Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells
C Hochgraf, General Motors Fuel Cell Activities, Honeoye Falls, NY, USA
Published by Elsevier B.V.
Introduction – Why Fuel Cells?
Hydrogen fuel cells are one of the most promising al-
ternatives to internal combustion engine hybrids and
pure battery electric power for propelling passenger
vehicles.
Compared to internal combustion engine hybrid ve-
hicles burning hydrocarbon fuels, fuel cell vehicles offer
three primary advantages. First, the fuel cell system
produces no tank-to-wheel carbon dioxide emissions and
no other harmful emissions such as oxides of nitrogen,
carbon monoxide, or particulates. Second, the fuel cell
system offers the potential for approximately 30% higher
well-to-wheel energy efficiency. Third, the hydrogen fuel
consumed by the fuel cell can be produced from a variety
of renewable sources including carbon-free methods such
as electrolysis of water.
Compared to pure battery-run electric vehicles, the
fuel cell vehicle offers three primary advantages. First,
the fuel cell vehicle has more than twice the driving
range of a vehicle using existing batteries. Second, it
offers a much shorter refueling time, enabling brief re-
fueling stops on long trips. Third, at cold temperatures,
the fuel cell system can warm up much faster than a
battery and therefore produce full power in a shorter
period of time.
A fuel cell vehicle can be refilled with compressed
hydrogen at a rate of 2.0 kg hydrogen per minute. To
recharge a battery electric vehicle at an equivalent rate
would require the battery and charger to handle 2.5 MW
of power. Such a charger would be 400 times larger than
that typically used for battery electric vehicles.
At –30 1C, many high-energy lithium battery chem-
istries cannot provide high power, that is, they cannot
support discharge C-rates of 10 or more. To get full
power capability, the battery would need to be warmed
up. However, the time and energy required to accomplish
this for a battery are significantly longer than for a well-
designed fuel cell system. Improved, but not full, power
capability can be obtained at 30 1C by using lower-
energy-density chemistries such as those using nano-
particle lithium titanium oxide.
The primary disadvantages of fuel cell systems,
compared to gasoline hybrids, are the high present-day
cost, shorter than required fuel cell stack life, poor en-
ergy density of fuel storage, and lack of a widespread
hydrogen fueling infrastructure. Fuel cell system cost,
while higher than a gasoline hybrid, is projected to be
lower than that of an equivalent full-range electric
236
vehicle with advanced batteries. Cost is being lowered
and durability increased through engineering develop-
ment efforts. The development of higher-energy-density
hydrogen storage is an area of active research.
Several studies have shown that the cost in the near
term of producing, distributing, and dispensing hydrogen
for use in fuel cell electric vehicles is in the range of
US$2–3 per gallon of gasoline equivalent (on a cost-per-
kilometer basis, not including taxes). Hydrogen is pro-
duced in large quantities for industrial uses including oil
refining and fertilizer production. The economics of
hydrogen production by steam methane reforming are
well understood. The US Department of Energy is tar-
geting long-term costs of US$1.0–1.5 per gallon of gas-
oline equivalent. The primary challenges are the initial
cost to deploy the fueling infrastructure and delays in
getting approval to site dispensing stations due to the
absence of uniform building codes and standards for
hydrogen. Support of government policy is often cited as
being essential to overcoming these challenges.
Requirements of an Automobile Fuel Cell
Powertrain
The requirements for an automobile propulsion system
have evolved over many decades. Consumers’ expect-
ations for on-road vehicle propulsion are guided by ex-
perience, which is almost entirely with internal
combustion engines.
Consumers expect vehicles to start instantly, accel-
erate quickly, drive for long periods without refueling,
refuel in a few minutes, be cost effective, last for decades,
and be safe to operate and service. These high-level re-
quirements are quantified in Table 1.
Achieving the desired driving range is particularly
challenging for the fuel cell vehicle because the energy
storage density of compressed hydrogen gas is less than
1 kW h L1 at 70 MPa compared to gasoline’s energy
storage density of greater than 8 kW h L1. As a result,
the requirement for fuel cell efficiency is significantly
higher than that of a gasoline engine.
Packaging the propulsion system to fit into a standard
vehicle’s dimensions and shape drives compact and
lightweight design solutions for the fuel cell system.
Powertrain Configuration
A fuel cell powertrain consists of a fuel cell stack with
balance of plant components for air supply, fuel control,
 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells 237

Table 1 Key requirements of an automotive fuel cell system

Requirement Value Rationale
Peak power 80 kW Needed for acceptable acceleration.
Varies with vehicle
Durability 45000 h operation Consumer expected usage
410 years calendar life
435 000 starts/stops (key-
on/off)
Cost o$50/kW Competitive with internal combustion
engines. Includes hydrogen storage
Range 4480 km Consumer acceptability for long trips and
infrequent fueling
Refueling time o3 min Consumer acceptability
Ambient temperature during operation  40 to þ 45 1C Global applicability of automobiles
Start time (ambient temperature above o2 s Consumer expectation from experience
freezing)
Start time (ambient temperature below o30 s Consumer acceptability
freezing)
Size and weight 100–250 kg, 200–400 L Existing vehicle practice
Safety codes and standards Society of Automotive Existing vehicle practice
Engineers Standards,
Federal Motor Vehicle
Safety Standards,
regional standards
Efficiency 455% at 25% of rated Needed to achieve acceptable range
power from limited amount of onboard fuel
storage

Compressed Compressed
hydrogen hydrogen

Fuel cell Fuel cell

system system
Motive power Motive power

Boost
Acceleration Acceleration
converter
power power

High-voltage High-voltage dc/dc

battery battery converter

Braking power, Inverter Braking power,

Inverter
load leveling load leveling

Regenerative Motive power Regenerative Motive power

braking Motor braking Motor

Gearbox Gearbox

Figure 1 Two common architectures for hybrid fuel cell powertrains. dc, direct current.

