Received: 20 August 2020 Revised: 31 October 2020 Accepted: 6 November 2020

DOI: 10.1002/2050-7038.12707

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Analysis of solar photovoltaic-battery system for off-grid DC

load application

Mohd Alam | Kuldeep Kumar | Viresh Dutta

Photovoltaic Laboratory, Centre for

Energy Studies, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Correspondence
Mohd Alam, Photovoltaic Laboratory,
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian
Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi
110016, India.
Email: gbpec.mohd.alam@gmail.com
Funding information
Indo-US Science & Technology Forum
(IUSSTF), Grant/Award Number:
RP03472
Abstract
Objective: Applications of the sensors are inevitable for measurement and
data monitoring in any systems under operation. Powering the sensors in
remote working conditions is a challenging issue especially where conven-
tional way of electrification such as main grid is inaccessible or unavailable.
Renewable power source such as photovoltaic could be an economical, clean
and effective solution to meet the sensors load demand in remote operating
conditions. A sensor load for measuring the quality and depth of water in the
Yamuna River, Delhi, India is considered. However, energy storage is another
important aspect in such type of renewable load application due to intermit-
tency involved with generation. Present study gives a feasibility analysis of
solar photovoltaic-battery system for the remote sensor load application.
Method: Two configurations of photovoltaic-battery storage system are con-
sidered for selecting the best possible configuration based on techno-economic.
HOMER simulation tool is used for the cost and sizing optimization of photo-
voltaic-battery system. On the basis of sizing evaluation, a MATLAB simula-
tion study is also performed for integration of photovoltaic generator, battery
and sensor loads.
Result: On the basis of sizing evaluation photovoltaic and lead-acid battery
capacity is found to be 194 Wp and 2 kWh, respectively. However, better
charging/discharging characteristics of lithium-ion battery leads to lower
required capacity for photovoltaic generator ≈120 Wp. Therefore, photovol-
taic-lithium ion battery is most appropriate option considering the sizing of
generator and storage medium.
Conclusion: A comparative study between the photovoltaic with two energy
storage mediums i.e. lead-acid and lithium-ion was performed on the basis of
yearly performance and economics. Lithium-ion battery shows superior perfor-
mance over lead-acid battery considering its better charging and discharging
characteristics. The sizing of the photovoltaic generator was found lower with
lithium-ion configuration compared to the lead-acid battery.

List of Symbols and Abbreviations: CTA ($/yr), Total annualized cost; Etotal (kWh/yr), Total output electricity; x (%), annual real interest rate; y
(years), project lifetime; V_ref (V), DC voltage reference value; V_actual (V), Actual DC voltage; Vbus_ref (V), DC bus reference voltage; Vbus_actual (V),
Actual DC bus voltage; CRF, Capital recovery factor; HOMER, Hybrid optimization model for electrical renewables; LCOE ($/kWh), Levelized cost of
electricity; NPC ($), Net present cost; PV, Photovoltaic; RPG, Renewable power generator; SOC, State of charge.

Int Trans Electr Energ Syst. 2020;e12707. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/etep © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1 of 12
https://doi.org/10.1002/2050-7038.12707
2 of 12 ALAM ET AL.

