Slides

Power System Operation and Control
Dr. Ananyo Sengupta
Subject Code: EE3100

Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
Load Flow Analysis
Short Circuit Analysis Course Contents
Power System Stability Per Unit Representation
Economic Dispatch of Generation Network Equation
Automatic Control of Generation
Introduction
Components of Power System
Generator Transformer
Generator Transformer
(Covered in: Electrical Machines I & II)
(Covered in: Electrical Machines I & II)
Transmission Line
Transmission Line
(Covered in: Power Generation,

(Covered in: Power Generation,
Transmission and Distribution)
Transmission and Distribution)
Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 2 / 256

Load Flow Analysis
Single Line Diagram

Generator
Power Transformer
3 4
Transmission Line
Sub-transmission
System
Distribution Transformer
Load
Figure: Single Line Diagram of Power System

Load Flow Analysis
Single Line Diagram

Generator
Power Transformer
3 4
Transmission Line
Sub-transmission
System
Load
Figure: Radial Connection

Load Flow Analysis
Single Line Diagram

Generator
Power Transformer
3 4 1 3
2 4
Transmission Line
Sub-transmission
System
5 6
Load
Figure: Radial Connection Figure: Mesh Connection

Load Flow Analysis
It’s not a Two Bus System ...

CHAKRABARTI AND KYRIAKIDES: OPTIMAL PLACEMENT OF PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNITS FOR POWER SYSTEM OBSERVABILITY 1437
Fig. 3. IEEE 14-bus test system [18].

Figure: IEEE 14 Bus System

Load Flow Analysis

CHAKRABARTI AND KYRIAKIDES: OPTIMAL PLACEMENT OF PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNITS FOR POWER SYSTEM OBSERVABILITY 1437
Fig. 5. IEEE 30-bus te


Load Flow Analysis
MENT OF PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNITS FOR POWER SYSTEM OBSERVABILITY 1437


Load Flow Analysis

MENT OF PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNITS FOR POWER SYSTEM OBSERVABILITY 1437
of radial buses and the number of zero-injection buses, for the

four test systems.
Table II shows the buses where PMUs must be placed in
order to make all the radial buses observable. These preassigned
PMUs are added with each combination of PMUs formed out of
the remaining candidate locations. For example, without consid-
Fig. 5. ering zero injections, bus 7 is a preassigned PMU location for
IEEE 30-bus test system [18]. Fig. 6. New England 39-bus test system [19].
Figure: IEEEthe 30IEEE
Bus 14-bus
System test system. Let be a combination Figure: IEEE 39 Bus System
Power System outOperation
of the remaining candidate
and Control locations.
©Ananyo The combination of
Sengupta 6 / 256

Power Map of India Find
KISHENGANGA
Baart ka ivaVut maanaica~

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MUNIRABAD KV 50 Somayajulapally
S 220 XELDEMS 50.0 26 S
S 0 98 I
220 26 S
99
Line 45
62
S
0
43
0 21 S
ALIPUR
knaa-Tk
60
I 38
254
27 S
191
21 HUBLI S 210 50.0 S
189
57
S
NAGJHARI
45
110 II 480
61 0 S Nandyal
41
(NJPH) 111 113 -21
S
AanQa` p`doSa
0 S
68
229
117
112
73
112
298 417 (AP) S

0
418
40
46 220 0 49.9 33 S
13
S
KADRA 49.9
Bellary TPS 32 GOOTY MYDUKUR
220 54 KODASALLI I -24
50.0 107 S
388
71
55 Q 999
171
104 MUDDANUR
0
II 473
31
90 Tadipatri
KARWAR Q 999 HAVERI 0 172 63 95 MEPL
290 0 49.9 326 50.0 623(RayalseemaTPS)
-25 267 45.0 19 66 978 ANANTPUR
104 108 452 15
60 220 76 Anantpur 226
105 107
388
71
423 KAIGA 29 JINDAL 82
433
69
91
220 R 400 85 SEPL
50.0 0
29
0 50.0
312
-21 RAMAGIRI 447 84 84 49.9
I 78 62 416
79
68
0
76
61 50.0 49
226 (AP) (CS)NELLORE
21
II
41 50.0 418 -26 RAJAMPET
412 YERRAGUNTLA CUDAPPAH 62 -22
53 68
21
62
312 73 (CHINAKAMPALLY)
42
63
0
HINDUPUR
S
KODUR
53 377
32 41
S GATE
355
3891
50
GUTTUR
31
224 429
-26
49.9
42
441
GOLDEN 4082
R 109
33
371
63
72
50.0
72
S
24 83 85
66
71
38
45.0 0 S II I
28 8
69
RANIBENNUR
0 84 I 86
107
29 KAVERI
GATE
220
0 220 DAVANGERE 220
399 406 361 RENINGUTTA
50.0
373
49.9
46 84 49.9 MadhugiriGowribidanur 3036 104
34
59
18
59
II
65
33
220 S 0 HOODY -33 56
61
18 45.0 229 49.9
50.0
178
46 84 D B Pura 0 KALIKIRI 206 50.0
61
0 HIRIYUR(KE) 0 59
28
66 0 413
147
26 SULURPET
-30 422 HIRIYUR
67
233
34
53
11.3 304
62
-27 49.9 0
378
Q 9999 50.0 214(AP) 53
14 34
27 S
320 4
TALGUPPA 423 Malur 49.8 CHITTOOR

6
422
277
S
3313
Q 9999 I 14
87 ITPL
276 55 50 II HSR ALAMANTHI
0
0
236
68 68 208
0
14 -30
323
SHARAVATHI 0 PEENYA 228 -32

279
S
62
324
NORTH
7 0 -32 49.9 107 233 KOLAR 93 79 126 566MADRAS
S
0 0
0 SHIMOGA 0 0 49.9 414
0 29 S NRS-BG 49.9 PG 92
G.POONDI 33 2
71 1 413 Q 999 THIRUVALEM S
3
112
S
0 120 0 41 26 79
220 54 117 92
76 123
61 0 SUBRAMA- KE 2 114 77
0 236
S
45.0 0 NYAPURA 160 99
1
TAIL RACE 42 30ENNORE
2
0 19 40 101
74 21817 51 533 MOSUR
S
0
S
55 34 3 NELAMANGALA TPS
0
150 219 220 532 75
VARAHI 35
100 44 18 S
-34 S'PUR Q 999
VALLUR Q 82
S
S 44 218 409 18 2 3 178 1 999
420 S 110
S
II 99 150 34 (MADRAS) 82 TONDIARPET
0 0 HASSAN SOMANAHALLI Yerandahalli I 15 122 413 7KORATTUR
45.0 UDUPI 0 50.0 418 11 (BANGALORE) 0 6 5
50.0 CS TN 6162
L E G E N D KEMAR
220 0
S
0
KUDREMUKH
-28
0 0
KUNIGAL
(Anchepalya)
109
11 -34
516S
19533
529
49.9
KALAVINDAPATTU
-35
37 KOYAMBEDU
87 66
57
0 BIDADI Harohalli 64
348 68S VINNAMANGALAM MYLAPORE
Q 999 MANGALORE
50.0 53
I II -36 405 -36 98 KADAPPERI
S S
I 43 77
KASARAKODE HOSUR 94
103
ARANI
S
S S
UNDER CONSTRUCTION 109 9 105

2
208 II 54
0TANIR BHAVI
S
S
11 THARAMANI
588
70
49.9 110
EXISTING 220 12 40
25
S
1 50.0 11 Tubinekere 62
S
SINGARAPET
S
44 SUNGUVARCHATRAM S P KOIL
42
S
0 KARIMANGALAM VILLUPURAM
11 56 13 129
49.9 220 Q 999
20
419 50.0 STANLEY GATE

29 19 20
43 -31 T K Halli ACHARAPAKKAM
(Charged at 400 KV) THALPARAMBA 75 MYSORE 18 59
125
TV 0 113
S
53 0
765 KV LINES
122
41 0 344 130
45
0
215 S
METTUR MALAI KALPAKKAM
KANHIRODE 50.1 S 220Hootagalli
0
26
S (Mysore(KE)) Maduvanahalli 04 516 84 20 49.9 410
(Charged at 765 KV) 44 S
50.0 72 PONDICHERRY -40
43 Kadakola
0 4 23 575
43
S
METTUR 196 BAHOOR
S S
C R Nagar TUNNEL 20
99 KUTTIYADI KANIYAMPETAH 110
43
400 KV LINES 224

49.9
5
5 SALEM 62 -44
25
VILLIANUR
71 74 778 121 121TN 49.9
199
KUNDAH 1 METTUR CS 45 27 47
TPS 154 123 127 405 NEYVELI
89 73
22 76 78 453 27 CUDDALORE
220 KV LINES 2 126 16
111
Q 999 Q9999 PYKARA 198 TS1

36
AREAKODEKUNDAH49 999 GOBI 154 122 I 2
KOZIKODE 35 Q 87 81 131
215 76 110 27
475
DPP 18 II 33 28 2 4
67 50.0 85
483
39 35 115
20NEYVELI(EXP-2) 3 -42
132 KV LINES 0
162
KUNDAH 3 Q0999 58 NEYVELI

35
89
67 37KUNDAH 4 136 26557 58 958 TPS(STG-I&II)

79
94 83 158
118 DEVIAKURICHI 82 0 69
274
85 INGUR 116 KADALANGUDI

264
KUNDAH PALAKKAD THIRUCHENCODE 225 410

73
-53
HVDC B-TO-B 0 412 112 47
81
ARASURTIRUPPUR I 49.9
timalanaaDU
49
118 I 417 EACHENGADU STCMS 0
128 THUDIYALUR 387NEYVELI TPS 46
93 107 270
26
50.0 220 117 50.0 70 68 IIPERAMBALUR 50.1 (EXP) 331

268
66
57 58 II 0
271
411
45
62
266
60
268
28
NORTH TRICHUR SAMAYAPURAM

134
(MADAKATHARA) 180 69 -50 5 P P NALLUR

91
124
271
-55 414 50.0 51 105 71 49.9 PUGALUR 53

471
56
HVDC BIPOLE TRICHY-47THANJAVUR
36
-52 48 54
17 180 70 409 23
478
I 97 20
S
0 17 51 318UDUMALPET 50.0 24 0
144 144 45 0 47
56
PALAKKAD 35 THIRUVARUR
II 405 62 60
215
88 15 17 0 314 130PALLADOM 246 50.0

84
KALAMASSERI
138
220 68
57
93
L PERIYAR 10 3 I II PUDUKOTTAI
-1 70 3 48 PONAPURAM
THERMAL/GAS GENERATION : BRAHMAPURAM 31 49.9
0 7 S
S
50 47 0 N.MADURAI
222
S
140
43
68 -1 46 16 17 61 117
10
0
57
0
58
143
222
33S
134 -49
NUCLEAR GENERATION : 106 43 KADAMPARAI 65
31S
56
35
KARAIKUDI
31
korla
53
45
55 0KOCHI
81 139
9
MUVATTAPUZHA
25
21
THIRUVALEM Q
110
HYDRO GENERATION :
8
231
IDUKKI 107 137

S 418
S
THENI
LINE FLOW LIMITS 70
S
**** 105 70 413 -51

114 MADURAI
229 49.9 49.9
110
II I I PARAMAKUDI
59
PALLOM 72
85 126
130 111
128
9
13
SABARGIRI
6
222
9
64
LINES UNDER OUTAGES

50.0 198
20
S
78
41
126 125 VALATHUR

0 SIPOT
40
11 SATHUR
33
11
LINES CROSSES LIMIT-1 I II
0
125 126
105
KAYATHAR 49.8 STERLITE

0
327 230
65
75
29
KAYAMKULAM VEERANAM
LINES CROSSES LIMIT-2 223 68
24
49.3 7
46 7 KODIKURCHY 12 9
S
127
23
161
4 143
128
LINES CROSSES LIMIT-3 KUNDARA

48 170
50 243
149
999 97 98
49.9
955
154
225 Q 0 117 TUTICORIN

EDAMON 102 -54
49.9
TIRUNELVELI TTP
91
12 11 46
49.9 419 AUTO
5 I 100
46 8 UDAYATHUR
10 11 100 II
6
POTHENCODE 55 0 4
KOODANKULAM
S 234 98 IV III 0SANKANERI
S
50.0
TRIVENDRUM I
44
-56 411 II 56
49.9 13
S 619
6
12 S.R.PUDUR
418 230 49.9
KUDANKULAM
Figure: Power Map of India: 3771 Bus (upto 132 kV), 7077 Lines, 428 Transformers, 432 Generators
Power Map of India
Figure: North Odisha

Load Flow Analysis
Course Contents
1 Preliminary
Per-Unit Representation
150 M W 150 M W
1 ¯ = ?
V ¯ = ?
V 3
1 3
¯ = ?
V ¯ = ?
V
2 2 4 4
?
=
P 45
5 6
¯ = ?
V ¯ = ?
V
5 6
100 M W 200 M W
(Ignoring loss)