temperature control, and humidification. To these are
added power-conditioning electronics, compressed
hydrogen storage tanks, a motor drive unit consisting of
inverter electronics, and a motor with gear reduction. A
high-voltage battery may be optionally included.
Two common configurations of fuel cell powertrain
component systems have emerged from the high-level
requirements in Table 1. They are shown in Figure 1.
The fuel cell stacks use proton-exchange membranes
(PEMs). Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells offer fast
238 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells
startup times, high dynamic response, and good power
density.
Most systems combine the fuel cell stack with a high-
voltage battery in a hybrid arrangement to recover
braking energy, increase driving range, and improve ac-
celeration (Figure 2). The high-voltage battery is gen-
erally nickel–metal hydride or lithium ion.
The power rating of the battery can be traded off
versus the power rating of the fuel cell. A high-power
battery, say rated at 70% of peak system power, can
handle acceleration demands, allowing the fuel cell to be
reduced to 30% of system power, sufficient to meet
average power demand. An alternative is to use a small
battery, say rated for 30% of peak system power, in
combination with a larger fuel cell to handle acceleration.
The smaller battery is sized to recover braking energy,
which increases fuel economy.
Non-hybrid vehicles have been built which demon-
strate that PEM fuel cell systems can meet the fast dy-
namic power requirements of an automobile while
avoiding the cost of the battery and its power conversion
electronics.
Power-conditioning electronics are required at the
interface between the battery and the fuel cell to match
the voltage characteristics of each source and control
where power is drawn from. Typical battery packs have
rated voltages that range from 150 to 350 V, while typical
fuel cell voltages range from 200 to 400 V.
The motor drive unit is smaller and more cost
effective when the direct current (dc) input voltage is in
the range of 400–650 V. High voltages keep the current
ratings for conductors, connectors, and electronics lower,
reducing weight and cost.
Fuel cell system
Figure 2 Location of major fuel cell propulsion system components in a vehicle.
If the fuel cell voltage is very low relative to dc input
voltage to the motor drive unit, a voltage-boosting con-
verter with unidirectional power flow may be used. The
full load efficiency of the boost converter is in the range
of 97–98%. The part load losses can be reasonably low,
making for an efficient system.
If the fuel cell voltage is high, it may be connected
directly to the dc input of the motor’s inverter elec-
tronics, avoiding power conversion losses for the main
motive power. The battery is then interfaced through a
bidirectional dc/dc converter. In this configuration, losses
in the power conversion electronics occur both when
energy is put into the battery and when energy is re-
moved from the battery.
The choice of which power conditioning configuration
to use is influenced by the voltages of the battery and fuel
cell and the relative power rating of the battery versus
the fuel cell. If the fuel cell power rating is low compared
to the battery, it may be more cost effective to put the
power conversion electronics in the fuel cell electrical
path.
The dc electric power produced by the fuel cell and/
or battery is converted into mechanical power and cou-
pled to the wheels by an inverter–motor–gearbox unit.
Efficiency of this conversion can exceed 90%.
Hydrogen for the fuel cell is stored as compressed gas.
Compressed gas is preferred over liquid hydrogen tanks
due to the high energy cost to liquefy hydrogen and the
loss of range as the cryogenic liquid hydrogen boils off
over several days. However, compressed gas storage tanks
are very large for the relative amount of energy stored.
Alternative hydrogen storage methods may offer higher
storage density than compressed gas. Fundamental
12 V
battery
Hydrogen storage
system
Rechargeable energy
storage system (high-
voltage battery)
 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells 239

research is being conducted on hydrogen storage using
metal hydrides, chemical hydrides, and sorbents. Onboard
reformers to create hydrogen from other fuels are gen-
erally considered to be impractical due to the large
amount of energy required for warming/starting the re-
former and the additional cost and weight of the reformer.
Standards for hydrogen fuel purity are under devel-
opment by committees including ISO TC197/WG12 and
ASTM D 03. In general, the hydrogen must be 99.99%
pure and have less than 1 mg L1 of particulate materials,
and individual particles must have diameters less than
10 mm. Tighter limits are specified for contaminants that
are detrimental to the fuel cell, such as carbon monoxide
and sulfur compounds.
streams, or sometimes both. Waste heat is removed by the
cooling system.
Control of a fuel cell system involves keeping the
membrane humidified to a set value while feeding
reactant gases (hydrogen and air) to the electrodes in
sufficient quantity to produce the electrical current re-
quested by the system. Coolant flow rate and tempera-
ture, hydrogen fuel pressure and humidity, and air inlet
humidification and flow rate are all controlled in co-
ordination with the load current drawn from the fuel cell.
The subsystems of the fuel cell system may be real-
ized in different ways. Optimization of configurations and
components within the fuel cell system is an area of
active engineering development. The top priorities of this
development are:

Fuel Cell System Configuration 1. reducing cost;

The fuel cell system consists of four main subsystems:
(1) fuel supply, (2) air supply, (3) cooling, and (4) the fuel
cell stack. These subsystems are shown generically in
Figure 3.
The fuel cell stack receives hydrogen and air from the
respective supply systems. It produces water, heat, and
electricity. Water is recovered and used to humidify ei-
ther the cathode (air side of fuel cell) or anode inlet
2. improving freeze tolerance of components;
3. improving humidity transfer in humidification
devices;
4. improving humidification control accuracy;
5. reducing packaged volume;
6. increasing efficiency by reducing parasitic power and
pressure drop through components; and
7. improving cell voltage performance from the elec-
trode and membrane.