KEYWORDS
DC load, lead-acid, lithium-ion, off-grid, photovoltaic

1 | INTRODUCTION

Energy consumption and human progress are proportional to each other. The global energy demand has been increased since
last few decades due to the technological, economic, and population growth.1,2 A major share of the energy demand comes
from the fossil fuels-based energy resources such as coal, petroleum, and gases.3 Due to the depletion of the fossil fuel reserves
and environmental concerns associated with them, inexhaustible renewable resources are being explored to meet the energy
demands, such sources are solar photovoltaic (SPV), fuel cell, biomass, wind, etc.4 Renewable power generators (RPG) show
suitable application to deliver the load demand in remote areas where utility grid is not available or has limited access.5,6
In literature, many studies were focused on the feasibility and viability analysis of the SPV system. The sizing of
SPV system depends on the weather data (irradiance and ambient temperature) and local electricity demand. In previ-
ous studies, analytical,7,8 numerical,9,10 and intuitive11,12 optimization methods have been used for sizing analysis of
the photovoltaic (PV) system. Commercial software that is, hybrid optimization model for electrical renewables
(HOMER) or RETScreen has been used for optimum sizing of renewable energy sources.13-15 Kaundinya et al have per-
formed a detailed review on the feasibility of the on-grid and off-grid PV system. It was found that feasibility analysis
restricted to annualized life cycle cost. However, off-grid PV system has significant impact on the greenhouse gas emis-
sions.16 Roy and Kabir have discussed the feasibility analysis of an off-grid PV system. It was found that the cost of electric-
ity depends on daily load demand and power rating of generators. For medium size generators (3-5 kW), PV system
provides lower electricity cost for lower load demand of 0.4-8 kWh while for higher load demand (14 kWh), petrol-diesel
generator gives lower cost of electricity.17 Schopfer et al have performed an economic analysis of PV-battery system using
machine-learning algorithm for household load applications. The proposed algorithm suggested that the future generation
predictions can give more accurate results.18 Abanda et al have performed a feasibility study on PV system for residential
load application. The optimum sizing of PV system, battery bank, and inverter was found using a sizing optimization algo-
rithm.19 Okoye and Solyalı have done an optimum sizing analysis for standalone PV-battery system for residential build-
ings. It was found that the mixed integer linear programming gave more accurate results for PV system sizing.20 Bhayo
et al have done an assessment on standalone PV-battery system for rural household applications. There was an excess elec-
tricity generation in the system, which was utilized for water-pumping application. For a load demand of 3.2 kWh/d, the
PV and battery size were found to be 2.44 kWp and 3.55 kWh, respectively. The PV system generates ≈9.807 kWh/d and
the excess electricity provides water pumping of 363 m3/d.21 Rezk et al have carried out a performance evaluation of PV-
battery-diesel generator system for irrigation application in remote location. Net present and electricity cost were the key
parameters to identify the sizing of system components. It was found that the electricity cost in PV-battery system was
69.74% lower than diesel generator system. With the use of PV-battery system, there was a significant reduction in CO2
emissions as compared to diesel generator system. The reduction in CO2 emissions was found to be ≈86 511 kg/y.22 Das
and Zaman have done a performance analysis on standalone PV-diesel-battery system for a load demand of
350 kWh/d. HOMER simulation tool was used for the techno-economic analysis. Three strategies that is, load following,
cycle charging, and combined dispatch, were used for the performance analysis. The CO2 emission in load following strat-
egy was 40% to 50% lower than other two strategies.23 Jurasz et al have done a study on performance of PV-battery system
considering the degradation in PV efficiency and drop in battery capacity.24 Odou et al have done a techno-economic analy-
sis of hybrid PV-diesel-battery system for off-grid communities. This hybrid system is more economically viable than the
grid extension.25 Syed et al have carried out a performance study on PV-battery system for an apartment building. It was
found that this system has ≈75% self-sufficiency of the total load demand.26 Jung et al have performed a study on hybrid
renewable energy system with battery storage for an off-grid remote island load application.27 Akinyele and Rayudu have
performed a techno-economic study on PV system for off-grid communities. The performance of the system was evaluated
on the basis of system power output, efficiency, and battery state of charge (SOC).28 Kaur et al have discussed the techno-
economic analysis of renewable sources-based microgrid system for rural load profile.29 Arévalo et al have done a sizing
and sensitivity analysis of hybrid renewable energy system using HOMER simulation tool.30
Battery energy storage is an efficient medium to store the excess electricity in off-grid PV system. Lithium-ion and
lead-acid batteries have shown useful applications for energy storage in renewable energy system.31 Parra et al have
performed a study on comparison of lead-acid and lithium-ion battery for community load application. It was found
ALAM ET AL. 3 of 12