Load Flow Analysis
Course Contents
1 Preliminary
150 M W 150 M W
2 Load Flow Analysis
1 ¯ = ?
V 1
¯ = ?
V 3
3 Gauss-Seidel, NRLF, Decoupled and FDLF Analysis
¯ = ?
V ¯ = ?
V
2 2 4 4
?
=
P 45
5 6
¯ = ?
V ¯ = ?
V
5 6
100 M W 200 M W
(Ignoring loss)

Load Flow Analysis
Course Contents
1 Preliminary
1 V
f
¯ = ?
1
V
f
¯ = ?
3
¯ = ?
V
f
¯ = ?
3 Short Circuit Analysis
2 2 V 4 4
Balanced and Unbalanced Fault

f ?
¯ =
I 45
¯
I = ?
5 fault 6
f f
¯ = ?
V ¯ = ?
V
5 6

Load Flow Analysis
Course Contents
1 Preliminary
f1 (t) = ? 150 M W 150 M W f2 (t) = ? 2 Load Flow Analysis
1 ¯ (t) = ?
V 1
¯ (t) = ?
V 3
¯ (t) = ? ¯ (t) = ?
2 V V 4 4
2

4 Power System Stability
Small Signal and Transient Stability
¯ (t) = ?
V ¯ (t) = ?
V
5 6
5 6
500 M W
200 M W
100 M W 200 M W
time

Load Flow Analysis
Course Contents
1 Preliminary
150 M W and 150 M W ?
or
1
100 M W and 200 M W ?
or
⋮
2 4

5
Maximum Profit ? 6
5 Economic Dispatch of Generation
Scheduling of Generations
(Ignoring loss)
100 M W 200 M W

Load Flow Analysis
Course Contents
1 Preliminary
1 3 Gauss-Seidel, NRLF, Decoupled and FDLF Analysis
2 4

5 6
5 6
6 Automatic Control
Automatic Control of Frequency and Voltage
Grid Management in India

Load Flow Analysis
Course Contents
Pm
1
= ? Pm
3
= ?
1 Preliminary
1 3
2 4
Gauss-Seidel, NRLF, Decoupled and FDLF Analysis

1.0 Introduction
By definition, electrical demand is the rate at which electrical power is being consumed over
a given time interval by all the defined loads of a well-defined area. For all the practical Balanced and Unbalanced Fault
purposes, demand is measured in megawatts (MW).
1.1. Load Curve 4 Power System Stability

A plot showing the variation in demand met with respect to time is known as the load curve.
If
5 this curve is plotted over a period of time for 24 hours, it is known as daily load curve 6
(Figure 1). If it is plotted for a week, month or a year it is named as weekly, monthly and Small Signal and Transient Stability
yearly load curve respectively.
Pd The load curve reflects the activity of a population
Pdof society
5 6
with respect to electrical power consumption over a given period of time.

Evening Peak
Morning Peak
6 Automatic Control
GW->
Automatic Control of Frequency and Voltage

Day Lean
Night Lean

Load Flow Analysis
Module A
Preliminary:
Per Unit Representation, Network Equation

Load Flow Analysis
Per Unit Representation

1 2
z̄ 12 = (20 + j40)Ω
¯ o ¯ o
V 1 = 32∠ − 2 kV V 2 =? z̄ d = 400∠ − 20 Ω

Load Flow Analysis

1 2
z̄ 12 = (20 + j40)Ω
¯ o ¯ o
V 1 = 32∠ − 2 kV V 2 =? z̄ d = 400∠ − 20 Ω
1 2 3
z̄ 12 = (20 + j40)Ω
¯ o ¯ ¯
V 1 = 10.5∠0 kV V 2 =? V 3 =?
o
z̄ d = 400∠ − 20 Ω
11 kV /33 kV
z̄ t = j16Ω on H.V. side

Load Flow Analysis

1 2
¯ o
V 1 = 10.5∠0 kV
z̄ 12 = (20 + j40)Ω
1 2
z̄ 12 = (20 + j40)Ω
¯ o ¯ o
V 1 = 32∠ − 2 kV V 2 =? z̄ d = 400∠ − 20 Ω
z̄ 13 = (25 + j60)Ω
z̄ 23 = (22 + j50)Ω
3
1 2 3
11 kV /33 kV
z̄ 12 = (20 + j40)Ω
z̄ t = j16 Ω on H.V. side
¯ o ¯ ¯
V 1 = 10.5∠0 kV V 2 =? V 3 =?
o
z̄ d = 400∠ − 20 Ω
11 kV /33 kV o
z̄ d = 400∠ − 20 Ω
4
z̄ t = j16Ω on H.V. side

Load Flow Analysis

Actual value in any unit
Per unit value of any quantity =
Base value in the same unit

Load Flow Analysis

If base power = SB
Base voltage = VB

Load Flow Analysis

If base power = SB
Base voltage = VB
SB
Then base current IB = VB
(assuming single phase)
2
VB VB
Base impedance ZB = IB
= SB
If the actual impedance is Zohms

Zohms × SB
Zpu =
VB2

Load Flow Analysis
Per Unit Impedance of Transformer

2
ZeL : Equivalent impedance (in ohm) w.r.t. L.V side ZeH NL
(ZeL )pu = 2
× × SB
ZeH : Equivalent impedance (in ohm) w.r.t. H.V side VBL NH
ZeH
ZBL : Base impedance on L.V. side (ZeH )pu = 2
× SB
VBH
ZBH : Base impedance on H.V. side
2 2
SB : Base power (ZeL )pu VBH NL
= ×
VBH : Base voltage at H.V. side (ZeH )pu VBL NH
VBL : Base voltage at L.V. side

( ) ( )
V2 V2 If VBH
= NH
ZBL = BL , ZBH = BH VBL NL
SB SB
ZeL ZeH (ZeL )pu = (ZeH )pu
(ZeL )pu = , (ZeH )pu =
ZBL ZBH

Load Flow Analysis
Per Unit Representation: Example

4
1 2 3 G2
G1 T1 T2
G3
Sd1 Sd4
Ratings: G1 : 30 MVA 10.5 kV x = 1.6 Ω

G2 : 15 MVA 6.6 kV x = 1.2 Ω
G3 : 25 MVA 6.6 kV x = 0.56 Ω
T1 : 15 MVA 33/11 kV x = 15.2 Ω on HV side
T2 : 15 MVA 33/6.2 kV x = 16 Ω on HV side
Transmission Line: j20.5 Ω
Sd1 : 40 MW, 11 kV, 0.9 lagging pf
Sd4 : 40 MW, 6.6 kV, 0.85 lagging pf
Take 30 MVA, 33 kV base on the transmission side.

Load Flow Analysis

SB = 30 MVA
4
1 2 3 G2
G1 T1 T2
11kV /33kV 33kV /6.2kV
G3
Sd1 Sd4
VB = 11kV VB = 33kV VB = 6.2 kV
IB = 2727.3A IB = 909.09A IB = 4838.7A
ZB = 36.3 Ω ZB = 1.2813 Ω
ZB = 4.033 Ω

Load Flow Analysis

SB = 30 MVA
4
1 2 3 G2
G1 T1 T2
11kV /33kV 33kV /6.2kV
G3
Sd1 Sd4
VB = 11kV VB = 33kV VB = 6.2 kV
IB = 2727.3A IB = 909.09A IB = 4838.7A
ZB = 36.3 Ω ZB = 1.2813 Ω
ZB = 4.033 Ω
z̄G1 = j0.396 pu, z̄T1 = j0.418 pu, S̄d1 = (1.333 + j0.6458) pu

z̄G2 = j0.936 pu, z̄T2 = j0.440 pu, S̄d4 = (1.333 + j0.8263) pu
z̄G3 = j0.437 pu, z̄23 = j0.564 pu,

Load Flow Analysis
Per Unit Representation: Base Conversion
Often machine impedances are expressed in

per-unit from it’s own rated voltage and rated
power.
Base Conversion
2
VB,old
SB,new
Zpu,new = Zpu,old × × 2
SB,old VB,new

Load Flow Analysis
Per Unit Representation: Base Conversion
4
1 2 3 G2
G1 T1 T2
Often machine impedances are expressed in

per-unit from it’s own rated voltage and rated
power. G3
Sd1 Sd4
Ratings:
Base Conversion G1 : 30 MVA 10.5 kV x = 0.435 pu
2 G2 : 15 MVA 6.6 kV x = 0.413 pu
SB,new VB,old
Zpu,new = Zpu,old × × 2 G3 : 25 MVA 6.6 kV x = 0.3214 pu
SB,old VB,new T1 : 15 MVA 33/11 kV x = 0.209 pu
T2 : 15 MVA 33/6.2 kV x = 0.220 pu
Take 30 MVA, 33 kV base on the transmission side.

Load Flow Analysis
Per Unit Representation of Three Phase System

Let the 3-phase line-to-line base voltage be: VB3ϕ
3-phase base power: SB3ϕ

Load Flow Analysis

Base current:
SB3ϕ
IB = √
3VB3ϕ
Base impedance:
2
VB3ϕ
ZB =
SB3ϕ

Load Flow Analysis

Base current:
SB3ϕ
IB = √
3VB3ϕ
Base impedance:
2
VB3ϕ
ZB =
SB3ϕ
If VB3ϕ is in kV, and SB3ϕ is in MVA, then

(kV )2B
ZB = Ω
(M V A)B
√
Note: Factors of 3 and 3 are eliminated in per-unit system.
Load Flow Analysis
Advantages of Per Unit Representation
Per-unit values of impedance, voltage and current of a transformer are same regardless of whether they are referred
to the primary or the secondary side.
Per-unit values give an idea of relative magnitudes of various quantities.
Convergence of iterative numerical analysis speeds up with per-unit initial guess.

√
Factors of 3 and 3 for three phase systems are eliminated in per-unit system.
Per-unit voltage × per-unit current = per-unit power; which simplifies the calculations.

Load Flow Analysis
Network Equation
¯ ¯
I d1 I d2 ¯ ¯
I 1 I 2
¯ ¯
I g I g
1 2
1 2
1 2
¯ ¯
¯ I 12 I 21 ¯
I 13 I 23
¯ ¯
I 31 I 32
3
¯ 3
I d3
¯
I 3
Current Injection I¯i = I¯gi − I¯di Power Injection S̄i = S̄gi − S̄di

Load Flow Analysis
Network Equation
¯ ¯
I d1 I d2
ȳ 120
¯ ¯
V 1 V 2
2 ¯
¯ ȳ 120 I
I g
g 2
1
1 2 2
ȳ 12
ȳ 130
ȳ 13 ȳ 230
ȳ 23
2
2
ȳ 230
ȳ 130
2
3 ¯
V 3
¯
I d3

Load Flow Analysis
Network Equation
¯ ¯
I d1 I d2
ȳ 120
¯ ¯
V 1 V 2
2 ¯ 1 2 3
¯ ȳ 120 I
I g
g 2
1
2
ȳ t
1 2
ȳ 12
ȳ 12
ȳ 130
ȳ 13 ȳ 230
ȳ 23
2
2
¯
V ¯
V ¯
1 2 V 3
ȳ 230
2
(Ignore line charging capacitance)
ȳ 130
2
3 ¯
V 3
¯
I d3

Load Flow Analysis
Network Equation
    
I¯1 Ȳ11 Ȳ12 · · · Ȳ1n V̄1
    
 I¯2    
   Ȳ21 Ȳ22 · · · Ȳ2n   V̄2 
 . =  
 .   .. .. . . ..   .. 
 .   . . . .  . 
I¯n Ȳn1 Ȳn2 · · · Ȳnn V̄n
Yii : Total admittance connected at bus i
Yij : Negative of the total admittance connected between bus i and bus j

Load Flow Analysis
Network Equation: Example

Line Data
¯
I
¯
I
Sl. From bus To bus R X ȳ0
d1 d2
1 1 2 0.02 0.08 j0.15

¯
I g
1
¯
I g
2
2 2 3 0.05 0.10 j0.30
1 2
3 1 3 0.08 0.16 j0.35
ȳ0 is the full line charging admittance. All values are in pu.
1 Form Y-bus of the network.

2 If V̄1 = 1.0∠0o pu, V̄2 = 1.01∠ − 2o pu, V̄3 = 0.96∠ − 6o
pu, find current injections.
¯ 3
I d3

Load Flow Analysis
Network Equation: Example

Line Data
¯
I
¯
I
d1 d2
1 1 2 0.02 0.08 j0.15

¯
I g
1
¯
I g
2
2 2 3 0.05 0.10 j0.30
1 2
3 1 3 0.08 0.16 j0.35
ȳ0 is the full line charging admittance. All values are in pu.
1 Form Y-bus of the network.

2 If V̄1 = 1.0∠0o pu, V̄2 = 1.01∠ − 2o pu, V̄3 = 0.96∠ − 6o
pu, find current injections.
¯ 3
I d3 3 If for some other loading condition,
I¯1 = 0.689∠42.2608o pu, I¯2 = 2.419∠5.6419o pu,
I¯3 = 2.873∠178.3637o pu, find voltages.