Hydrogen
fuel
Anode purge exhaust
Injector
with Fuel cell
jet pump system
Anode recirculation exhaust
compressor
Exhaust pipe
Fuel cell
stack
Anode
Radiator
+
and
dc electric Stack fan
− Coolant
power out voltage
Cathode Radiator
bypass
Coolant valve
pump

Humidity
transfer Water and
device heat transfer

Cathode exhaust

Air
compressor
Air

Figure 3 Illustration of generic fuel cell system configuration showing cathode air supply system, fuel supply system, and cooling
system.
240 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells

Fuel Cell Stack membrane decreases by 50%. For other materials the
conductivity decrease can be smaller, B30%.
The fuel cell stack consists of individual fuel cells con- Relative humidity describes the ratio of the pressure
nected in series to produce a high-voltage, high-current of water vapor present in a given gas over the maximum
dc electric power source. pressure of water vapor that can exist at a given tem-
A single fuel cell has two catalyzed electrodes that are perature without condensation.
separated by a thin membrane. The membrane is per- The maximum pressure of water vapor (the saturation
meable to hydrogen ions (protons), but blocks the flow of vapor pressure) increases rapidly with temperature.
electrons. One electrode is referred to as the anode and is Consider that at a temperature of 100 1C, the vapor
where hydrogen fuel is split into hydrogen ions (protons) pressure of water becomes equal to atmospheric pressure
and electrons. Electrons produced in the anode move (101 kPa) and water boils. To maintain sufficient RH in
through an external electrical circuit providing power the fuel cell’s membrane, the pressure of water vapor in
and are returned to the other electrode which is referred the cathode gas must increase directly with the increase
to as the cathode. At the cathode, oxygen from air is in saturation vapor pressure as coolant temperature rises.
combined with hydrogen protons and electrons to form This requires a higher total gas pressure on the cathode
water. and is why many automotive fuel cells use a compressor
Control of humidification is one of the most critical to pressurize the cathode inlet air.
issues in a PEM fuel cell. Too much humidity will cause If the cathode pressure cannot be raised to maintain
water to condense, potentially blocking reactant flows. constant RH, then the membrane must have high proton
Too little humidity and the membrane will not ad- conductivity even when the RH is low. Figure 4 illustrates
equately conduct protons. the trade-off between the coolant temperature, cathode
The proton conductivity of the membrane varies pressure, and the ability of the membrane to operate at low
strongly with how much water is present in the mem- RH. Low-RH-capable membranes allow either lower op-
brane. The amount of water is often expressed in terms of erating pressures for the same coolant temperature or
the relativity humidity of the gas at the membrane. As the higher coolant temperatures for the same pressure. Devel-
relative humidity (RH) at the membrane decreases from opment of durable low-RH, high-temperature membranes
100% to 80%, the proton conductivity of a Nafions is a key area of research.

Cathode outlet absolute pressure required and relative radiator performance required vs
coolant temperature with relative humidity (RH) at membrane of 100% and 50%
3 700
Relative radiator performance
required (~1/ITD)
Relative radiator performance required (~1/ITD)

600
Stack cathode outlet absolute pressure (kPa)
2.5 Pressure for 100% RH
Pressure for 50% RH
500
2

400
1.5
300

1
200

0.5
100

0 0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Fuel cell coolant temperature (°C)