that lithium-ion battery is more preferable than lead-acid battery considering the levelized cost of electricity.32
Torkashvand et al have performed a life cycle cost analysis of lead-acid and lithium-ion battery with supercapacitor
storage medium for islanded microgrid applications.33 Li et al performed a techno-economic study on standalone hybrid
diesel generator-wind-battery system with different battery technologies (lead-acid, lithium-ion, and zinc-bromine).
Out of different configurations, diesel generator-lithium ion battery system was found more environmental friendly.34
According to the literature, it can be concluded that the PV system has shown considerable application for the remote load
application. The operating performance and cost of such system depend on resource availability at the location, energy storage
mediums, and load demand. Most of studies were focused on the large power applications (in higher kW range) and it is found
that the very small attention was given on the application of PV system for small load application (fraction of kW range). Load
demand of remote run of river water quality sensors shows very strong application with PV system. The selection of source, its
sizing, integration with energy storage mediums, and its cost-economics are still needed to be studied in details for typical
remote sensor load application. Present study addresses the issues of sizing and feasibility study of the PV with different energy
storage mediums for remote sensor load application and its cost-effectiveness. In this study, a typical remote sensing load appli-
cation is selected for Yamuna River, Delhi, India. PV is considered as main power generator according to the availability on
the location. Lead-acid and lithium-ion are selected as energy storage mediums. Two configurations of PV-battery storage sys-
tem are considered for selecting the best possible configuration based on techno-economic. HOMER simulation tool is used for
the cost and sizing optimization of PV system. A best configuration on the basis of PV system sizing is selected. A MATLAB
simulation study is performed which shows the integration approach of PV generator, load, and energy storage medium.

2 | S Y S T E M D ES CR I P T I ON

Yamuna is the sub-basin of the Ganga river system. Yamuna River and its catchment together contribute to a total of
345 848 km2 area out of the total catchment's area of 861 404 km2 of the Ganga basin.35 Yamuna river water is utilized
for irrigation, drinking water supply, industrial applications, etc. At present, Yamuna River is facing over exploitation
in terms of quantity and quality due to industrial growth in National Capital Region. However, a large population
depends on the river for their basic requirements such as drinking water and irrigation etc. The major sources of pollu-
tion in Yamuna River are untreated sewage and industrial wastages. The waste-water discharges contribute to signifi-
cant river water degradation, reduce agricultural products quality, land fertility, and ultimately affect public health. It
leads to critical attention to preserve water quality for maintaining its usability. Government of India has launched
Yamuna Action Plan to improve the sanitation of Yamuna River. River water quality depends on various parameters
such as pH, biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, total alkalin-
ity, chloride, sulfate, nitrate, toxic metals, and microbial population. The level of aforementioned parameters lies in the
range of alarming pollution and it is considered that Yamuna River is on the verge of being dead.36

48 V DC Bus

DC-DC 30 V
Converter
To Sensor Networks

DC-DC 12 V
Converter
Power-Conditioning
Unit

DC-DC 2/3.3/5 V
Converter
Photovoltaic Generator

Bidirectional
DC-DC
Converter
F I G U R E 1 Schematic diagram Battery Storage (Lead-acid
of off-grid solar photovoltaic system or Lithium-ion)
4 of 12 ALAM ET AL.

TABLE 1 Typical sensor load

Sensors Voltage (V) Current (A) Power (W)
requirement
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 12 8 96
Pathogen sensor 30 3 90
Water flow/velocity/depth measurement 5 1 5
pH and NH3 5 1 5
Micropump 24 0.2 4.8
Total Wattage 200

Start
F I G U R E 2 Algorithm used in hybrid optimization model for
electrical renewables (HOMER) for sizing

Weather data User defined generator

and storage medium
Cost optimization
Load profile
Control strategies

Try different sizes(if not

defined in search space)
of the system components
to identify the all
possible system
configurations