Load Flow Analysis
Y-Bus Building Algorithm

¯ ¯
I d1 I d2
ȳ 120
¯ ¯
V 1 V 2
2 ¯
¯ ȳ 120 I
I g
g 2
1
1 2 2
ȳ 12
ȳ 130
ȳ 13 ȳ 230
ȳ 23
2
2
ȳ 230
ȳ 130
2
3 ¯
V 3
¯
I d3

1 1 2 0.02 0.08 j0.15
2 2 3 0.05 0.10 j0.30
3 1 3 0.08 0.16 j0.35
Load Flow Analysis

¯ ¯
I d1 I d2
ȳ 120
¯ ¯
V 1 V 2
2 ¯
¯ I
I g
1
ȳ 120 g 2
Algorithm
1 2 2
1: Initialize Ȳ to n × n null matrix.

ȳ 12
ȳ 130
ȳ 13
ȳ 23 ȳ 230 2: for line k = 1 to nl do ◃ nl : no. of lines
2
2
3: i = from bus of line k;
ȳ 230 4: j = to bus of line k;
2 ȳk0
ȳ 130
5: Ȳii = Ȳii + ȳk + 2 ;
ȳ
2
3 ¯
V
6: Ȳjj = Ȳjj + ȳk + k0 2 ;
¯ 3
I
Ȳij = Ȳij − ȳk ;
d3
7:
8: Ȳji = Ȳji − ȳk ;
1 1 2 0.02 0.08 j0.15 9: end for
2 2 3 0.05 0.10 j0.30
3 1 3 0.08 0.16 j0.35
Load Flow Analysis
Modelling of Regulating Transformer

¯
V ¯
i V j
i j
′ ȳ k
¯
I ¯ ¯
ij I ij
I ji
1 : ā ′
¯
V
i
ā : off-nominal turns ratio

Load Flow Analysis

¯
V ¯
i V j
i j
′ ȳ k
¯
I ¯ ¯
ij I ij
I ji
1 : ā ′
¯
V
i
" #  " #
I¯ij ā∗ āȳk −ā∗ ȳk V̄i
= 
I¯ji −āȳk ȳk V̄j

Load Flow Analysis

¯
V ¯
i V j
i j
′
¯
I ij
¯
I ij
ȳ k ¯
I ji
1: for transformer k = 1 to nt do
1 : ā ′
¯
V
i 2: i = from bus of transformer k;
3: j = to bus of transformer k;
4: Ȳii = Ȳii + a2 ȳk ;
5: Ȳij = Ȳij − ā∗ ȳk ;
6: Ȳji = Ȳji − āȳk ;
7: Ȳjj = Ȳjj + ȳk ;
" #  " #
I¯ij ā∗ āȳk −ā∗ ȳk V̄i 8: end for
= 
I¯ji −āȳk ȳk V̄j

Load Flow Analysis
Y-Bus Matrix: Example
1 2 3
1 : a (1)
z̄ = j0.1 pu
23
(2)
z̄ = j0.1 pu
23
z̄ t = j0.02 pu
a = 0.98
1 Form Y-bus matrix of the system.
2 If V̄1 = 1.0∠0o pu and V̄2 = 0.97∠ − 2o pu, find transformer

current (both side) and bus 3 voltage.

Load Flow Analysis

Transformer admittance matrix
3
 
1 2
−j48.02 j49.0
1 : a (1)  
z̄ = j0.1 pu
23
j49.0 −j50.0
(2)
z̄ = j0.1 pu
23
z̄ t = j0.02 pu
a = 0.98
1 Form Y-bus matrix of the system.


Load Flow Analysis

3
 
1 2
−j48.02 j49.0
1 : a (1)  
z̄ = j0.1 pu
23
j49.0 −j50.0
z̄
(2)
= j0.1 pu
Y-bus matrix of the system
23
z̄ t = j0.02 pu
 
a = 0.98
−j48.02 j49.0 0
 
 
 j49.0 −j70.0 j20.0 
 
1 Form Y-bus matrix of the system. 0 j20.0 −j20.0


Load Flow Analysis

3
 
1 2
−j48.02 j49.0
1 : a (1)  
z̄ = j0.1 pu
23
j49.0 −j50.0
z̄
(2)
= j0.1 pu
Y-bus matrix of the system
23
z̄ t = j0.02 pu
 
a = 0.98
−j48.02 j49.0 0
 
 
 j49.0 −j70.0 j20.0 
 
1 Form Y-bus matrix of the system. 0 j20.0 −j20.0

current (both side) and bus 3 voltage. I¯12 = 1.7381∠ − 17.3725o pu I¯21 = 1.7735∠162.6275o pu
V̄3 = 0.9503∠ − 7.1619o pu

Load Flow Analysis Problem Formulation
Short Circuit Analysis Gauss-Seidel Method
Power System Stability Newton Raphson Load Flow Analysis
Economic Dispatch of Generation Decoupled Load Flow Analysis
Automatic Control of Generation Fast Decoupled Load Flow Analysis
Module 1
Load Flow Analysis:

Gauss Seidel Method, Newton Raphson Method, Decoupled Load Flow Analysis, Fast Decoupled Load Flow Analysis

Power Flow Equations

Power injection into bus i
S̄i = Pi + jQi = V̄i I¯i∗
Writing V̄i = Vi ∠δi , Ȳik = Gik + jBik
X
n
Pi = Vi Vk {Gik cos(δi − δk ) + Bik sin(δi − δk )}
k=1
Xn
Qi = Vi Vk {Gik sin(δi − δk ) − Bik cos(δi − δk )}
k=1

Load Flow Analysis: Problem Formulation
PV 1 2 Slack
PQ PQ
4 3
Objective: To obtain the voltage magnitude and angle of

all buses from given power injections.


1 PQ Bus
Known: P and Q
Unknown: V and δ
PV 1 2 Slack Example: Bus 4 (P4sp , Qsp
4 known, V4 , δ4 unknown), Bus 3
(P3sp , Qsp
3 known, V3 , δ3 unknown)
2 PV Bus
Known: P and V
Unknown: δ and Q
PQ PQ Example: Bus 1 (P1sp , V1sp known, δ1 , Q1 unknown)
4 3
3 Slack Bus
Known: V and δ
Objective: To obtain the voltage magnitude and angle of Unknown: P and Q
all buses from given power injections. Example: Bus 2 (V2sp , δ2 known, P2 , Q2 unknown)


Bus Data
Slack PV Sl. Pg Qg Pd Qd
1 ? ? 0 0
1 2
2 80 ? 0 0
3 0 0 120 80
Active power in MW, reactive power in MVAR.
PV Bus Data
Bus No.. V sp Qmin Qmax
2 1.02 -20 100
Voltage in pu, reactive power in MVAR.
PQ 3
100 MVA Base
Line Data Slack Bus Data

Bus No.. V sp
1 1.00
1 1 2 0.02 0.08 j0.15
2 2 3 0.05 0.10 j0.30 Voltage in pu
3 1 3 0.08 0.16 j0.35

Find: δ2 , V3 , δ3
All values are in pu.
Gauss Iterative Method

Objective: To solve nonlinear equation
f (x) = 0 (1)
Rewriting equation (1) as x = F (x), it can be solved iteratively:

x(r+1) = F x(r) , r : iteration number
Convergence criterion: |x(r+1) − x(r) | ≤ ϵ
Gauss Iterative Method with Acceleration Coefficient

xnew = F x(r)

x(r+1) = x(r) + α xnew − x(r)
Typical value of α: 1.6


Multi-dimensional equations
Solving iteratively
f1 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0

(r+1) (r) (r) (r)
f2 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0 x1 = F 1 x1 , x 2 , · · · , x n
..
(r+1) (r) (r) (r)
. x2 = F 2 x1 , x 2 , · · · , x n
fn (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0 ..
.

(r+1) (r) (r) (r)
xn = F n x1 , x 2 , · · · , x n
Rewriting
x1 = F1 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn )
x2 = F2 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn )
..
.
xn = Fn (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn )


Solving iteratively
f1 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0

(r+1) (r) (r) (r)
f2 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0 x1 = F 1 x1 , x 2 , · · · , x n
..
(r+1) (r) (r) (r)
. x2 = F 2 x1 , x 2 , · · · , x n
fn (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0 ..
.

(r+1) (r) (r) (r)
xn = F n x1 , x 2 , · · · , x n
Rewriting
x1 = F1 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) Convergence Criterion:

x2 = F2 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) n o
(r+1)
.. max ∆xi ≤ϵ
i=1:n
.
(r+1) (r+1) (r)
xn = Fn (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) where, ∆xi = xi − xi

Gauss-Seidel Method
Solving iteratively
f1 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0

(r+1) (r) (r) (r)
f2 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0 x1 = F 1 x1 , x 2 , · · · , x n
..
(r+1) (r+1) (r) (r)
. x2 = F 2 x1 , x2 , · · · , xn
fn (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0 ..
.

(r+1) (r+1) (r+1) (r)
xn = F n x1 , x2 , · · · , xn
Rewriting
x1 = F1 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) Convergence Criterion:

x2 = F2 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) n o
(r+1)
.. max ∆xi ≤ϵ
i=1:n
.
(r+1) (r+1) (r)
xn = Fn (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) where, ∆xi = xi − xi

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Analysis
Initialization: Flat start (Vi = 1, δi = 0) for all PQ buses. Vi = Visp , δi = 0 for slack bus and all PV buses.
For all PQ buses

 
1  P sp − jQsp Xn 
V̄inew = i
∗
i
− ȳik V̄k
ȳii  V̄i k=1,k̸=i


V̄i = V̄i + α V̄inew
− V̄i

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Analysis

For all PV buses
( )
∗
X
n
Qi = −Im V̄i ȳik V̄k
k=1
Q Limit Check: ( min min

Qi , if Qi < Qi
Qi = max max
Qi , if Qi > Qi
 
1  Pisp − jQi X 
n
new
V̄i = − ȳ V̄
ik k
ȳii  V̄i∗
k=1,k̸=i

new new
V̄i = V̄i + α V̄i − V̄i
( sp new new new

Vi ∠δi , where δi = ]V̄i , if Q-limit is not violated
V̄i = new
V̄i , otherwise


Bus Data
Slack PV Sl. Pg Qg Pd Qd
1 ? ? 0 0
1 2
2 80 ? 0 0
3 0 0 120 80
Active power in MW, reactive power in MVAR.
PV Bus Data
Bus No.. V sp Qmin Qmax
2 1.02 -20 100
Voltage in pu, reactive power in MVAR.
PQ 3
100 MVA Base
Line Data Slack Bus Data

Bus No.. V sp
1 1.00
1 1 2 0.02 0.08 j0.15
2 2 3 0.05 0.10 j0.30 Voltage in pu
3 1 3 0.08 0.16 j0.35

Find: δ2 , V3 , δ3
All values are in pu.
Newton Raphson Method

f1 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = c1
f2 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = c2
..
.
fn (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = cn
T
Let the solution be x̄∗ = x∗1 x∗2 · · · x∗n .
h i
(0) (0) (0) T
If we start with an initial guess x̄(0) = x1 x2 · · · xn , we require to find the correction
h iT
to make x̄(0) + ∆x̄(0) = x̄∗ .
(0) (0) (0)
∆x̄0 = ∆x1 ∆x2 · · · ∆xn


Expanding in Taylor’s series

∗ ∗ ∗ ∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1
(0) (0) (0)
f1 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) =f1 x1 , x2 , · · · , xn + (0) (0) (0)
(0) ∆x1 + ∆x2 + .. + ∆xn
∂x1 x̄ ∂x2 x̄(0) ∂xn x̄(0)

∗ ∗ ∗ ∂f2 ∂f2 ∂f2
(0) (0) (0)
f2 (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) =f2 x1 , x2 , · · · , xn + (0) (0) (0)
(0) ∆x1 + ∆x2 + .. + ∆xn
∂x1 x̄ ∂x2 x̄(0) ∂xn x̄(0)
.
.
.

∗ ∗ ∗ ∂fn ∂fn ∂fn
(0) (0) (0)
fn (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) =fn x1 , x2 , · · · , xn + (0) (0) (0)
(0) ∆x1 + (0) ∆x2 + .. + ∆xn
∂x1 x̄ ∂x2 x̄ ∂xn x̄(0)

In matrix form
  ∆x(0)   
∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1 f1 (x̄∗ ) − f1 x̄(0)
∂x1 x̄(0) ∂x2 x̄(0)
··· ∂xn x̄(0) 
1
   
   
 ∂f2 ∂f2 ∂f2  ∆x(0)    f (x̄ ∗) − f x̄ (0) 

 ∂x1 x̄(0) ∂x2 x̄(0)
· · · ∂x (0)    2 2
  
2
 n x̄    
   =  . 
 .. .. .. ..  .  
. . 
  .   . 
 . . . .    
    
   (0)   ∗ 
∂fn ∂fn ∂fn ∆x f n (x̄ ) − f n x̄ (0)
∂x1 ∂x2
· · · ∂x (0) n
x̄(0) x̄(0) n x̄

In matrix form
  ∆x(0)   
∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1 c1 − f1 x̄(0)
∂x1 x̄(0) ∂x2 x̄(0)
··· ∂xn x̄(0) 
1
   
   
 ∂f2 ∂f2 ∂f2  ∆x(0)    c − f x̄ (0) 

 ∂x1 x̄(0) ∂x2 x̄(0)
· · · ∂x (0)    2 2
  
2
 n x̄    
   =  . 
 .. .. .. ..  .  
. . 
  .   . 
 . . . .    
    