Figure 4 Illustration of the trade-off between the coolant temperature, cathode pressure, and the ability of the membrane to operate at
low RH. Membranes capable of durable operation at low RH (e.g., 50%) allow either lower operating pressures for the same coolant
temperature or higher coolant temperatures for the same pressure. If the membrane requires high RH (e.g., near 100%), then the
cathode inlet pressure must be increased as the stack coolant temperature increases. ITD, inlet temperature difference.
 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells
Further detail on the operation and trade-offs of the
fuel cell stacks can be found in other articles of this
encyclopedia. However, in general, it is desirable that the
stack has low pressure drops and stoichiometry ratios for
its reactants. This will minimize parasitic losses in the
coolant pump, air compressor, and fuel recirculation
compressor.
Cathode Air Supply System
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell stack performance
can be increased by pressurizing and humidifying the
cathode inlet air. Pressurized air helps to keep the
membrane well humidified when the stack coolant tem-
perature is high, for example, >60 1C. Higher oxygen
partial pressure has a secondary benefit of increasing
performance of the cathode electrode catalyst by re-
ducing kinetic voltage losses in the oxygen reduction
reaction.
A typical air supply system uses a compressor to
generate cathode pressure in the range of 1.1–3.5 bar
absolute at cathode air flows with stoichiometry ratios of
1.4–2.0.
Inefficiencies in the compressor may cause the dis-
charge air temperature to be too hot for the humidifier or
stack materials. A heat exchanger tied to the stack coolant
loop may be used to cool the air. When the ambient air is
much cooler than the stack coolant temperature, this
same heat exchanger warms the air before it enters the
humidification device.
The compressor is often the largest consumer of an-
cillary power. In higher-pressure systems, an expander
may be used to recover flow energy from the cathode
exhaust. The compressor is also one of the highest-cost
items in the fuel cell system, other than the fuel cell
stack.
Low pressure systems, near 1 bar absolute, are ap-
pealing from a cost perspective. However, they require
special humidification schemes or they will be restricted
to low stack operating temperatures, for example,
o65 1C, which limits their ability to produce power in
high ambient temperatures as seen in many regions of the
globe. The upcoming section on heat rejection describes
the issue in more detail.
After pressurization, the air may be passed through a
humidification device. The humidifier transfers a portion
of the water in the cathode exhaust stream to the cathode
inlet stream. The amount of humidity transfer can be
controlled, if required, by valves that bypass air around
the humidifier. Other means for control may be em-
ployed, depending on the technology used for the hu-
midifier. Over-humidification at the stack inlet can result
in liquid water droplets entering the stack. Depending
upon the stack’s construction, the liquid water can cause
localized blockage of reactant flows that may decrease
241
performance and durability of the fuel cell stack. If the
stack’s electrode and membrane are able to operate at low
cathode outlet RH then the demands on the humidifi-
cation device are minimized.
Heat energy may also be transferred by the humidi-
fication device. In cold conditions, the exhaust air can
warm the intake air, assisting in faster warm-up of the
stack.
Anode Hydrogen Fuel Supply System
In contrast to the cathode air supply system which has air
continuously flowing through it to the exhaust, the anode
operates as a closed system to maximize fuel economy.
The fuel supply system provides pressurized hydrogen to
the stack, which may or may not be humidified.
During operation, small amounts of inert impurities in
the fuel can accumulate over time as the main fuel
constituent, hydrogen, is consumed by reaction in the
fuel cell. Nitrogen in the air will slowly pass from the
cathode through the fuel cell membrane to the anode and
dilute the hydrogen fuel. The diluents can build up over
several minutes causing localized hydrogen starvation
that damages the fuel cell stack electrode.
To avoid localized hydrogen starvation, the effective
anode stoichiometry may be increased mixing the anode
gas with a recirculation compressor or jet pump (ejector),
or other means. While the fuel cell only requires an ideal
anode stoichiometry of 1.0, the need for uniform distri-
bution of the hydrogen often leads to requiring much
higher flow rates through the anode. The flow rates for
uniform mixing may be 1.2–3 times that of the flow rate
required to supply the fuel consumed in reaction. Thus
the apparent anode stoichiometry required may be 1.2–3.
Architectures for the fuel supply system include re-
circulation systems, dead-ended operation, cascading of
anode stages, and flow-shifting between two stacks. Re-
circulation systems appear to have the highest tolerance
for diluents while keeping hydrogen emissions to a
minimum.
Recirculation can be achieved with a jet pump that
draws gas from the anode outlet of the stack and mixes it
with fresh hydrogen supplied by a fuel injector. This
mixture is then fed to the anode gas inlet of the stack.
The jet pump requires no additional accessory power but
may not achieve sufficient mixing when the fuel cell
power output is very low as there is very little fresh
hydrogen being injected into the anode.
An alternative is to use a recirculation compressor,
either by itself or in combination with a jet pump. The
recirculation compressor keeps the fuel cell anode gas
well mixed even when the fuel cell is running at very low
power. Design of the compressor is challenging. It must
operate with a mixture of water vapor and liquid water
droplets, yet not be damaged or made inoperable in
242 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells
freezing temperatures. The efficiency of the compressor
is generally low due to the gas properties of hydrogen.
The compressor may draw several hundred watts of
electric power, reducing overall efficiency of the fuel cell
system, particularly at low load conditions.
To reduce the effect of diluents, the anode of the fuel
cell may be periodically purged or have a small con-
tinuous bleed flow to remove diluents. Along with the
diluents, hydrogen fuel is lost during the purge. This
decreases fuel economy and also creates hydrogen
emissions. What little hydrogen is emitted may be com-
bined with the cathode outlet gas of the air supply system
to ensure the mixture is not flammable when it leaves the
exhaust pipe. Continuous mixing of the anode gas will
reduce the risk of local starvation and can decrease the
amount of fuel wasted by purges or bleeding. Anode
purges can also be used, if needed, to remove excess
water.
Liquid water in the anode of the stack may block
reactant flows resulting in electrode damage from
hydrogen starvation. Systems with recirculation com-
pressors have an advantage in that they can increase the
anode gas flow, independent of load current, to clear or