Rank all the feasible

system configurations

Sizing of system
components corresponding
to least NPC

FIGURE 3 Power sharing algorithm

Load profile PV generation profile

Generation
>
YES Load NO

Battery at SOCmax Battery at SOCmin

YES NO

YES

Excess electricity Battery charging Battery discharging

For measurement of water quality, there is a need of different types of sensors, which requires electricity for their
operation. The schematic diagram of the PV system for supplying electricity to the sensor network for off-grid load
application is shown in Figure 1. PV is considered as the main power generator, whereas battery is considered as a
back-power source to overcome the intermittency with PV generator. Due to the intermittent nature of power genera-
tor, the output voltage is also variable. This variable voltage is stabilized at a constant DC voltage level using the suit-
able power conditioning unit (DC-DC converter). This constant voltage is again converted to lower voltage levels using
another suitable DC/DC converters according to the requirement of different voltage levels of sensor working. Remote
ALAM ET AL. 5 of 12

load location (Yamuna River) Delhi (latitude-28.65
N, longitude-77.25
E), India is selected for the feasibility study on
the basis of sizing and cost-economic. In Yamuna River, major industrial effluents are discharged during the early
morning (5 AM-7 AM).37 Therefore, the pollution level is significantly high during this time period. It is required to mea-
sure the quality of water during this time period. The details of the sensor loads are given in Table 1. The sensor load
requirement is approximately ≈200 W and it is considered constant throughout the year.

3 | METHOD OLOG Y

The sizing of the system components in HOMER simulation tool is done using the HOMER optimizer. HOMER evalu-
ates all the feasible configurations to meet the given load demand by considering all the possible size of components in
the search space (it can be user define also) or HOMER optimizer. In case, if optimizer for a component is selected then
there is no need to enter a search space number for that component, only the lower and upper limits of the range to be

FIGURE 4 Irradiation profile

FIGURE 5 Temperature profile

T A B L E 2 Details of components
Parameters PV Lead-acid battery Lithium-ion battery
cost used in the techno-economic
analysis38 Capital cost $ 1000/kW $ 120/kWh $ 500/kWh
Replacement cost - $ 120/kWh $ 500/kWh
O & M cost $ 10/y $ 10/y $ 10/y
Component lifespan 25 y 5y 7y
6 of 12 ALAM ET AL.

considered. HOMER compares the quantities between the upper and lower bounds with the base. The default for the
base is zero. HOMER automatically finds the optimal size or quantity of components. After evaluating all the possible
configurations, HOMER ranks them on the basis of the net present cost (NPC). The system configuration having the
lowest NPC is most recommended by the HOMER. In Figure 2, the flow chart describes the sizing algorithm of
HOMER simulation tool. The power sharing technique used in the simulation is shown in Figure 3. The yearly irradia-
tion and temperature profile for Delhi, India location are shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively.

4 | E C O N O M I C E V A L U A T I O N OF TH E P V - B A T T E R Y SY S T E M

Present study is based on the PV system to meet the sensor load demand. RPG such as PV is considered as per the avail-
ability of resource. Battery is the best energy storage medium with the PV power generator to meet the sensor load
demand considering its working characteristics. Two types of battery storages are considered that is, lead-acid and
lithium-ion. There are two possible combinations of the power generator and storage medium to operate the load. How-
ever, the suitability of the PV is subjected on the basis of techno-economic of the system. Therefore, a techno-economic
evaluation of PV system is performed in different cases: (a) PV-lead acid battery, (b) PV-lithium ion battery. The details
of the considered component cost in PV-battery system are given in Table 2. The considered project lifetime is 25 years.
The various equations involved in the techno-economic evaluation are given below:
The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) is given as:

CTA
LCOE = , ð1Þ
E total

where, CTA is the total annualized cost that constitutes capital cost and the operation and maintenance cost ($/y).
Etotal is the total electricity output kWh/y.
Total NPC is given by:

CTA
NPC = , ð2Þ
CRF ðx,yÞ

where, y is the project lifetime (years) and x is the annual real interest rate. CRF means the capital recovery factor.
The capital recovery factor is formulated as:

xð1 + x Þy
CRF ðx, yÞ = : ð3Þ
ð1 + x Þy −1

PV Power LA Battery Charging Power Load

Battery SoC LA Battery DIscharging Power Excess Electricity
0.25

80

0.2

70
Battery SoC (%)
Power (kW)

0.15
60

0.1
50

0.05
40

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 FIGURE 6 Power sharing between PV, lead-acid battery