   (0)   
∂fn ∂fn ∂fn ∆x c n − f n x̄ (0)
∂x1 ∂x2
· · · ∂x (0) n
x̄(0) x̄(0) n x̄


In matrix form
  ∆x(0)   
∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1 ∆f1 x̄(0)
∂x1 x̄(0) ∂x2 x̄(0)
··· ∂xn x̄(0) 
1
   
   (0)   
 ∂f2 ∂f2 ∂f2  ∆x2   ∆f2 x̄(0) 
 ∂x1 x̄(0) ∂x2 x̄(0)
··· ∂xn x̄(0)    
    
  .  = 
 .. .. .. ..  .    .. 
  .   . 
 . . . .    
   
   (0) 
 ∆fn (0)

∂fn ∂fn ∂fn ∆xn x̄
∂x1 ∂x2
· · · ∂x
x̄(0) x̄(0) n x̄(0)

where, ∆fi x̄(0) = ci − fi x̄(0) is the mismatch.
x̄ is updated as
x̄(1) = x̄(0) + ∆x̄(0)

In rth iteration
 ∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1  ∆x(r)   
··· ∆f1 x̄(r)
∂x1 x̄(r) ∂x2 x̄(r) ∂xn x̄(r) 
1
   
   (r)    

 ∂f2 ∂f2 ∂f2  ∆x2   ∆f2 x̄(r) 
 ∂x1 x̄(r) ∂x2 x̄(r)
··· ∂xn x̄(r)    
    
 
 .  =  
 .. .. ..  .   .. 
 ..  .   . 
 . . . .    
   
   (r) 
 ∆fn (r) 
∂fn ∂fn ∂fn ∆xn x̄
∂x1 ∂x2
· · · ∂x
x̄(r) x̄(r) n x̄(r)

where, ∆fi x̄(r) = ci − fi x̄(r) .
x̄ is updated as
x̄(r+1) = x̄(r) + ∆x̄(r)
Convergence criterion n o

max ∆fi x̄(r) ≤ϵ
i=1:n

Load Flow Equations

Active power injection is known for all PQ and PV buses.
X
n
Vi Vk {Gik cos(δi − δk ) + Bik sin(δi − δk )} = Pisp , i = 1, 2, . . . , n; i ̸= s
k=1
where, s is the slack bus
Reactive power injection is known for all PQ buses.
X
n
Vi Vk {Gik sin(δi − δk ) − Bik cos(δi − δk )} = Qsp
i , i ∈ NP Q
k=1
where, NP Q is the set of all PQ buses

Note: Total number of equations (and unknowns) = (n − 1) + nP Q , where, nP Q is the number of PQ buses.

Newton Raphson Load Flow Analysis

Load Flow Equations
Slack PV
X
n
sp
P 2 : V2 Vk {G2k cos(δ2 − δk ) + B2k sin(δ2 − δk )} = P2
1 2
k=1
X
n
sp
k=1
X
n
sp
Q3 : V3 Vk {G3k sin(δ3 − δk ) − B3k cos(δ3 − δk )} = Q3
k=1
PQ 3
100 MVA Base
Given: P2sp = 0.8 pu, P3sp = −1.5 pu,

Qsp
3 = −1.0 pu
Unknown: x̄ = [δ2 δ3 V3 ]T


Load Flow Equations
Slack PV
X
n
sp
1 2
k=1
X
n
sp
k=1
X
n
sp
k=1
In iterative form
PQ 3
100 MVA Base     
∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P2
 ∂δ2 ∂δ3 ∂V3  ∆δ2   ∆P2 
    
 ∂P3 ∂P3 ∂P3  ∆δ  =  ∆P 
 ∂δ2 ∂δ3 ∂V3  3   3 
    
Given: P2sp = 0.8 pu, P3sp = −1.5 pu, ∂Q3 ∂Q3 ∂Q3
∆V3 ∆Q3
∂δ2 ∂δ3 ∂V3
Qsp
3 = −1.0 pu
Unknown: x̄ = [δ2 δ3 V3 ]T where, ∆P2 = P2

sp
− P2cal , ∆P3 = P3
sp sp
− P3cal , ∆Q3 = Q3 − Qcal
3


Load Flow Equations
Slack PV
X
n
sp
1 2
k=1
X
n
sp
k=1
X
n
sp
k=1
Alternatively
PQ 3
100 MVA Base     
∂P2 ∂P2 ∂P
 ∂δ2 ∂δ3 V3 ∂V2  ∆δ2   ∆P2 
3
    
 ∂P3 ∂P3
V3 ∂V3 
∂P  ∆δ  =  ∆P 
 ∂δ2 ∂δ3   3   3 
 3    
Given: P2sp = 0.8 pu, P3sp = −1.5 pu, ∂Q3 ∂Q3 ∂Q3
V3 ∂V
∆V3
∆Q3
∂δ2 ∂δ3 3 V 3
Qsp
3 = −1.0 pu
T
Unknown: x̄ = [δ2 δ3 V3 ] where, ∆P2 = P2
sp
− P2cal , ∆P3 = P3
sp sp
− P3cal , ∆Q3 = Q3 − Qcal
3


NRLF Equation
    
 H N  ∆δ   ∆P 
  = 
∆V
J L V
∆Q
where,
∂Pi ∂Pi
Hij = ∂δj
, Nij = Vj ∂V
j
∂Qi
Jij = ∂δj
, Lij = Vj ∂Q
∂Vj
i
H ∈ R(n−1)×(n−1) , N ∈ R(n−1)×nP Q , J ∈ RnP Q ×(n−1) , L ∈ RnP Q ×nP Q

∆δ ∈ R(n−1) , ∆V
V
∈ RnP Q , ∆P ∈ R(n−1) , ∆Q ∈ RnP Q
n o
Convergence criterion: max {∆Pi }i=1,2,...,n;i̸=s , {∆Qi }∀i,i∈NP Q ≤ ϵ

Evaluation of Jacobian Matrix Elements

Hij ̸ s and j = 1, 2, . . . , n; j ̸= s)
(where i = 1, 2, . . . , n; i =
( 2
−Qi − Bii Vi , if i = j
Hij =
Vi Vj {Gij sin(δi − δj ) − Bij cos(δi − δj )} , otherwise
Nij (where i = 1, 2, . . . , n; i ̸= s and ∀j, j ∈ NP Q )

( 2
Pi + Gii Vi , if i = j
Nij =
Vi Vj {Gij cos(δi − δj ) + Bij sin(δi − δj )} , otherwise
Jij (where ∀i, i ∈ NP Q and j = 1, 2, . . . , n; j ̸= s)

( 2
Pi − Gii Vi , if i = j
Jij =
Vi Vj {−Gij cos(δi − δj ) − Bij sin(δi − δj )} , otherwise
Lij (where ∀i, i ∈ NP Q and ∀j, j ∈ NP Q )

( 2
Qi − Bii Vi , if i = j
Lij =
Vi Vj {Gij sin(δi − δj ) − Bij cos(δi − δj )} , otherwise

Limits on Qi of PV Bus i
Q limit check 

 Qmin , if Qi < Qmin
 i i
Qi = Qmax , if Qi > Qmax


i i
Q , otherwise
i
If limit is violated, the PV bus is treated as the PQ bus and the voltage magnitude is changed accordingly.
 
Vi  X X ∆Vj 
n
∆Vi = ∆Qi − Jij ∆δj − Lij
Lii  j=1,j̸=s ∀j∈N
Vj 
PQ
Vi = Vi + ∆Vi

Decoupled Load Flow Analysis
Assumption
In a power system, P − δ and Q − V are strongly coupled, whereas couplings between P − V and Q − δ are very weak.


Assumption
Concept
¯
S1
¯ 1
V1
¯
Z = jX
¯ ¯ 2
I V2
P + jQ
1 Bus 1 is voltage controlled (and ref.) bus

2 Lossless line


Assumption
Concept
X
− Q
¯
S1 V1
¯ 1
V1
¯
Z = jX
¯
V1
¯ ¯ 2
I V2
¯ X
V2
−j P
V1
P + jQ
Figure: Phasor Diagram

2 Lossless line


Assumption
Concept
X
− Q
V1
¯
S1
¯ 1
V1
¯ ¯
Z = jX V1
¯ ¯ 2
I V2
X
¯ −j P
V2
V1
P + jQ
1 Bus 1 is voltage controlled (and ref.) bus Figure: Phasor diagram for increasing P
2 Lossless line


Assumption
Concept
X
− Q
¯
S1 V1
¯ 1
V1
¯
Z = jX
¯
V1
¯ ¯ 2
I V2
X
−j P
¯
V2 V1
P + jQ
Figure: Phasor diagram for increasing Q

2 Lossless line


∂Pi
Nij = Vj ∂V ≈0
j
∂Qi
Jij = ∂δj
≈0
    
 H 0  ∆δ   ∆P 
  = 
∆V
0 L V
∆Q


∂Pi
Nij = Vj ∂V ≈0
j
∂Qi
Jij = ∂δj
≈0
    
 H 0  ∆δ   ∆P 
  = 
∆V
0 L V
∆Q
1 Active power equation: [H] [∆δ] = [∆P ]

h i
2 Reactive power equation: [L] ∆VV
= [∆Q]


∂Pi
Nij = Vj ∂V ≈0 Q Limit Check
j
∂Qi
For Q limit violated voltage controlled bus
Jij = ∂δj
≈0  
Vi  X ∆Vj 
∆Vi = ∆Qi − Lij
     Lii  ∀j∈N
Vj 
PQ
 H 0  ∆δ   ∆P  Vi = Vi + ∆Vi
  = 
∆V
0 L V
∆Q
Convergence Criteria
1 Active power equation: [H] [∆δ] = [∆P ]
max {∆Pi }i=1,2,...,n;i̸=s ≤ ϵP
h i
2 Reactive power equation: [L] ∆VV
= [∆Q] max {∆Qi }∀i,i∈N ≤ ϵQ
PQ

Fast Decoupled Load Flow Analysis

Assumptions
1 For a transmission line X/R ≫ 1. So Gij ≪ Bij .
2 Under normal operating conditions, angle difference (δi − δj )

across transmission lines are small.
cos(δi − δj ) ≈ 1
sin(δi − δj ) ≈ 0
3 Magnitude wise Qi ≪ Bii Vi2 .


Assumptions
1 For a transmission line X/R ≫ 1. So Gij ≪ Bij .

Active Power Equation

′ ∆P
B [∆δ] =
V


Assumptions
1 For a transmission line X/R ≫ 1. So Gij ≪ Bij . B ′ is the matrix having elements −Bij ;
(i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n; i ̸= s)
B ′′ is the matrix having elements −Bij ; (i, j ∈ NP Q )

′ ∆P
B [∆δ] =
V
Reactive Power Equation

′′ ∆Q
B [∆V ] =
V


Assumptions
1 For a transmission line X/R ≫ 1. So Gij ≪ Bij . B ′ is the matrix having elements −Bij ;
(i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n; i ̸= s)
B ′′ is the matrix having elements −Bij ; (i, j ∈ NP Q )
sin(δi − δj ) ≈ 0 Additional Assumptions and Simplifications
3 Magnitude wise Qi ≪ Bii Vi2 . Omitting the elements of B ′ that predominantly affect reactive
power flows, i.e. shunt reactances and transformer off-nominal
tap ratios.