prevent blockages without having to purge the anode.
Avoiding purges reduces the amount of fuel exhausted,
increasing efficiency.
Cooling System
The cooling system consists of a pump, a bypass or three-
way valve, radiator, and fan. The valve controls the
amount of coolant that bypasses the radiator, so that the
fuel cell temperature can be maintained at a desired set
point. The pump flow rate may be varied with power
level to control the temperature profile across the fuel
cell stack and achieve the desired humidity profile from
inlet to outlet in the fuel cell stack.
Despite the apparent simplicity of the coolant system,
it has many challenging requirements to meet. These
include material compatibility for corrosion resistance,
maintaining low coolant conductivity, removing large
amounts of low temperature heat, and quickly and ac-
curately regulating temperature to control membrane
humidification.
The coolant system also plays a critical role during
startup of the fuel cell in freezing conditions. The coolant
pump is a parasitic load on the fuel cell system and re-
duces overall efficiency of the system. The need for low
coolant conductivity is discussed later in the section on
isolation resistance.
Heat Rejection
Cooling of an automotive fuel cell is more challenging
than an internal combustion engine due to (1) the
relatively low operating temperature of the fuel cell and
(2) the relatively higher amount of heat energy put into
the cooling system. For equivalent performance in high
ambient temperatures, the fuel cell requires a larger ra-
diator and fan. Alternatively, power production in the
fuel cell must be reduced at high ambient temperatures.
To illustrate the cooling challenge, consider the dif-
ference in the amount of heat coupled into the coolant
for an internal combustion engine compared to a fuel
cell. At high power, a gasoline internal combustion en-
gine produces roughly equal thirds of mechanical power,
exhaust gas enthalpy, and heat to the coolant. Therefore,
the ratio of heat power rejected to the coolant over the
useful mechanical power delivered is about 1.0.
At high power in a fuel cell, the amount of heat re-
jected to the coolant is about the same as the gross stack
electrical power. An ideal 100% efficient fuel cell would
produce a cell voltage of 1.23 V, as computed from the
electrochemistry of the cell. However, in operation,
the cell voltage is typically around 0.615 V. From this, the
inefficiency of the fuel cell can be calculated to be about
50% of the gross fuel power (1.23–0.615 V)/1.23 V ¼ 50%.
A low percentage of the heat is removed by the
cathode exhaust stream under high power conditions.
When auxiliary loads and aging of the stack are con-
sidered, the net electrical power decreases to 40% and
the heat rejected to coolant increases to 60%. As a result,
the ratio of heat power rejected to the coolant over the
useful mechanical power delivered is about 1.5 at full
load.
The major factor adversely affecting fuel cell cooling
is the relatively low temperature of the fuel cell coolant,
typically around 80 1C, compared to an internal com-
bustion engine at 120 1C.
The amount of heat rejected (kW) is approximately
linearly proportional to the frontal area of a well-
designed radiator–fan system and is inversely pro-
portional to the initial inlet temperature difference
(ITD) between the two fluid streams it combines (DT),
for example, air and coolant. With an ambient air tem-
perature of 40 1C and a fuel cell coolant temperature of
80 1C, the ITD is 40 1C. In the internal combustion en-
gine with ambient air at 40 1C and coolant at 120 1C, the
ITD is 80 1C. Thus for the same heat rejected, the fuel
cell radiator must be twice the size. The relative increase
in radiator size with coolant temperature is illustrated in
Figure 4. If the stack is aged and auxiliary loads are high,
the heat rejection performance of the fuel cell radiator
may need to be 3 times that of an internal combustion
engine.
To address the heat rejection issue, fuel cell efficiency
must be kept high by running at high cell voltage and
with low auxiliary load losses. Additional radiator frontal
area can be added through the use of wheelhouse radi-
ators located in the front of the wheels, or at other
 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells
locations. A larger fan can be used to push more air
through the radiator, but the increase in parasitic power
to drive the fan reduces system efficiency with only a
small gain in total heat rejection.
The difficulty in rejecting heat from a PEM fuel cell is
one of the primary drivers for research and development
of membranes that can operate at higher temperatures
and with lower RH in the membrane. One difficulty is
that at above 80 1C maintaining humidification of the
membrane and electrode becomes increasingly chal-
lenging. If cooling is insufficient, and coolant temperature
is allowed to rise, the membrane will quickly dry out and
stack power production will be reduced. It should be
noted that heat rejection limits are usually only en-
countered when traveling at high speeds or up steep
grades on hot days.
Cold Weather Starting and Operation
Water is produced by the fuel cell and may be used to
humidify the air and hydrogen reactants fed to it. If water
at critical locations freezes during operation, the fuel cell
performance may be degraded or it may be unable to
start or continue running after startup.
Ice can block reactant flows in the humidification
device, flow-field channels, gas diffusion layer, and cata-
lyst layer. Ice can prevent operation of control valves,
injectors, and recirculation pumps. Sensors for tempera-
ture, pressure, and humidity can produce inaccurate
readings or be damaged.
Cold Weather Starting
Careful insulation of the fuel cell system and its balance
of plant components can prevent the system from
freezing for a period of 8–24 h or more. Eventually, if no
heat is added through running, battery discharge, or
burning of fuel, the system will freeze and must be able
to restart.
Successful starting of the fuel cell depends on con-
ditioning the fuel cell properly before it freezes. A
shutdown purge of the cathode with air can remove water
blockages in the valves, humidification devices, flow
fields, gas diffusion media, and membrane–electrode as-
sembly (MEA). Purging or dry operation of the anode
prior to shutdown may be needed, though the noise, time,
and energy consumption associated with this preparation
must be considered. Care must be taken to not overly dry
the MEA or the fuel cell may have difficulty restarting.
Even after purging, some amounts of water and water
vapor are likely present in the fuel cell system. As the
fuel cell system cools, condensation can form and drops
of water may block reactant paths or affect valves and
sensors. Each component’s location, orientation, and
ability to tolerate ice must be carefully engineered.
243
Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
Characteristics During Frozen Starts
With the supply pathways for air and fuel clear and ready
for gas flow, the fuel cell startup can begin. Below 10 1C,
the PEM fuel cell’s power output characteristics are
significantly different than at the normal operating
temperature of 80 1C.