Time (Hrs) and load
ALAM ET AL. 7 of 12

5 | R ES U L T S A N D D I S C U S S I O N

5.1 | Power sharing analysis

The power sharing analysis between PV system and energy storage mediums is discussed as follows:

5.1.1 | PV-lead acid battery

The power sharing curve of the PV-lead acid battery system is shown in Figure 6. It can be seen that PV electricity is
utilized in battery charging when sensors do not require the power. This stored PV electricity in battery can be further
utilized to power the sensors when PV electricity is not available. The sensors require power during the early time of
day and rest of time do not require power therefore, rest of day the battery is charged from PV electricity. The battery
charging and discharging states are represented by increase and decrease in the SOC, respectively. In this case, PV and
battery capacity is found to be 194 Wp and 2 kWh, respectively.

PV Power LI Battery Charging Power Load

Battery SoC LI Battery Discharging Power Excess Electricity
0.25
90

0.2
80

Battery SoC (%)

Power (kW)

0.15 70

60
0.1

50
0.05
40

FIGURE 7 Power sharing between PV, lithium-ion battery 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

and load Time (Hrs)

T A B L E 3 Comprehensive analysis
Operating scenarios
of PV-battery system
Parameters Case 1 Case 2
Component sizing
PV (kWp) 0.194 0.120
Lead-acid battery (kWh) 2
Lithium-ion battery (kWh) - 2
Cost performance
Initial capital cost ($) 432.71 1120
NPC ($) 1210 2712
LCOE ($/kWh) 0.642 1.44
Performance analysis
Load requirement (kWh/y) 146 146
PV electricity (kWh/y) 320 193
Lead acid battery electricity (kWh/y) (+) 182 (−) 146 -
Lithium ion battery electricity (kWh/y) - (+) 162 (−) 146
8 of 12 ALAM ET AL.

5.1.2 | PV-lithium ion battery

Figure 7 shows the sensor load demand application with PV-lithium ion battery configuration. It can be observed that the
charging rate of lithium-ion is faster than the lead-acid battery, which is justified as lithium-ion battery provides higher effi-
ciency as compared to lead-acid.39 Therefore, lithium-ion battery consumes less PV electricity to store the same amount of elec-
tricity as compared to lead-acid battery. For similar conditions, lithium-ion battery approaches to higher value of SOC ≈90% as
compared to lead-acid battery ≈80% (refer Figures 6 and 7). Similarly, during discharging period, the SOC of lead-acid battery
drops to ≈42% as compared to lithium-ion (≈52%). Better charging/discharging characteristics of lithium-ion battery lead to
lower required capacity for PV generator ≈120 Wp which is lesser as compared to PV-lead acid configuration (194 Wp).
A detailed comprehensive analysis of NPC and LCOE of the studied PV-battery system is given in Table 3.

5.2 | Integration of PV-battery and sensor load

HOMER simulation results suggest that based on the sizing analysis, PV along with lithium-ion battery is the best con-
figuration. However, water quality sensors require different input voltage levels for their working. For that, different

DC Bus
Sensor # 1
DC/DC load
Photovoltaic DC-DC converter converter #1
module

Sensor # 2
g_source
DC/DC load
converter #2

Lithium ion Bi-directional Sensor # 3

battery DC/DC converter
DC/DC load
converter #3
g_bid

DC/DC load
Central converter #4
controller
Sensor # 4
Data signal
Converter gate F I G U R E 8 Block diagram of
driving pulse the PV-battery control system

F I G U R E 9 Closed loop control of source and sensor load side

DC-DC converter

FIGURE 10 Closed loop control for battery side converter

ALAM ET AL. 9 of 12

FIGURE 11 Sensors side DC-DC converter voltage regulation

FIGURE 12 Hardware prototype of PV-lithium ion battery

system
10 of 12 ALAM ET AL.