′ ∆P Omitting from B ′′ the angle shift effect of the phase shifter that
B [∆δ] =
V predominantly affects reactive power flows.
Reactive Power Equation
Ignoring the series resistance in calculating the elements of B ′ .
′′ ∆Q
B [∆V ] =
V

Load Flow Analysis
Short Circuit Analysis Balanced Fault Analysis
Power System Stability Unbalanced Fault Analysis
Economic Dispatch of Generation Z-bus Building Algorithm
Module 2
Short Circuit Analysis:

Balanced Fault, Z-bus, Symmetrical Components, Unbalanced Fault

Load Flow Analysis
Short Circuit Analysis
f f
1 ¯
V = ? ¯
V = ? 3
1 3
f
¯ = ?
V ¯
2 2 V = ? 4
4
f ?
¯ =
I 45
¯
I fault = ?
5 6
f f
¯
V = ? ¯
V = ?
5 6

Load Flow Analysis

Cause of Short Circuit
Insulation Failure
Over-voltage caused by lightning or switching surges
Insulation contamination
1 ¯
f
¯
f
3
Mechanical causes
V = ? V = ?
1 3
f
Faults on Transmission Lines
¯ = ?
V ¯
2 2 V = ? 4
4
Most common (60-70%): lines are exposed to elements of nature
Lightning strikes: over-voltage causes insulators to flash over
¯
f
=
? High winds: topple tower, tree falls on line
I 45
Wind and Ice loading: mechanical failure of insulator
¯
I fault = ?
Short circuit in other elements
5 6
f f
Less common: cables (10-15%), circuit breakers (10-12%), generator, motor
¯
V = ? ¯
V = ?
5 6 transformer etc. (10-15%)
Overloading for extended periods, deterioration of insulation,
mechanical failure

Load Flow Analysis
Types of Short Circuit

a a a
b b b LG Fault
c c c
(75-80%)
a a a
LL Fault Asymmetrical
b b b
c c c
(5-7%) Fault
a a a
b b b LLG Fault
c c c
(10-12%)
a a
3 ϕ Fault Symmetrical
b b
c c (8-10%) Fault

Load Flow Analysis
Balanced Fault
1 2 3
G1 T1 T2 G2
(0.1 + j0.25) pu (0.2 + j0.6) pu
50%
o
¯ = 1.0∠0o pu
V 1
j0.05 pu j0.10 pu j0.08 pu j0.05 pu
o o
¯ = 0.95∠ − 5o pu ¯ = 0.98∠ − 2o pu
V
V 2 3
Classical Model of Generator Equivalent Admittance of Load

¯ ¯ ¯
I g V V
i i
¯
I d
jXd ȳ d =
¯
V i
¯
Ē = E∠δ V t
¯
I d
¯
Internal Emf Terminal Voltage I d ȳ d
¯ + I
¯ (jX )
Ē = V t g d

Load Flow Analysis
Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine

¯
I g
jXd
¯
V
Ē = E∠δ t
Internal Emf Terminal Voltage
¯ + I
¯ (jX )
Ē = V t g d

Load Flow Analysis
Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine

¯
I g
jXd
¯
V
Ē = E∠δ t
Internal Emf Terminal Voltage
¯ + I
¯ (jX )
Ē = V t g d
f
¯ ¯
Zg I
g
Ē

1_-
X.L -r-- : X'j (e.5)
Load Flow Analysis (11x,,+UXJ+llxd,,) "
(b)E
is called the subtrunsientreoctutxc:e <>fthe nrachine.While the reactance
effective after the darnperwinding currents have died out, i.e.
X',t = X, + ( X,,ll X,) (e.6) If we exam
is called the transientreactanceof the machirre.Of course,the leactanceunder machineafter
steaclyconditionsis the synchronousreactanceof the machine.Obviousiy Xf7< the current wa
X'd< Xu.The machinethus offers a time-varyingreactancewhich changesfront shapeis plotte
Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine Xttoto Xtaandfinally to Xn. periods-initial
offers subtran
I offers transien
Subtransient
oeriod
ofters synchro
¯
I g b If the trans
betwecnthe t
l
I
I
Steady state period sponding to th
I
I clamperwindin
E a
q) state1nd tran
jXd In termsof
¯ ()
f, can wrlte
Ē = E∠δ V t 'o0
g
t Time
Internal Emf Terminal Voltage a
o
o
¯ + I
¯ (jX ) E
Ē = V t g d
E i Actual envelope
a
Extrapolationof
steady valrre
f Extrapolationof transientenvelope
¯ ¯ where
Zg I
g
(a) Symmetricalshort circuit armature current in synchronousmachine l1l =
!//l =
Fig. 9.4 (Contd.)
lltl =
*Unity turn ratio is assumedhere.
Xa =
Ē

1_-
X.L -r-- : X'j (e.5)
Load Flow Analysis (11x,,+UXJ+llxd,,) "
(b)E
is called the subtrunsientreoctutxc:e <>fthe nrachine.While the reactance
effective after the darnperwinding currents have died out, i.e.
X',t = X, + ( X,,ll X,) (e.6) If we exam
is called the transientreactanceof the machirre.Of course,the leactanceunder machineafter
steaclyconditionsis the synchronousreactanceof the machine.Obviousiy Xf7< the current wa
X'd< Xu.The machinethus offers a time-varyingreactancewhich changesfront shapeis plotte
Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine Xttoto Xtaandfinally to Xn. periods-initial
offers subtran
I offers transien
Subtransient
oeriod
ofters synchro
¯
I g b If the trans
betwecnthe t
l
I
I
Steady state period sponding to th
I
I clamperwindin
E a
q) state1nd tran
jXd In termsof
¯ ()
f, can wrlte
Ē = E∠δ V t 'o0
g
t Time
Internal Emf Terminal Voltage a
o
o
¯ + I
¯ (jX ) E
Ē = V t g d
E i Actual envelope
a
Extrapolationof
steady valrre
f Extrapolationof transientenvelope
¯ ¯ where
Zg I
g
(a) Symmetricalshort circuit armature current in synchronousmachine l1l =
′′ ′
Xd Fig.
< 9.4
X(Contd.)
d < Xd
!//l =
lltl =
*Unity turn ratio is assumedhere.
Xa =
1 Sub-transient period: continues for first 2-3 cycles, I¯gf = Ē
jX ′′
.
Ē d
2 Transient period: continues for next 6-8 cycles, I¯gf = Ē

jX ′
.
d
3 Steady state condition: I¯gf = Ē

jXd .

Load Flow Analysis
Short Circuit Analysis: Example

1 2 3
Base: 100 MVA, 220 kV (transmission side)

If a 3ph to ground fault occurs at the middle (50% of the
line length) of one of the circuits, find fault current,
post-fault voltage of all buses and generator current.
Network Data
Generator: 11 kV, 500 MVA, x = 0.1 pu
Transformer: 11 kV/220 kV, 500 MVA, x = 9.68Ω (ref. to HV
side)
Transmission line reactance: 48.4 Ω (each circuit)
Reactor: 968 Ω
Pre-fault voltage: V̄1o = 220∠0o kV

Load Flow Analysis
Balanced Fault
1 2 3
G1 T1 T2 G2
(0.1 + j0.25) pu (0.2 + j0.6) pu
50%
o
¯ = 1.0∠0o pu
V 1
j0.05 pu j0.10 pu j0.08 pu j0.05 pu
o o
¯ = 0.95∠ − 5o pu ¯ = 0.98∠ − 2o pu
V
V 2 3
Classical Model of Generator Equivalent Admittance of Load

¯ ¯ ¯
I g V V
i i
¯
I d
jXd ȳ d =
¯
V i
¯
Ē = E∠δ V t
¯
I d
¯
Internal Emf Terminal Voltage I d ȳ d
¯ + I
¯ (jX )
Ē = V t g d

Load Flow Analysis
Fault Analysis of Large Network
ȳ g ȳ g
i i
i i
o
¯
V ¯
f
i m V m
i
o
¯
V ¯
f
o
j ¯ V f
ȳ g j V ȳ g j j ¯
j
m
j
V m
o
¯
V k ¯
f
k
k V k
S̄ d
m
n bus power system

Z̄ f
f
¯
I
o
¯ : pre-fault voltage at bus i
V i

Load Flow Analysis
ȳ g ȳ g
i i
i i
o
¯
V i m m
o
¯
V o
j ¯
ȳ g j V m
ȳ g j
j j
o
¯
V k k
k
S̄ d
m
n bus power system o

¯
−V k
o
¯ : pre-fault voltage at bus i
V i

Load Flow Analysis
ȳ g
i
i
ȳ g j
j
o
¯
−V k
f
¯
I
Z̄ f

Load Flow Analysis

Since the network is linear, V̄if = V̄io + ∆V̄i (superposition principle)
ȳ g
i
i
¯
ΔV i
m
¯
ΔV m
ȳ g j
j
¯
ΔV j
k
ȳ d
m
o
¯
−V k
f
¯
−I
Z̄ f
∆V̄i : voltage at bus i when the new source is

connected and all other active sources are replaced by
their internal impedances
Load Flow Analysis

ȳ g
i Let Ymod is the Y bus matrix of the present network, which is initialized to
i
the original Y matrix and then modified as
¯
ΔV i
m ȳmodii = ȳii + ȳgi , for all generator i
¯
ΔV
ȳmodii = ȳii + ȳdi , for all load i
m
ȳ g j
j
−1
Let Z = Ymod (Z-bus matrix)
¯
ΔV j
k
ȳ d
m
o
¯
−V k
f
¯
−I
Z̄ f

Load Flow Analysis

ȳ g
i
¯
ΔV i
¯
ΔV
m
ȳ g j
j
−1
¯
ΔV j
k
ȳ d
m
    
∆V̄1 z̄11 · · · z̄1k · · · z̄1n 0
 .   . . .  . 
 
 .   . . .  . 
o
 .   .  . 
 . .
¯
−V k   
f
¯
−I  ∆V̄k  =  z̄k1 · · · z̄kk · · · z̄kn  −I¯f 
    
Z̄ f  .   . . .  . 
 
 .   . . . . 
 .   . . .  . 
∆V̄n z̄n1 · · · z̄nk · · · z̄nn 0

Load Flow Analysis

ȳ g
i
¯
ΔV i
¯
ΔV
m
ȳ g j
j
−1
¯
ΔV j
k
ȳ d
m
    
∆V̄1 z̄11 · · · z̄1k · · · z̄1n 0
 .   . . .  . 
 
 .   . . .  . 
o
 .   .  . 
 . .
¯
−V k   
f
¯
−I  ∆V̄k  =  z̄k1 · · · z̄kk · · · z̄kn  −I¯f 
    
Z̄ f  .   . . .  . 
 
 .   . . . . 
 .   . . .  . 
∆V̄n z̄n1 · · · z̄nk · · · z̄nn 0
∆V̄i : voltage at bus i when the new source is V̄k0

connected and all other active sources are replaced by Fault current: I¯f = z̄kk +z̄f

Voltage during fault: V̄if = V̄i0 − z̄ik I¯f
Load Flow Analysis
Unbalanced Fault Analysis: Symmetrical Components

¯
Va
Fortescue’s Theorem
¯
Vb Three unbalanced phasors of a three phase system can be
resolved into three balanced system of phasors.
¯
Vc
¯ ¯
V a1 V b2
¯
V a0
¯
V b0
¯
V a2
¯
V c0
¯
V c2
¯ ¯
V c1 V b1
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

Component Component Component

Load Flow Analysis
Symmetrical Components
¯ ¯
V a1 V b2
¯
V a0
¯
V b0
¯
V a2
¯
V c0
¯
V c2
¯ ¯
V c1 V b1

Component Component Component
¯ ¯
¯ Va Va
V a0
¯
V a2
¯ ¯
¯ Vb Vb
V a1
¯
V b0
¯
V c1
¯
V b2
¯
V b1
¯
V c2
¯ ¯
Vc Vc
¯
V c0

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence to Phase Transformation
    
V̄a 1 1 1 V̄a0
 V̄b  = 1 α2 α  V̄a1 
V̄c 1 α α2 V̄a2
α = 1∠120o
In matrix form
V̄p = AV̄s
V̄p : vector of original phasors
V̄s : vector of symmetrical components

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence to Phase Transformation Phase to Sequence Transformation
         
V̄a 1 1 1 V̄a0 V̄a0 1 1 1 V̄a
 V̄b  = 1 α2 α  V̄a1  V̄a1  = 1 1 α α2   V̄b 
3
V̄c 1 α α2 V̄a2 V̄a2 1 α2 α V̄c
α = 1∠120o In matrix form

In matrix form V̄s = A−1 V̄p
V̄p = AV̄s Similarly,
V̄p : vector of original phasors I¯p = AI¯s
V̄s : vector of symmetrical components and
I¯s = A−1 I¯p

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence to Phase Transformation Phase to Sequence Transformation
         
V̄a 1 1 1 V̄a0 V̄a0 1 1 1 V̄a
 V̄b  = 1 α2 α  V̄a1  V̄a1  = 1 1 α α2   V̄b 
3
V̄c 1 α α2 V̄a2 V̄a2 1 α2 α V̄c
α = 1∠120o In matrix form

In matrix form V̄s = A−1 V̄p
V̄p = AV̄s Similarly,
V̄p : vector of original phasors I¯p = AI¯s
V̄s : vector of symmetrical components and
I¯s = A−1 I¯p
Prove: For a three phase system I¯n = 3I¯0

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence Impedance of Balanced Star Grounded Load

¯
I a
a
¯
I c
c
Z̄ y Z̄ y
¯
V ag
¯
I n
¯
V cg Z̄ y
¯
I b Z̄ n
b
¯
V bg
g

Load Flow Analysis

¯
I a
a
¯
I c
c
Z̄ y Z̄ y
¯
V ag
¯
I n
¯
V cg Z̄ y
¯
I b Z̄ n
b
¯
V bg
g
    ¯ 
V̄ag Z̄y + Z̄n Z̄n Z̄n Ia
 V̄bg  =  Z̄n Z̄y + Z̄n Z̄n   I¯b 
V̄cg Z̄n Z̄n Z̄y + Z̄n I¯c

Load Flow Analysis

¯
I a
    ¯ 
a V̄a0 Z̄y + 3Z̄n 0 0 Ia0
¯
I c V̄a1  =  0 Z̄y 0  I¯a1 
c V̄a2 0 0 Z̄y I¯a2
Z̄ y Z̄ y
¯
V ag
¯
I n
¯
V cg Z̄ y
¯
I b Z̄ n
b
¯
V bg
g
    ¯ 
 V̄bg  =  Z̄n Z̄y + Z̄n Z̄n   I¯b 

Load Flow Analysis

¯
I a
    ¯ 
a V̄a0 Z̄y + 3Z̄n 0 0 Ia0
¯
I c V̄a1  =  0 Z̄y 0  I¯a1 
c V̄a2 0 0 Z̄y I¯a2
Z̄ y Z̄ y
¯
I a
¯
V
0
ag
¯ ¯
I a I a
¯
I
1 2
n
¯
V cg Z̄ y
¯
¯
I
Zy
b Z̄ n
¯
b ¯ ¯
V a0
V a1 ¯ ¯ V a2 ¯ ¯
¯
V Z1 = Zy Z2 = Zy
bg
g ¯
3Z n