The fuel cell’s polarization curve (voltage vs current
characteristic) changes with temperature as shown in
Figure 5. The fuel cell cannot produce full power when
it is cold and therefore must be warmed up.
For a given current, the fuel cell stack’s voltage is
lower than normal, resulting in inefficient operation of
the stack. The extra heat produced assists in a rapid
warm-up of the stack. At –30 1C, the fuel cell’s maximum
current is quite limited. As the fuel cell stack warms up, it
is able to produce more power and thereby produce more
waste heat.
As soon as current is drawn from the fuel cell, water is
produced in the electrode. This water will rapidly form
ice on the flow field, diffusion media, and electrode, all of
which are starting at temperatures below the freezing
point of water. The ice can eventually block access of the
reactants to the electrode and prevent the fuel cell from
starting.
To prevent the fuel cell from filling with ice, the fuel cell
must be rapidly brought to a temperature >0 1C. The en-
ergy required to warm the fuel cell is dominated by the heat
capacity of the fuel cell system rather than the amount of
heat loss to the environment. Reducing the heat capacity of
the fuel cell is critical to fast and successful starts.
For a fuel cell with a heat capacity of 100 kJ K1, an
average of 100 kW of heat power would be required to
warm it from –30 to 0 1C in 30 s (3 MJ of energy).
Typically, the waste heat power from the fuel cell alone is
Open-
circuit
voltage
Stack voltage
80 °C
0 °C
−10 °C
−30 °C −20 °C
Stack current
Limiting
current
Figure 5 The polarization curve (i.e., fuel cell voltage vs current
curve) of a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell changes
strongly with temperature below 0 1C. Initial power production of
the fuel cell is limited below 0 1C, necessitating a rapid warm-up.
244 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells
much less than this and is insufficient to warm the fuel
cell in 30 s.
Additional heat can be created by using electric
heaters in the stack coolant loop. Power for the heater
can come from the fuel cell stack electric output or from
an electric energy storage device such as a battery or an
ultracapacitor. Catalytic reaction of hydrogen fuel with
air can also be used to directly create heat.
Cold Weather Operation
Keeping the fuel cell system from freezing during op-
eration is challenging. Relatively little heat is produced
by the fuel cell at light loads due to its inherently high
efficiency. As little as 650 W of waste heat may be pro-
duced by a fuel cell vehicle idling while producing 600 W
of net electric load.
The amount of heat lost to the ambient environment
at –30 1C can greatly exceed the amount of heat pro-
duced at idle. Coolant leaking around the thermostat to
the radiator at a rate of less than 100 cc per minute can
result in hundreds of watts of heat loss. If the fuel cell is
not able to keep itself warm, performance will suffer or
worse the system may freeze, causing it to shut down.
Maintaining the desired temperature of the fuel cell
involves balancing the heat generation and loss. Insu-
lation may be added around the fuel cell stack and bal-
ance of plant components to reduce heat loss. Valves in
the coolant path to the radiator will need to have very
low leakage rates. The effect of heat gain or loss from gas
reactant and product flows must also be considered.
Generating more heat in the stack than the driver
demand dictates, or using supplemental heaters will ad-
versely affect fuel economy in cold weather, but may be
required under certain operating conditions to prevent
components from becoming impaired by frozen product
water.
Cabin Heating
The automobile requires heat energy of 4 kW or more for
defrosting the windshield and for comfort heating of the
passenger cabin. In an internal combustion vehicle, ample
waste heat is available for cabin heating due to the overall
inefficiency of the engine. This is not the case in a fuel
cell vehicle. Consider for example a fuel cell vehicle
whose average power required during a city driving cycle
is on the order of 5 kW. Only 2.8 kW of heat energy is
available, assuming the stack efficiency is 64% at this
light load.
The heat required can be provided by adding electric
heating elements that directly warm the cabin or defrost
air or heat the fuel cell coolant, which is coupled to the
cabin air through a heat exchanger. Warming the fuel cell
coolant has an added benefit of allowing one component
to both provide cabin heating and reduce the time it takes
to start in freezing conditions. In either case, electric
energy required for cabin heating reduces cold operation
fuel economy.
Hybridization
A fuel cell system may be combined with a bidirectional
energy storage device to create a hybrid powertrain,
benefiting both the vehicle and fuel cell. The vehicle
benefits from faster dynamic power response, increased
driving range from capturing braking energy, and in-
creased efficiency through optimizing the loading profile
of the fuel cell. The fuel cell benefits from hybridization
by reducing the severity of events that cause electrode
degradation. These severe events include cycling of the
fuel cell voltage from high to low as the load on the fuel
cell varies up and down, and extended operation with the
fuel cell at high voltage, for example, when idling with no
load on the fuel cell stack.
Vehicle Benefits
The response of the fuel cell is usually limited by the
dynamics of the air compressor system but may be lim-
ited by the fuel system if high levels of diluents, such as
nitrogen, are present in the anode (hydrogen fuel side of
the fuel cell stack). A PEM fuel cell system can achieve a
dynamic response o1 s from 10% to 90% power, which
is adequate to meet most consumer expectations, but a
typical bidirectional energy storage device, such as a
nickel–metal hydride battery, lithium-ion battery, or
ultracapacitor, can respond even faster.
Energy that is normally lost in braking can be cap-
tured by the energy storage device to be used later. An
increase in driving range of 5–20% is possible. Overall
efficiency of the vehicle can be increased by operating the
fuel cell near its peak efficiency point and avoiding
lower-efficiency regimes, such as idle and maximum
power. The fuel cell provides the average power demands
by continually charging the energy storage device, while
the energy storage device provides rapid power bursts
when needed.
Efficiency can be further improved by temporarily
shutting off the fuel cell when very little power is de-
manded of it, such as when the vehicle is stopped at a
traffic light. Energy normally used to run the air com-
pressor or other support systems is saved. The fuel cell
can be rapidly restarted when power is demanded, using
energy from the energy storage device. Overall efficiency
can be improved by up to a few percentage points. The
main requirements are that the energy storage device has
a round-trip energy efficiency that is sufficiently high, say
>90%, and that the energy storage device is able to
supply the peak power demands of restarting accessories
while initially propelling the vehicle.
 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells 245