FIGURE 13 Experimental waveforms of DC bus and sensors

voltage regulation

output voltage DC-DC converters are required with PV to provide the required voltage for sensors and battery storage.
For analyzing the integration of PV generators and loads for the different voltage levels, a simulation study is performed
using the MATLAB simulation tool. The source and load sides DC-DC converters integrate the PV generator, battery,
and sensors. The central controller controls the battery charging and discharging phenomenon as well as it controls the
voltage level of the load side converters. The block diagram of the studied PV-battery system in MATLAB is shown in
Figure 8.
The proportional integral (PI) controller for the source and load side converters is shown in Figure 9. Battery con-
verter controller is shown in Figure 10. The reference value (V_ref) needed is compared with the actual output voltage
(V_actual). The difference obtained is actuated the PI controller, the obtained output is given to the PWM generator to
generate the gate pulse for controlling the output of source side converter. The battery converter maintains the DC bus
voltage. The DC bus voltage reference (Vbus_ref) value is compared with the actual DC bus voltage (Vbus_actual). If actual
bus voltage is higher than the reference value then the central controller switches on the battery side bidirectional con-
verter to charge the battery with the AND operation of gate pulse to the source side converter. If bus voltage is less than
the reference value and PV is not capable to meet the load then the battery is discharged through the battery side con-
verter in order to maintain the DC bus voltage.

5.2.1 | DC bus and sensor load voltage regulation

In case, if the battery is partially charged then the PV power is used to charge the battery with the use of bidirectional
DC-DC converter and the DC bus voltage is maintained to a constant value. When the irradiation goes low and load is
still high then central controller activates the battery side converter in order to discharge the battery through load. The
regulations of all the load voltages and DC bus voltage are shown in Figure 11.
A hardware prototype system is developed in the laboratory to integrate the PV, lithium-ion battery, and DC-DC
converters. Variable output voltage of PV is stabilized using the suitable DC-DC converter. The DC bus voltage is
selected to 48 V. This stabilized voltage is again converted to lower voltage levels (30, 12, 5.5, and 3.3 V) using the
DC-DC buck converters as shown in Figure 12. The experimental waveforms of the DC bus and sensor load voltages
are shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that the bus voltage and the sensor voltages are regulated to their nominal
values.

6 | C ON C L U S I ON S

This study gives a feasibility analysis of the PV system-based remote sensor load application on the basis of sizing and
techno-economic. A comparative study between the PV with two energy storage mediums that is, lead-acid and
lithium-ion was performed on the basis of yearly performance and economics. A simulation study was also performed
ALAM ET AL. 11 of 12

to address the integration of sensor loads with the PV and battery systems using the DC-DC converters. The major out-
comes of present study can be summarized as follows:

1. PV is suitable for such low power sensor load applications for studied location in the present study.
2. Lithium-ion battery shows superior performance over lead-acid battery considering its better charging and dis-
charging characteristics.
3. The LCOE ($/kWh) was found to be ≈0.642 and ≈1.44 for PV-lead acid and PV-lithium ion configurations, respec-
tively. Lead-acid battery is more economical compared to lithium-ion battery.
4. The sizing of the PV generator was found lower with lithium-ion configuration compared to the lead-acid battery.
5. Lower sizing of the PV generator with lithium-ion can be advantages for sensor load application where weight and
size are major constraints in the floating buoy to equip all the components.
6. Developed simulation model and its hardware implementation show the stable and effective operation of the differ-
ent voltage level sensors load applications with hybrid PV-battery system.

This study can be very useful for other researcher for evaluating the most suitable self-sufficient renewable energy
system for remote water quality sensing load application.

ACK NO WLE DGE MEN TS

Authors are extremely thankful to Indo-US Science & Technology Forum (IUSSTF) project entitled “Energy Harvesting
System for Integrated Low-cost water sensors for Real Time River Water Monitoring and Decision Making (Project no:
RP03472, subproject no: MI01711)” to carry out this research work.

P EE R R EV IE W
The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/2050-7038.12707.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that supports the finding of this study is provided in the manuscript itself.

ORCID
Mohd Alam https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4148-1886

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How to cite this article: Alam M, Kumar K, Dutta V. Analysis of solar photovoltaic-battery system for off-grid
DC load application. Int Trans Electr Energ Syst. 2020;e12707. https://doi.org/10.1002/2050-7038.12707