Impedance Impedance Impedance
    ¯ 
 V̄bg  =  Z̄n Z̄y + Z̄n Z̄n   I¯b 

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence Impedance of Transmission Line

Z̄ s ¯
I a
Z̄ m ¯
Z̄ m Z̄ s I b
′
¯ ¯
V a ¯
I Va
Z̄ m Z̄ s c
′
¯
V ¯
b Vb
′
¯
V ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
I Vc
n = I a + I b + I c
c

Load Flow Analysis

Z̄ s ¯
I a
Z̄ m ¯
Z̄ m Z̄ s I b
′
¯ ¯
V a ¯
I Va
Z̄ m Z̄ s c
′
¯
V ¯
b Vb
′
¯
V ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
I Vc
n = I a + I b + I c
c
   ′   ¯ 
V̄a V̄a Z̄s Z̄m Z̄m Ia
 V̄b  − V̄ ′  = Z̄m Z̄s Z̄m   I¯b 
b
V̄c V̄c′ Z̄m Z̄m Z̄s I¯c

Load Flow Analysis
   ′    ¯    ¯ 
V̄a0 V̄a0 Z̄s + 2Z̄m 0 0 Ia0 Z̄0 0 0 Ia0
V̄a1  − V̄ ′  =  0 Z̄s − Z̄m 0  I¯a1  =  0 Z̄1 0  I¯a1 
a1
V̄a2 ′
V̄a2 0 0 Z̄s − Z̄m I¯a2 0 0 Z̄2 I¯a2

Load Flow Analysis
   ′    ¯    ¯ 
V̄a0 V̄a0 Z̄s + 2Z̄m 0 0 Ia0 Z̄0 0 0 Ia0
V̄a1  − V̄ ′  =  0 Z̄s − Z̄m 0  I¯a1  =  0 Z̄1 0  I¯a1 
a1
V̄a2 ′
V̄a2 0 0 Z̄s − Z̄m I¯a2 0 0 Z̄2 I¯a2
¯ ¯ ¯
I a I a I a
1 2 0
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Z1 = Zs − Zm Z2 = Zs − Zm Z 0 = Z s + 2Z m
′ ′
¯ ¯
′
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Va V Va V Va V
2 a2 0 a0
1 a1

Impedance Impedance Impedance

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence Impedance of Transformer

Positive sequence impedance of a transformer equals to the leakage impedance Z̄leakage .
Since a transformer is a static device, leakage reactance does not change with alternation of phase sequence of the
applied voltage. Hence, negative sequence impedance is also equal to its leakage impedance.
Z̄1 = Z̄2 = Z̄leakage
Different combination of ∆ and Y windings decides the flow of zero sequence currents.
1 When magnetizing current is is neglected, transformer primary would carry current only if there is current flow on the secondary
side.
2 Zero sequence current flows in the windings of star connection only if the neutral point is grounded which provides the
necessary return path for zero sequence currents.
3 No zero sequence current can flow in the line connected to delta connection as no return path is available.
Zero sequence current can, however, flow in the windings of the delta connection.

Load Flow Analysis
Zero Sequence Impedance of Transformer
¯ ¯
Zn Zn
¯ ¯
Zn Zn
Figure: Transformer Connections

Load Flow Analysis
¯
Zn
¯
Zn
Figure: Yg − Yg transformer

Load Flow Analysis
¯
Zn
¯
Zn
¯
Zn
Figure: Yg − Y transformer
Load Flow Analysis
¯
Zn
¯ ¯
Zn Zn
Figure: Yg − ∆ transformer
¯
Zn
Figure: Yg − Y transformer
Load Flow Analysis
¯
Zn
¯ ¯
Zn Zn
Figure: Yg − ∆ transformer
¯
Zn
Figure: Yg − Y transformer Figure: Y − ∆ transformer

Load Flow Analysis
Figure: ∆ − ∆ transformer

Load Flow Analysis
Figure: ∆ − ∆ transformer
close the switch close the switch
if primary is Yg if Secondary is Yg
¯
Z0
close the switch close the switch

if primary is Delta if secondary is Delta
Primary Secondary

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence Impedance of Generator
¯
I a
a
¯
I c
c Z̄ g Z̄ g
Ē c Ē a
¯
V a
Ē b
¯
V c
¯
I Z̄ g ¯
b I n
Z̄ n
b
¯
V b
g

Load Flow Analysis
¯
I a
a
+ ¯
I c
c Z̄ g Z̄ g
+ -
+
Ē c
- Ē a
¯
V a
Ē b
¯
-
V c
¯
I Z̄ g ¯
b I n
Z̄ n
b
- ¯
V b
+
g

Load Flow Analysis

¯
I a
a
+ ¯
I c
c Z̄ g Z̄ g
+ -
+
Ē c
- Ē a
¯
V a
Ē b
¯
-
V c
¯
I Z̄ g ¯
b I n
Z̄ n
b
- ¯
V b
+
g
      ¯ 
V̄a Ēa Z̄g + Z̄n Z̄n Z̄n Ia
 V̄b  =  Ēb  −  Z̄n Z̄g + Z̄n Z̄n   I¯b 
V̄c Ēc Z̄n Z̄n Z̄g + Z̄n I¯c
Load Flow Analysis

      ¯      ¯ 
V̄a0 0 Z̄g + 3Z̄n 0 0 Ia0 0 Z̄0 0 0 Ia0
V̄a1  = Ēa  −  0 Z̄g 0   ¯  
Ia1 = Ēa − 0 Z̄1 0  I¯a1 
 
V̄a2 0 0 0 Z̄g I¯a2 0 0 0 Z̄2 I¯a2

Load Flow Analysis

      ¯      ¯ 
V̄a0 0 Z̄g + 3Z̄n 0 0 Ia0 0 Z̄0 0 0 Ia0
V̄a1  = Ēa  −  0 Z̄g 0   ¯  
Ia1 = Ēa − 0 Z̄1 0  I¯a1 
 
V̄a2 0 0 0 Z̄g I¯a2 0 0 0 Z̄2 I¯a2
¯ ¯ ¯
I a I a I a
1 2 0
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Z1 = Zg Z2 = Zg Zg 3Z n
Ē a ¯ ¯
V a1 V a2 ¯
V a0
¯ ¯ ¯
Z 0 = Z g + 3Z n

Network Network Network

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence Network: Example

1 2 3
M1
G1 T1 T2
M2
Network Data
G1 and M2 : X1 = X2 = 0.15 pu, X0 = 0.05 pu, Xn = 0.05 pu

M1 : X1 = X2 = 0.02 pu, X0 = 0.04 pu
T1 and T2 : 100 MVA, 20 ∆/345Y kV, X = 0.1 pu
Transmission line: X1 = X2 = 0.105 pu, X0 = 0.315 pu (on 100 MVA, 345 kV base)
Draw positive, negative and zero sequence network diagram.

Load Flow Analysis
Sequence Network: Example

1 2
G1 T1 T2
M1
Network Data

T1 and T2 : 100 MVA, 20 ∆/345Y kV, X = 0.08 pu
(a) Draw positive, negative and zero sequence network diagram. (b) Reduce the sequence networks to their Thevenin equivalents as viewed
from bus 2. Pre-fault voltage is 1∠0o pu. Pre-fault load current is neglected.
Load Flow Analysis
Single Line-to-Ground Fault

Bus k
phase a
f
¯
I a
Z̄ f
phase b
f
¯
I b
phase c
f
¯
I c

Load Flow Analysis

Bus k
phase a
f
¯
I a
Z̄ f
phase b
f
¯
I b
phase c
f
¯
I c
Fault condition in phase domain
I¯bf = 0, I¯cf = 0, V̄kfa = Z̄f I¯af

Load Flow Analysis

Bus k
phase a
f
¯
I a
Z̄ f
phase b
f
¯
I b
phase c
f
¯
I c
I¯af
I¯af1 = I¯af2 = I¯af0 =
3
V̄kf + V̄kf + V̄kf = 3Z̄f I¯af1
a1 a2 a0
Load Flow Analysis

f
¯
I
Bus k a1
phase a
f
¯
I ¯
a Z kk
1
0
Z̄ f ¯
V ¯
f
ka
V
ka1
phase b
f
¯
I b f
¯
I
a2
phase c
¯
Z kk
2
f
¯
I ¯
c
f 3Z f
¯
V
ka2
Fault condition in phase domain f

¯
I
a0

¯
Z kk
0
I¯af ¯
V
f
I¯af1 = I¯af2 = I¯af0

ka0
=
3
V̄kf + V̄kf + V̄kf = 3Z̄f I¯af1
a1 a2 a0
Load Flow Analysis
Single Line-to-Ground Fault: Example

1 2
G1 T1 T2
M1
Network Data

T1 and T2 : 100 MVA, 20 ∆/345Y kV, X = 0.08 pu
Find fault current, voltages at all three phases of bus 1 and bus 2, and current flow through the three phases of line 1-2 for a LG fault at bus
2. Assume, system was operating at no-load prior to the fault (pre-fault voltage is 1∠0o pu).

Load Flow Analysis
Asymmetrical Fault Analysis

Assume an asymmetrical fault at bus k.
Fault voltage at bus k in sequence domain Fault voltage at bus i in sequence domain
Positive seq. voltage: V̄kfa = V̄k0a − Z̄kk1 I¯af Positive seq. voltage: V̄ifa = V̄i0a − Z̄ik1 I¯af
1 1 1 1
Negative seq. voltage: V̄kfa = −Z̄kk2 I¯af Negative seq. voltage: V̄ifa = −Z̄ik2 I¯af
2 2 2 2
Zero seq. voltage: V̄kfa = −Z̄kk0 I¯af Zero seq. voltage: V̄ifa = −Z̄ik0 I¯af
0 0 0 0

Load Flow Analysis
Asymmetrical Fault Analysis

Assume an asymmetrical fault at bus k.
Fault voltage at bus k in sequence domain Fault voltage at bus i in sequence domain
Positive seq. voltage: V̄kfa = V̄k0a − Z̄kk1 I¯af Positive seq. voltage: V̄ifa = V̄i0a − Z̄ik1 I¯af
1 1 1 1
Negative seq. voltage: V̄kfa = −Z̄kk2 I¯af Negative seq. voltage: V̄ifa = −Z̄ik2 I¯af
2 2 2 2
Zero seq. voltage: V̄kfa = −Z̄kk0 I¯af Zero seq. voltage: V̄ifa = −Z̄ik0 I¯af
0 0 0 0
Fault voltage at bus i in phase domain

   
V̄ifa   V̄if
 f 1 1 1  a0 
   2  V̄if 
 V̄ib  = 1 α α2   a1 

1 α α V̄ifa
V̄ifc
2

Load Flow Analysis
Line-to-Line Fault
Bus k
phase a
f
¯
I a
phase b
Z̄ f
f
¯
I b
phase c
f
¯
I c

Load Flow Analysis
Line-to-Line Fault
Bus k
phase a
f
¯
I a
phase b
Z̄ f
f
¯
I b
phase c
f
¯
I c
I¯af = 0, I¯bf = −I¯cf , V̄kf − V̄kfc = Z̄f I¯bf

b

Load Flow Analysis
Line-to-Line Fault
Fault condition in sequence domain
Bus k
phase a
I¯af0 = 0
I¯af1 = −I¯af2
f
¯
I a
V̄kfa − V̄kfa = Z̄f I¯af1

phase b 1 2
Z̄ f
f
¯
I b
phase c
f
¯
I c

b

Load Flow Analysis
Line-to-Line Fault
Bus k
phase a
I¯af0 = 0
I¯af1 = −I¯af2
f
¯
I a
V̄kfa − V̄kfa = Z̄f I¯af1

phase b 1 2
Z̄ f
f f f
¯ ¯
I ¯
I
I b a1 a2
¯
Zf
phase c ¯ ¯
Z kk Z kk
1 2
f
¯
I 0
c ¯
V ¯
f
¯
f
ka
V V
ka1 ka2
¯
Z kk
Fault condition in phase domain 0

b

Load Flow Analysis
Line-to-Line Fault: Example

1 2
G1 T1 T2
M1
Network Data

T1 and T2 : 100 MVA, 20 ∆/345Y kV, X = 0.08 pu
Find fault current, voltages at all three phases of bus 1 and bus 2, and current flow through the three phases of line 1-2 for a LL fault at bus 2.
Assume, system was operating at no-load prior to the fault (pre-fault voltage is 1∠0o pu).