Fuel Cell Benefits fuel cell rapidly, thaw small components if they are un-
expectedly frozen, and run accessories while the fuel
Reducing the dynamic response requirement on the fuel
cell’s power output capability is limited.
cell may allow decreased power ratings for some acces-
sory components, such as the compressor inverter, and
therefore lower cost. The power rating of the entire fuel
Packaging
cell system can also be reduced. The amount of benefit
varies with system design.
A fuel cell propulsion system does not have some of the
Life of the fuel cell can also be extended by hybrid-
packaging constraints of an internal combustion engine
ization. Platinum–carbon electrodes have been shown to
system. The fuel cell system produces less structural
lose electrochemical area when their voltage is repeatedly
vibration, it may not have to carry reaction forces from
cycled from 0.6 (full load) to 0.94 V (no load). Figure 6
the driveline, and it does not produce the high exhaust
shows that the degradation rate due to voltage cycling is
temperatures (>500 1C) of the internal combustion en-
lower when the highest potential that a fuel cell sees is
gine. Components of the system, such as the power-
reduced from 0.94 to 0.85 V. The highest cell potential in
conditioning electronics and the final motor drive unit,
hybrid fuel cell powertrain can be reduced by keeping the
can be located remotely from the fuel cell.
fuel cell loaded to a predetermined minimum power value
This has given car designers freedom to come up with
at all times.
new vehicle structural and styling concepts. The fuel cell
A similar loss in electrochemical area over time occurs
can be placed in the underbody structure, rather than
when platinum–carbon electrodes are held near open
under the hood, allowing a clear view forward. It can also
circuit voltage, such as when the fuel cell system is idling
allow a variety of body styles to be fit to the same
for an extended period. Keeping the fuel cell operating at
foundational powertrain and chassis.
a current density greater than a set minimum value is
Fuel cells do have their own set of new constraints. An
effective in reducing this voltage level and reducing the
insulation layer may be needed to control heat loss in
rate of electrode degradation. Any excess power pro-
cold environments. This reduces the space available for
duced by the fuel cell is used to slowly charge the battery.
the fuel cell and also places a constraint on how com-
Degradation of the fuel cell electrode during startup
ponents are distributed throughout the vehicle. Pipes,
and shutdown is a major contributor to shortened fuel
plumbing, and compressors for the fuel cell may require
cell life. A normal usage profile for an engine can include
insulation to prevent heat loss, freeze-up, or undesired
35 000 start and stop events. Hybridization can help the
condensation.
fuel cell during startup and shutdown by having power
The volumetric power density of a state-of-the-art
available to rapidly establish air flow, purge or dilute
fuel cell system, including power conversion electronics
gases, and condition the fuel cell humidity for shutdown.
and radiator, is lower than that of a gasoline engine.
Finally, in freezing conditions, the fuel cell may be
The fuel cell vehicle requires a hydrogen storage
able to start faster using stored energy to warm up the
system that, for equivalent vehicle range, has a volume
that is several times larger than that of a gasoline vehicle.
2.0 −10
Unlike a gasoline tank, the high-pressure hydrogen tank
vessel is not conformable to the shape of the vehicle.
Voltage decay rate (µV cycle−1)

