Geothermal Energy *

D. E. W H I T E

u. S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California

Abstract

The potential of a geothermal area is primarily dependent on volume and

t e m p e r a t u r e of the reservoir and adequacy of fluid supply. I n a d e q u a t e fluid
supply may be a more c o m m o n limiting factor than inadequate heat supply,
for heat stored in the upper 10,000 ft of many hot spring systems is 1,000 to
I0,000 times their annual natural heat flow. Excep,t in very porous reservoirs,
most of this heat is stored in rocks r a t h e r than in pore fluids.
Geothermal fields can be classified as hot spring systems or as deep insu-
lated reservoirs with little surface expression; g r a d a t i o n s also exist. Hot spring
systems have high near-surface permeability, at least locally on faults and frac-
tures, p e r m i t t i n g fluids to escape at high rates. Owing to vigorous circulation
and escaping fluids and heat, near-surface t e m p e r a t u r e s are high, but temper-
atures deep in the system are lower than would prevail with inhibited escape.
Deep reservoirs with little surface expression require permeable reservoir
rocks capped by insulating rocks of low permeability. Larderello, Italy, and
Salton Sea, Calitornia, have slight leakage, but others m a y have no leakage.
Liquid water, which can be at t e m p e r a t u r e s far above 100" C because of
existing pressures, is generally the dominant fluid. Steam can f o r m by boiling
as hot w a t e r rises to levels of lower pressure. However, in several explored
systems the heat supply is so high and rate o f discharge of w a t e r so low that
steam exists even deep in the system.
Dr)' steam areas are probably rare. About 30 areas in the United States have
been explored for geothermal energy, but dry. steam has been proved only at
,, The Geysers ,,. Extensive utilisation of g e o t h e r m a l energy must therefore
depend largely upon steam ,, flashed ,, from hot w a t e r with decrease in pressure.
Problems that confront broad utilisation of geothermal energy include:
1) discovery., of reservoirs with a d e q u a t e supply of energy and natural fluids;
2) deposition of CaCO~ or SiO2; 3) chemical corrosion; 4) o b j e c t i o n a b l e chemicals
in some effluents; and 5) inapplicability of existing public laws.
The o p t i m u m e n v i r o n m e n t for a geothermal reservoir includes:
1. Potent source of heat, such as a m a g m a chamber. A depth of at least two

* Paper read at the IAV International Symposium on Volcanology {New Zealand),

scientific session of Nov. 29, 1965.

31
 -- 482 - -

miles provides enough pressure to insure water of high t e m p e r a t u r e ; 5 miles

may be too deep for effective transfer of heat to circulating water. Such heat
sources are most likely to occur in regions of late Cenozoic volcanism.
2. Reservoirs of adequate volume, permeability, a n d porosity. Withdrawal of
fluids from a producing geothermal field is p r o b a b l y at least 5 times n a t u r a l
discharge. If rate of deep inflow through the system does not increase corre-
spondingly, pressures, temperatures, a n d production rates m u s t eventually de-
cline. Effects are clearest in a small shallow reservoir that c a n n o t compensate
for accelerated withdrawal because of ~ bottlenecks ,, deeper i n the system.
3. Capping of rock of low permeability that inhibits convective loss of both
fluids a n d heat. A deep well-insulated reservoir may have at least 10 times the
energy content of a n otherwise similar shallow, u n i n s u l a t e d reservoir.

Discussion

K. YAGI: You give a great i m p o r t a n c e to the role of meteoric water in pro-

duction of hot spring. Could you give us the proof for your estimation?
D. E. WHITE: The overwhelming d o m i n a n c e of meteoric water over m a g m a t i c
water in these h y d r o t h e r m a l systems is d e m o n s t r a t e d by isotope studies of D/H
and O'~/O ~a in the waters. The conclusions were described briefly by C~AIO, BOATO,
and WHITE (1956) and by CRAIG(1965, Proc. of 1963 Spoleto Conference on appli-
cation of isotopes to geothermal problems).
R. JAMES: Dr. White has shown diagramatically that between the connecting
m a g m a c h a m b e r a n d the convective hydrothermal system there is a zone of
substantial length which permits heat transfer by conduction. A very large con-
ductive path would, however, necessitate a very large projected area for the
m a g m a c h a m b e r which would extend it welI beyond the borders of the over-
head h y d r o t h e r m a l system. To avoid this anomaly, it seems possible that
convective ,, fingers ,, of m a g m a extend from the c h a m b e r into the aquifer
above, each s u r r o u n d e d by a dimensionally short conductive layer. The extension
a n d retraction of such fingers into and from a n aquifer may continue for the
period of time suggested (order of one million years).
G. W. G~INOLEY: I would like to enquire whether Dr White would conceive
of the possibility of recycling meteoric, connate a n d m e t a m o r p h i c waters
through the m a g m a chambers u n d e r l y i n g h y d r o t h e r m a l fields as a method to
explain a) the similarity in O"/O ~8 ratios and d e u t e r i u m contents of the hydro-
thermal waters to the local groundwaters a n d b) the m a i n t e n a n c e of high heat
flows at the surface over the period of 500,000 to 1 million years which is the
proposed life of the Wairakei h y d r o t h e r m a l system. The recycling of water
through the m a g m a c h a m b e r would delay cristaLlisation of the m a g m a c h a m b e r
and so enable heat flows to be m a i n t a i n e d through long periods of geological
time. We have very good evidence in this region of rhyolitic m a g m a accepting
large quantities of meteoric w a t e r as it rises to the surface before being erupted
as an already hydrated (perlitic) rhyolitic dome.
D. E. WHITE: I have considered the suggestions by GRINDLEY and also by
BANWELL that meteoric water circulates deeply into the m a g m a c h a m b e r and is
 -- 483 --

t h e n e x s o l v e d as ~ n e w ~, m a g m a t i c w a t e r , t h e r e b y a c c o u n t i n g b o t h f o r t h e h e a t -
f l o w p r o b l e m , a n d t h e i d e n t i t y in d e u t e r i u m c o n t e n t s o f s u r f a c e a n d h o t s p r i n g
w a t e r s . H o w e v e r , t h i s p r o p o s a l s e e m s d o u b t f u l o n t w o c o u n t s : 1) H o w c a n n e a r -
surface water be forced down under hydrostatic pressure through the hot plastic
zone bordering the magma chamber where fluid pressures from magma and
rocks undergoing metamorphism must approach lithostatic pressures (pressures
s o m e 2 o r 3 t i m e s h i g h e r t h a t h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a l o n e c a n p r o v i d e ) ? 2) T h e
p r o p o s e d m e c h a n i s m d o e s n o t a c c o u n t f o r o b s e r v e d 0 '8 r e l a t i o n s h i p s . M e t e o r i c
w a t e r o f l o w O '~ c o n t e n t ( r a n g i n g f r o m O Is o f a b o u t - - 2 p e r m i l t o - - 20 p e r r a i l
f o r m o s t a r e a s ) w o u l d b e e x c h a n g e d w i t h t h e h i g h 018 c o n t e n t o f m a g m a , a t t a i n -
i n g a v a l u e of a b o u t + 5 to + 10 p e r rail a t m a g m a t i c t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e 0 TM
c o n t e n t o f t h e t h e r m a l w a t e r a t W a i r a k e i , i n c o n t r a s t , is a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l t o t h e
s u r f a c e w a t e r , t h e r e b y p r o v i n g t h a t n o m o r e t h a n a t r a c e c o u l d h a v e b e e n in
direct contact with magma.