Load Flow Analysis
Double Line-to-Ground Fault

Bus k
f phase a
¯
I a
phase b
f
¯
I b
f
phase c
¯
I c
¯
f ¯f
Z̄ f (I + I c)
b

Load Flow Analysis

Bus k
f phase a
¯
I a
phase b
f
¯
I b
f
phase c
¯
I c
¯
f ¯f
Z̄ f (I + I c)
b
I¯af = 0, V̄kf = V̄kfc = (I¯cf + I¯bf )Z̄f

b

Load Flow Analysis

Bus k
f phase a
¯
I a
I¯af0 + I¯af1 + I¯af2 = 0
f
phase b
V̄kfa = V̄kfa
¯
I 1 2
b
V̄kfa − V̄kfa = 3Z̄f I¯af0

0 1
f
phase c
¯
I c
¯
f ¯f
Z̄ f (I + I c)
b

b

Load Flow Analysis

Bus k
f phase a
¯
I a
I¯af0 + I¯af1 + I¯af2 = 0
f
phase b
V̄kfa = V̄kfa
¯
I 1 2
b
V̄kfa − V̄kfa = 3Z̄f I¯af0

0 1
f
phase c
¯
I c
¯
f ¯f f f
Z̄ f (I + I c) ¯
I ¯
I
b
¯ a1 ¯ a0
Z kk 3Z f
1
f
¯
I
a2
Fault condition in phase domain ¯

V
0
¯
V
f
¯
= V
f
¯
Z kk ¯
V
f
¯
Z kk
0
ka ka1 ka2 2
ka0

b

Load Flow Analysis
Double Line-to-Ground Fault: Example

1 2
G1 T1 T2
M1
Network Data

T1 and T2 : 100 MVA, 20 ∆/345Y kV, X = 0.08 pu
Find fault current, voltages at all three phases of bus 1 and bus 2, and current flow through the three phases of line 1-2 for a LLG fault at bus
2. Assume, system was operating at no-load prior to the fault (pre-fault voltage is 1∠0o pu).

Load Flow Analysis
Z-bus Building Algorithm

Consider that Z bus matrix has been formulated up to a certain stage and another branch is now added. Upon adding a new branch one of
the following situation is presented.
2 1
j0.1
j0.25 j0.20
j0.1 j0.1
j1.6

Load Flow Analysis

2 1
j0.1
j0.25 j0.20
j0.1 j0.1
j1.6

Load Flow Analysis

New Bus 2 1
j0.1
j0.25 j0.20
1 Type 1: z̄b is added from a new bus to the reference bus. j0.1 j0.1
Dimension of Z bus matrix increases by one.

Reference
3
j1.6

Load Flow Analysis

Old Bus 2 1
j0.1
1 Type 1: z̄b is added from a new bus to the reference bus.

j0.25 j0.20
j0.1 j0.1
2 Type 2: z̄b is added from a new bus to an old bus.

3
j1.6
New Bus

Load Flow Analysis

2 1
j0.1

j0.25 j0.20
2 Type 2: z̄b is added from a new bus to an old bus. j0.1 j0.1

3
3 Type 3: z̄b is added from a old bus to the reference bus.
j1.6
A new loop is formed and the dimension of Z bus does not change. Old Bus
Reference

Load Flow Analysis

Old Bus
1 Type 1: z̄b is added from a new bus to the reference bus. 2 1
j0.1

j0.25 j0.20
j0.1 j0.1

3
A new loop is formed and the dimension of Z bus does not change.
j1.6
4 Type 4: z̄b is connected between two old buses.

Load Flow Analysis

2 1
j0.1

j0.25 j0.20
Dimension of Z bus matrix increases by one. j0.1 j0.1

3
j1.6 Old Bus
4 Type 4: z̄b is connected between two old buses.

Load Flow Analysis
Type - 1 Modification: New Bus and Reference bus
2 1
j0.1
j0.25 j0.20
j0.1 j0.1
j1.6

Load Flow Analysis
New Bus 2 1
j0.1
j0.25 j0.20
j0.1 j0.1
Reference
3
j1.6

Load Flow Analysis
New Bus 2 1
j0.1
¯
I 1
Linear Passive Network

¯
I 2
j0.25 j0.20
¯
V ¯
j0.1 j0.1 1 I 3
¯
V 2
Reference
3 Z̄ b
¯
V 3
j1.6
Reference Bus

Load Flow Analysis

For a passive 2-bus network

V̄1 Z̄11 Z̄12 I¯1
¯ =
I 1 V̄2 Z̄21 Z̄22 I¯2

¯
I A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between the new bus 3
2
and the reference bus.

¯
V ¯
1 I 3
V̄3 = Z̄b I¯3
¯
V 2
Z̄ b
¯
V 3
Reference Bus

Load Flow Analysis

For a passive 2-bus network

V̄1 Z̄11 Z̄12 I¯1
¯ =
I 1 V̄2 Z̄21 Z̄22 I¯2

¯
I A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between the new bus 3
2
and the reference bus.

¯
V ¯
1 I 3
V̄3 = Z̄b I¯3
¯
V 2
¯
Z̄ b In general, if a branch with impedance Z̄b is added between a new
V 3
bus k and the reference bus, then,
Reference Bus Z̄ki = Z̄ik = 0 (i = 1, 2, . . . , n; i ̸= k)
Z̄kk = Z̄b

Load Flow Analysis
Type - 2 Modification: New Bus and Old bus
Old Bus 2 1
j0.1
j0.25 j0.20
j0.1 j0.1
j1.6
New Bus

Load Flow Analysis
Old Bus 2 1
j0.1
¯
I 1

¯ + I
(I ¯ )
2 3
j0.25 j0.20
¯
I 2
¯
V
j0.1 j0.1 1
Z̄ b
¯
I
¯
V 3
2
3
¯
V 3
j1.6
New Bus Reference Bus

Load Flow Analysis

A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between the new bus 3
to the old bus 2.
¯
I 1
V̄3 = V̄2 + Z̄b I¯3

¯ + I
¯ )
V̄1 = Z̄11 I¯1 + Z̄12 (I¯2 + I¯3 )
(I 2 3
V̄2 = Z̄21 I¯1 + Z̄22 (I¯2 + I¯3 )

¯
I 2
¯
V 1
Z̄ b
¯
I
¯
V 3
2
¯
V 3
Reference Bus

Load Flow Analysis

A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between the new bus 3
to the old bus 2.
¯
I 1
V̄3 = V̄2 + Z̄b I¯3

¯ + I
¯ )
V̄1 = Z̄11 I¯1 + Z̄12 (I¯2 + I¯3 )
(I 2 3
V̄2 = Z̄21 I¯1 + Z̄22 (I¯2 + I¯3 )

¯
I 2
¯
V 1
Z̄ b
¯
¯
V
I 3 In general, if a branch with impedance Z̄b is added between a new
2
bus k and the old bus j, then,

¯
V 3
Z̄ik = Z̄ij (i = 1, 2, . . . , n; i ̸= k)
Reference Bus
Z̄ki = Z̄ji (i = 1, 2, . . . , n; i ̸= k)
Z̄kk = Z̄b + Z̄jj

Load Flow Analysis
Type - 3 Modification: Old Bus and Reference bus
2 1
j0.1
j0.25 j0.20
j0.1 j0.1
j1.6
Old Bus
Reference

Load Flow Analysis
2 1
j0.1
¯
I 1

¯ + I
(I ¯ )
2 3
j0.25 j0.20
¯
I 2
¯
V
j0.1 j0.1 1
Z̄ b
¯
V 2
3 ¯
I 3
j1.6
Old Bus Reference Bus
Reference

Load Flow Analysis

From Type-2 modification, we got
¯
I 1
V̄3 = Z̄21 I¯1 + Z̄22 I¯2 + (Z̄22 + Z̄b )I¯3

¯ + I
(I ¯ )
2 3
V̄1 = Z̄11 I¯1 + Z̄12 (I¯2 + I¯3 )
¯
I 2
V̄2 = Z̄21 I¯1 + Z̄22 (I¯2 + I¯3 )
¯
V 1
Z̄ b
¯
V 2
¯
I 3
Reference Bus
A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between an

old bus 2 and the reference bus.

Load Flow Analysis

¯
I 1
V̄3 = Z̄21 I¯1 + Z̄22 I¯2 + (Z̄22 + Z̄b )I¯3

¯ + I
(I ¯ )
2 3
V̄1 = Z̄11 I¯1 + Z̄12 (I¯2 + I¯3 )
¯
I 2
V̄2 = Z̄21 I¯1 + Z̄22 (I¯2 + I¯3 )
¯
V 1
Z̄ b
Type-3 modification can be derived from Type-2 modification
¯
V 2 taking V̄3 = 0.
¯
I 3
Reference Bus
A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between an

old bus 2 and the reference bus.

Load Flow Analysis

¯
I 1
V̄3 = Z̄21 I¯1 + Z̄22 I¯2 + (Z̄22 + Z̄b )I¯3

¯ + I
(I ¯ )
2 3
V̄1 = Z̄11 I¯1 + Z̄12 (I¯2 + I¯3 )
¯
I 2
V̄2 = Z̄21 I¯1 + Z̄22 (I¯2 + I¯3 )
¯
V 1
Z̄ b
Type-3 modification can be derived from Type-2 modification
¯
V 2 taking V̄3 = 0.
¯
I 3
In general, if a branch with impedance Z̄b is added between an old

Reference Bus
bus k and the reference bus, then,
 
Z̄1k
A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between an 1  
Znew = Zold −  ..  Z̄k1 · · · Z̄kn
old bus 2 and the reference bus. Z̄b + Z̄kk  . 
Z̄nk

Load Flow Analysis
Type - 4 Modification: Old Bus to Old bus

Old Bus
2 1
j0.1 ¯
I 1

¯ + I
(I ¯ )
2 4
j0.25 j0.20 ¯
I
¯
V 2
1 Z̄ b
j0.1 j0.1
¯
I ¯
¯ 3 I 4
V 2
3 ¯ − I
(I ¯ )
¯
V 3 4
3
j1.6
Reference Bus

Load Flow Analysis

    ¯ 
V̄1 Z̄11 Z̄12 Z̄13 I1
¯
I 1
V̄2  = Z̄21 Z̄22 Z̄23  I¯2 + I¯4 

¯ + I
¯ )
V̄3 Z̄31 Z̄32 Z̄33 I¯3 − I¯4
(I 2 4
¯
¯
V
I 2 V̄3 = V̄2 + Z̄b I¯4
1 Z̄ b
¯
I ¯
¯ 3 I 4
V 2
¯ − I
(I ¯ )
¯
V 3 4
3
Reference Bus
A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between

two old buses 2 and 3.

Load Flow Analysis

    ¯ 
V̄1 Z̄11 Z̄12 Z̄13 I1
¯
I 1
V̄2  = Z̄21 Z̄22 Z̄23  I¯2 + I¯4 

¯ + I
¯ )
V̄3 Z̄31 Z̄32 Z̄33 I¯3 − I¯4
(I 2 4
¯
¯
V
I 2 V̄3 = V̄2 + Z̄b I¯4
1 Z̄ b
¯
I ¯
¯ 3 I 4
V 2
¯ − I
¯ )
In general, if a branch with impedance Z̄b is added between bus k
¯ (I
V 3
3 4
and bus l, then,
Reference Bus
  T
Z̄1k − Z̄1l Z̄k1 − Z̄l1
1 
 .. 

 .. 

Znew = Zold −
P  .  . 
A branch with impedance Z̄b is added between Z̄nk − Z̄nl Z̄kn − Z̄ln
two old buses 2 and 3.
where, P = Z̄b + Z̄kk + Z̄ll − Z̄lk − Z̄kl

Load Flow Analysis Definition, Examples
Short Circuit Analysis Rotor Angle Stability: Swing Equation
Power System Stability Small Disturbance Stability
Economic Dispatch of Generation Large Disturbance Stability or Transient Stability
Automatic Control of Generation Dynamics of Multi-Machine Systems
Module 3
Power System Stability:

Small Disturbance Stability, Transient Stability

Power System Stability

Definition: Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of
operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that practically the entire
system remains intact.


