb. ( 두 자리 서술어)
고양이가 쥐를 잡는다. "A cat catches a mouse." (object)
그는 나에게로 와서 꽃이 되었다. "He came to me and became a flower." (adverb, then complement)
A ditransitive verb carries three arguments, which always include an essential adverb. (세 자리 서술어)
나는 엄마한테 김치 세 통을 받았다. "I got 3 boxes of kimchi from my mom."
동생은 나에게 "다 잘 될 거야."라고 말했다. "My brother told me "Everything's gonna be okay.""
See also …

Korean postpositions

High-context and low-context cultures

References …

1. Much of the material in this article comes from the companion text to the NHK language materials Hanguru Nyūmon
(1985).
 2. Lee, Chul Young (2004). Essential Grammar for Korean as a Second Language (https://web.archive.org/web/20110
725103532/http://brskl.org/resources/upload/2009-8-28/KoreanGrammarTextbook.pdf) (PDF). pp. 18–19.
Archived from the original (http://brskl.org/resources/upload/2009-8-28/KoreanGrammarTextbook.pdf) (PDF) on
July 25, 2011. Retrieved January 3, 2010.

3. Ihm, Ho Bin (2009). Korean Grammar for International Learners. Yonsei University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-89-7141-
554-2.

4. Corbett, Greville G., Number, pages 137–138, Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics, P240.8.C67 2000, ISBN 0-521-
64016-4

5. [ Pak, Miok et al. http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/portnerp/nsfsite/CSSP_handout.pdf " What Korean

Promissives tell us about Jussive Clause Type"], Colloque de syntaxe et sémantique à Paris 2005, retrieved on 3
December 2011

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