Packaging of a fuel cell is strongly influenced by crash

−20
ECA relative to initial (%)

1.6
requirements. The larger volume of the fuel cell system
may make it more challenging to achieve the required
1.2 −30
crush zone clearance. Components mounted on an
automobile are subject to g-forces of 3–11 gs in normal
0.8 −40
operation from going over potholes, hitting curbs, and
low-speed (8 km h1) bumper impacts.
0.4 −50 If the fuel cell is coupled to the drive unit, such as may
be done when the fuel cell is packaged under the hood,
0.0 −60 then additional clearance may be left to account for roll
0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96
of the fuel cell when reaction torque is transmitted
Upper limit voltage (V)
through it from the drive motor unit.
Figure 6 Effect on fuel cell durability of using hybridization to As components are distributed across the vehicle, care
control the highest cell voltage seen by the fuel cell during
must be taken to ensure electromagnetic interference is
operation. Reducing the highest voltage seen by the fuel cell
results in lower rate of cell voltage decay and less loss of
not created due to the electromagnetic energy produced
electrochemical surface area (ECA) over time. Reproduced with by the high-frequency switching of the power electronics.
permission from SAE publication 2008-01-0423. A variety of design approaches can be used such as
246 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells
keeping wire lengths short, shielding conductors, or
slowing the rise times of switching waveforms.
Design for Safety
Crash Safety
One relatively unique set of requirements for automobile
fuel cell applications are those related to crash safety for
occupants and emergency first responders.
The vehicle is designed and the fuel cell system
packaged to minimize the risk of hazards in the event of a
crash. Crash requirements for vehicles and components
in the United States are defined in Federal Motor Vehicle
Safety Standards (FMVSS); for example, FMVSS 301
addresses fuel system integrity, FMVSS 303 addresses
fuel system integrity of compressed gas, FMVSS 304
addresses compressed gas fuel container integrity, and
FMVSS 305 addresses electric-powered vehicles.
Updates to these standards are under development to
include aspects specific to hydrogen fuel cell systems. For
example, the use of aqueous coolant in the fuel cell
creates a slightly conductive path from the high voltage
bus to chassis. The normal range of isolation resistance
for fuel cells is therefore different from a battery.
The crash events to which the vehicle is subjected to
are also defined. For example, SAE J1766 (SAE, Society
of Automotive Engineers) specifies that fuel cell vehicles
shall meet the performance criteria when tested to the
crash procedures of FMVSS 208 frontal impact (in-
cluding the full frontal and 301 front angle impacts),
FMVSS 214 side impact, and FMVSS 301 rear impact.
The standards identify hazards to be avoided in-
cluding high-voltage shock, excess hydrogen fuel release,
occupant space excessively intruded upon, and excessive
spillage of battery electrolyte outside of the passenger
compartment or inside the passenger compartment.
Careful design, placement, and robust testing of the
storage tank, valves, lines, and supporting structure en-
sure integrity of the hydrogen storage system. Com-
pressed hydrogen tanks are subjected to extreme abuse
testing to ensure they do not fail. Testing includes
overpressurization, pressure cycling, impact testing, drop
testing, gun fire testing, and engulfing in a bonfire for
20 min.
The hydrogen fuel system is designed with safety
features such as redundant shutoff valves, thermally ac-
tivated pressure relief devices, and heat shields. If a crash
is detected, valves shut off the flow of fuel at the tank.
The tanks, valves, and lines are protected by careful in-
tegration into the vehicles, allowing deformation of the
vehicle in a crash and minimizing the risk of leaking from
the tanks. Crash simulations and testing are used to verify
that components survive and meet requirements.
After a crash event, the high-voltage system of the fuel
cell vehicle is designed to not present a hazard to
emergency first responders, passengers, or others. High-
voltage cables and harnesses are visually identified with
an orange covering material.
The high-voltage system is continuously monitored to
verify that it is isolated from chassis. If the isolation is lost
in a crash event, for example by damage to the fuel cell
stack, high-voltage components, or insulated wiring, the
high-voltage bus is de-energized. In a severe crash that
would cause activation of an airbag, the high-voltage bus
may be automatically de-energized by means such as
opening contactors to the battery and fuel cell.
Training materials for emergency first responders il-
lustrate how to de-energize the high-voltage system be-
fore attempting to assist passengers. The system may be
de-energized by turning off the ignition, cutting the 12 V
negative battery cable, and waiting for 10 s.
Isolation Resistance
The risk of electrical shock in an electric vehicle is
minimized by insulating all high-voltage conductors and
by isolating both the positive and negative sides of the
fuel cell from the vehicle chassis. If the insulation on one
side of the high-voltage bus fails and a person comes in
contact with that side of the high-voltage bus and chassis,
there is no shock hazard because the circuit is not
completed. Isolation ensures that the other side of the
high-voltage bus has no path for current flow to chassis.
SAE J2578 Recommended Practice for General Fuel
Cell Vehicle Safety specifies that the isolation resistance
be at least 125 O V1 from either terminal of the high-
voltage bus to chassis, in consideration of safety and the
constraints on fuel cell system coolant conductivity and
coolant path geometry. For example, in a system with a
nominal voltage of 400 V, the measured isolation resist-
ance would need to be greater than or equal to 50 kO.
For battery electric vehicles, FMVSS 305 specifies
that the isolation resistance from either terminal of high
voltage to chassis is at least 500 O V1. For example, in a
system with a nominal voltage of 400 V, the measured
isolation resistance would need to be at least 200 kO.
In a fuel cell vehicle, the aqueous coolant that passes
through a fuel cell stack may become more conductive
over time, creating an electrical path between the cells
within the stack and the coolant pump, coolant piping,
and radiator. If one of these components outside the stack
is grounded to chassis, the isolation resistance between
high-voltage bus and chassis is reduced. The effective
isolation resistance depends on the coolant conductivity,
path length, and path geometry.
A long, narrow coolant path from the stack to the first
chassis-grounded component will increase the isolation
resistance, but at the expense of coolant pressure drop.
 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicles: Fuel Cells
Maintaining low coolant conductivity over time requires
that contamination and leaching is minimized. One de-
sign solution is the use of deionization cartridges, which
may require periodic replacement.
Hydrogen Emissions
SAE J2578 Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell
Vehicle Safety specifies limits on the concentration of
hydrogen emissions from the fuel cell system. Emission
limits are specified as a percentage of the lower flam-
mability limit for hydrogen. The lower flammability limit
of hydrogen is 4% hydrogen (by volume) in air. There-
fore, an emission limit of 25% of the lower flammability
limit is equivalent to 1% hydrogen by volume in air.
For normal operation, which includes startup and
shutdown purges, the concentration outside the vehicle
should be kept below 50% of the lower flammability limit
at the point of discharge and below 25% of the lower
flammability limit in the surrounding area. Inside the
vehicle, the concentration of hydrogen should be kept
below 25% of the lower flammability limit.
The emissions from the vehicle must also be low
enough so that when a vehicle is parked in a garage or
enclosure without forced ventilation, the concentration of
hydrogen does not exceed 25% of the lower flammability
limit. A natural air exchange rate of 0.18 air changes per
hour is assumed.
The total amount of hydrogen exhausted during op-
eration, startup, and shutdown must also be kept rela-
tively small in order to meet the requirements for high
efficiency and long range.
Hydrogen emission limits can be successfully met
using a variety of methods such as compartment barriers,
forced convection, catalytic reactors, dilution with cath-
ode exhaust, and other means.
Conclusions
As of 2008, most major manufacturers have hydrogen
vehicle demonstration fleets on the road and additional
fleets planned. The fleets range in size from a dozen to
over a hundred vehicles. These fleets have shown good
driving performance and cold-weather start ability.
Durability of the fuel cell system is rapidly improving,
but does not yet meet the target of greater than 5000
operating hours. Manufacturing costs are high due to the
relatively low production volumes. Catalyst cost remains
a significant, but not insurmountable, issue.
Despite the challenges, the strong benefits of fuel cells
are driving rapid technological development. Researchers
are working to reduce the amount of catalyst required
and looking for lower-cost, higher-performance catalysts.
A great amount of progress is being made in membranes
with new materials showing better mechanical strength,
247
chemical resistance, and higher conductivity at low RH.
Electrodes are being developed that are more resistant to
voltage cycling and start/stop degradation. Through the
concerted effort of manufacturers, governments, and
academia, tremendous progress is being made toward the
widespread use of clean and efficient hydrogen fuel cells.
Nomenclature
Symbols
DT temperature difference
Abbreviations
dc direct current
ECA electrochemical surface area
FMVSS Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
Standards
ITD inlet temperature difference
MEA membrane-electrode assembly
PEM proton-exchange membrane
RH relative humidity
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
See also: Applications – Transportation: Hybrid Electric
Vehicles: Batteries; Light Traction: Fuel Cells; Fuel Cells
– Overview: Modeling; Fuel Cells – Proton-Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cells: Catalysts: Life-Limiting
Considerations; Dynamic Operational Conditions; Freeze
Operational Conditions; High Temperature PEMFCs;
Impurities in Fuels and Air; Life-Limiting Considerations;
Membrane–Electrode Assemblies; Membranes: Design
and Characterization; Membranes: Elevated
Temperature; Stacks; Systems; Water Management;
Fuels – Hydrogen Storage: Compressed; Liquid;
Measurement Methods: Structural Properties: Neutron
and Synchrotron Imaging, In-Situ for Water Visualization;
Safety: High Voltage.
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