Definition: Power system stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of
operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that practically the entire
system remains intact.
Rotor Angle Stability Frequency Stability Voltage Stability
Small Disturbance Large Disturbance Small Disturbance Large Disturbance

Angular Stability Angular Stability Voltage Stability VoltageStability
Short Term Short Term Long Term Short Term Long Term

Case Studies
2 7 8 9 3
Large Disturbances
Self-clearing fault
Fault following by opening of line
5 6
Line outage
4
Sudden large change or loss of load
Sudden large change or loss of generation
Outage, followed by islanding
1
Small Disturbances
Gradual change in load
Figure: IEEE 9 Bus Test System

Case Study 1: Self-Clearing Fault

2 7 8 9 3
5 6
Fault bus: 9, Fault initiation time: 1.0 s, Fault removed after: 10 cycles (0.2 s)

Case Study 1: Self-Clearing Fault

1.2
50
1 40
Bus voltage magnitude (in pu)
Generator angle (relative)

30
0.8
20
0.6
10
0.4
0
0.2
-10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 -20
0 5 10 15 20 25
40 Time (in s) 51.5 Time (in s)
30
51
Bus voltage angle (in degree)
Generator frequency (in Hz)

20
50.5
10
0
50
-10
49.5
-20
-30 49
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (in s) Time (in s)
Case Study 2: Self-Clearing Fault (-Unstable)

2 7 8 9 3
5 6
Fault bus: 9, Fault initiation time: 1.0 s, Fault removed after: 35 cycles (0.7 s)
Case Study 2: Self-Clearing Fault (-Unstable)

1.2 104
3
1 2.5

0.8 2
0.6 1.5
0.4 1
0.2 0.5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
1000 57
56
500
55

54
0
53
52
-500
51
-1000 50
49
-1500 48
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Case Study 3: Fault, followed by line outage

2 7 8 9 3
5 6
Fault line: 8-9 (near bus 9), Fault initiation time: 1.0 s, Fault removed after: 10 cycles (0.2 s)
Case Study 3: Fault, followed by line outage

1.2 60

1
40
0.8
0.6 20
0.4
0
0.2
0 -20
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
60 51.5

40 51
20 50.5
0 50
-20 49.5
-40 49
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Case Study 4: Line Outage

2 7 8 9 3
5 6
Line 4-5 removed at 1.0 s

Case Study 4: Line Outage

1.1 20

1.05
15
1
10
0.95
5
0.9
0.85 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
10 51

5
50.8
0
50.6
-5
50.4
-10
50.2
-15
-20 50
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Case Study 5: Loss of Load

2 7 8 9 3
5 6
Loss (20% reduction) of load at bus 5

Case Study 5: Loss of Load

1.05 20

1.04
15
1.03
1.02 10
1.01
5
1
0.99 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
10 50.6

50.5
5
50.4
0 50.3
50.2
-5
50.1
-10 50
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Case Study 6: Loss of Generation

2 7 8 9 3
5 6
Loss (25% reduction) of generation at bus 2

Case Study 6: Loss of Generation

1.05 20

1.04
15
1.03
1.02 10
1.01
5
1
0.99 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
10 50

49.8
5
49.6
0
49.4
-5
49.2
-10
49
-15 48.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Case Study 7: Islanding

2 7 8 9 3
5 6
Loss of line 4-5 and 7-8

Case Study 7: Islanding
56

54
52
50
48
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (in s)

5.1.5 Case Study-10:
ShortGeneration loss at Rihand
Circuit Analysis STPSStability:
Rotor Angle on 1-June-2010
Swing Equation
Power
Voltage profile at 400kV System Stability
Vindhyachal bus during Small Disturbance
incident Stability
of generation loss at Rihand STPS in
Northern region is shown at figure 53. It can be seen that the fault got cleared in around 320milli
seconds which indicated the possible operation of Local breaker Backup protection. The same
was confirmed by the information received from substation.
Grid Disturbances in India: Fault
Figure 53: Voltage profile at Vindhyachal indicating the probable operation of LBB protection
Figure: Voltage profile observed at Vindhyachal during fault Rihand STPS on 1st June, 2010
SYNCHROPHASORS - INITIATIVE
Automatic Control ofINGeneration
INDIA Dynamics of Multi-Machine Systems JUNE 2012
5.1.8 Case Study-13: Tripping of HVDC Rihand-Dadri Bipole on 12-Jan-2011

Grid Disturbances in India: Line Outage
Figure: Voltage profile at Kanpur S/s during incident

Figure 56: of tripping
Dip and rise of HVDC
in voltage profile Rihand-Dadri Bipole on 12th June, 2011
at Kanpur
The graph above shows voltage profile at 400kV Kanpur Bus during tripping of HVDC Rihand-
Dadri
Power System Bipole. and
Operation Some rise and
Control dip in
©Ananyo voltages were observed during tripping of HVDC pole-1 &
Sengupta 111 / 256
from figure that the initial swing in angle is 6 to 7 degrees and the angle settles down to at the
same value as the antecedent angle. In this case there is decrease in power due to load loss
due to which angle Power
should System
decrease but due
Stability to counter action the angle
Small Disturbance settles down near to the
Stability
antecedent value. Dispatch of Generation
Economic Large Disturbance Stability or Transient Stability
Grid Disturbances in India: Loss of Load
Figure 46: Swing observed in angles during multiple trippings at 400 kV Greater Noida
Angle difference between 400 kV buses in Northern Region during loss of load at Greater Noida, 2nd April, 2012

EXHIBIT – 2.1
Disturbance in NEW Grid, India on 30th and 31st July 2012
2.1.1 Map indicating the IR links between NR, WR, ER and NER
The system was weakened by multiple outages of transmission

liens in the WR-NR interface. Bina-Gwalior-Agra was the only
connection before disturbance.
Due to load encroachment (high load of line resulting in high

line current and low bus voltage) Bina-Gwalior line removed by
zone 3 distance relay operation.
This outage created large angular deviation between NR and WR

as the power flowed in the WR-ER-NR route.
Due to power swing distance relays in NR-ER and ER-WR tie lines
tripped resulting isolation of NR.
Due to insufficient generation NR experienced blackout.
Reference: Report of the enquiry committee on grid disturbance in northern

region on 30th july2012 and in northern, eastern and north-eastern region on 31st
July 2012.
7
Economic Dispatch of Generation Large Disturbance Stability or TransientExhibit
Stability 3.1
Recording Showing Angular Separation between NR and Rest of NEW Grid

on 30/07/2012
Disturbance in NEW Grid, India on 30th and 31st July 2012
Fig 1: (source: Frequency

Widerecorded at IIT Bombay
Area Frequency and IIT Kanpur
Measurement on 30thdeveloped
system July, 2012 by IIT-
B,Power
Mumbai.)
System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 114 / 256
Pan India Light Switch Off Event onAnnexure-III

5th April, 2020
MW All India Demand
125000 04-Apr-20 05-Apr-20
120000
115000
110000
105000
100000
95000
90000
85000
80000
20:30
20:35
20:40
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21:55
22:00
Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta POSOCO
115 / 256
Pan India Light Switch Off Event on 5th April, 2020

Frequency 50.05 Hz 49.9 Hz
Hz
50.4
50.3
50.2
50.1
50
49.9
49.8
Frequency within the band 10.86 %
49.7 Frequency above the band 67.05 %
Frequency below the band 22.09 %
49.6
20:29:59.520
20:32:29.520
20:34:59.520
20:37:29.520
20:39:59.520
20:42:29.520
20:44:59.520
20:47:29.520
20:49:59.520
20:52:29.520
20:54:59.520
20:57:29.520
20:59:59.520
21:02:29.520
21:04:59.520
21:07:29.520
21:09:59.520
21:12:29.520
21:14:59.520
21:17:29.520
21:19:59.520
21:22:29.520
21:24:59.520
21:27:29.520
21:29:59.520
21:32:29.520
21:34:59.520
21:37:29.520
21:39:59.520
21:42:29.520
21:44:59.520
21:47:29.520
21:49:59.520
21:52:29.520
21:54:59.520
21:57:29.520
Some of the Major Blackouts occurred in last few decades
1 New York Power Pool disturbances on September 22, 1970

2 Florida system disturbance on December 28, 1982
3 French system disturbance on December 19, 1978 and January 12, 1987
4 Northern Belgium system disturbance on August 4, 1982
5 Swedish system disturbance on December 27, 1983
6 Japanese system disturbance on July 23, 1987
7 Canada and North American system disturbance on August 14, 2003

Swing Equation
Nomenclature Neglecting frictional and damping torques, from the law rotation, we
have
Tm Mechanical torque (input) d 2 θm
J = Tm − Te
Te Electromagnetic torque (output) dt2
J Combined moment of inertia of prime mover Taking θm = ωsm t + δm ,
and generator d 2 δm d 2 δm
θm Angular displacement of the rotor w.r.t. J 2
= Tm − Te and Jωm = Pm − Pe
dt dt2
stationary ref. axis on stator 2Wk 2Wk
From Wk = 1 2
2 Jωm , we have M = ωm ≈ ωsm
ωsm Synchronous angular velocity
ωm Angular velocity of the rotor d 2 δm
M = P m − Pe
δm Rotor position before disturbance measured dt2
from the synchronously rotating ref. frame p p
Taking δ = 2 δm and ω = 2 ωm
Wk Kinetic energy of the rotating mass
2 d2 δ
M Inertia constant (= Jωm ) M 2 = Pm − Pe
p dt
p No. of poles
δ, ω Electrical power angle and angular velocity
SB Base power
H Per unit inertia constant (= Wk /SB )
Swing Equation
Nomenclature Neglecting frictional and damping torques, from the law rotation, we
have
Tm Mechanical torque (input) d 2 θm
J = Tm − Te
Te Electromagnetic torque (output) dt2
J Combined moment of inertia of prime mover Taking θm = ωsm t + δm ,
and generator d 2 δm d 2 δm
θm Angular displacement of the rotor w.r.t. J 2
= Tm − Te and Jωm = Pm − Pe
dt dt2
stationary ref. axis on stator 2Wk 2Wk
From Wk = 1 2
2 Jωm , we have M = ωm ≈ ωsm
ωsm Synchronous angular velocity
ωm Angular velocity of the rotor d 2 δm
M = P m − Pe
δm Rotor position before disturbance measured dt2
from the synchronously rotating ref. frame p p
Taking δ = 2 δm and ω = 2 ωm
Wk Kinetic energy of the rotating mass
2 d2 δ
M Inertia constant (= Jωm ) M 2 = Pm − Pe
p dt
p No. of poles
Expressing all variables in per-unit, and writing in terms of H
δ, ω Electrical power angle and angular velocity
SB Base power H d2 δ
= Pm − Pe
H Per unit inertia constant (= Wk /SB ) πf0 dt2
Single Machine Infinite Bus Model

¯ ¯
Letting Ē = E∠δ, V̄ = V ∠0o ,
Ē V t V
′
jX
d Z̄ L
EV
Pe = sin δ = Pmax sin δ
X12
Infinite Bus
1 3 2
Z̄ s
X12 : Transfer reactance between bus 1 and 2
Pmax : Steady state stability limit
Figure: One machine connected to an infinite bus

¯
Ē V
¯ ȳ 12 ¯
I I 2
1
1 2
ȳ 10 ȳ 20

Swing Equation: Example

1 2
¯ = 1∠0o pu
V
Ē x12 = 0.3 pu
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu xt = 0.2 pu
d
A 50 Hz synchronous machine having inertia constant 8 MJ/MVA and transient reactance x′d = 0.3 pu is connected to an
infinite bus through a purely reactive circuit as shown. Reactances are marked on the diagram on a common system base.
The generator is delivering real power of 1.5 pu, 0.8 power factor lagging to the infinite bus at a voltage V̄ = 1∠0o pu.
1 Calculate the internal emf Ē and the steady state stability limit Pmax .

Swing Equation: Example

1 2
¯ = 1∠0o pu
V
Ē x12 = 0.3 pu
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu xt = 0.2 pu
d
2 Assume the per unit damping coefficient D = 0.138. Consider a small disturbance of ∆δ = 10o . Obtain equations
describing the motion of the rotor angle and the generator frequency.

Small Disturbance Stability: Small Deviation in δ

where, Ps : Synchronizing coefficient

Ē
¯
V t
¯
V
dP
Ps = = Pmax cos δ0
dδ δ0
′
jX
d Z̄ L
The dynamics of the machine depends upon the roots of the

Infinite Bus characteristics equation
2 2
1 3 2 s + ωn = 0
Z̄ s
q
πf0 πf0
H Ps and s = − H Ps
2
where, ωn =
Consider a small deviation ∆δ in power angle from the initial

operating point δ0 at t = 0 If Ps is negative, one of the roots will be in the right hand side of
δ = δ0 + ∆δ s-place
unstable, exponentially increasing response
Since ∆δ is small, cos ∆δ ≈ 1, sin ∆δ ≈ ∆δ, then
2
H d ∆δ
+ Ps ∆δ = 0
πf0 dt2 If Ps is positive, both the roots will be on the jω axis
marginally stable, sustained oscillation

Small Disturbance Stability: Small Deviation in δ

Taking damping power Pd = D dδ
dt
into account, linearized swing equation becomes
H d2 ∆δ d∆δ
+D + Ps ∆δ = 0
πf0 dt2 dt
2
In terms of the standard second order differential equation ddt∆δ d∆δ 2
2 + 2ζωn dt + ωn ∆δ = 0
q q
πf0 πf0
where, ωn = H
Ps and ζ = D2 HPs
. For normal operating condition ζ < 1, and the roots of the characteristics
equation
are complex s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn
2
=0
p
s1 , s2 = −ζωn ± jωn 1 − ζ 2
p
ωn 1 − ζ 2 = ωd is the damped frequency of oscillation.
For positive damping, roots of the characteristics equation have negative real part if Ps is positive. The response is
bounded and the system is stable.

Dynamics due to Small Deviation in δ

Expressing the swing equation in state variable form, as
x1 (t) = δ(t)
d∆δ(t)
x2 (t) = ẋ1 (t) = ∆ω(t) =
dt
d2 ∆δ(t)
ẋ2 (t) = = −ωn
2
x1 (t) − 2ζωn x2 (t)
dt2
In matrix form
ẋ1 (t) 0 1 x1 (t)
= or, ẋ(t) = Ax(t)
ẋ2 (t) −ωn2 −2ζω
n x2 (t)

s + 2ζωn 1
x(0)
−ωn2 s
Taking Laplace transform, we get X(s) = (sI − A)−1 x(0) = .
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn
2


When the rotor is suddenly perturbed by a small angle ∆δ0 , x1 (0) = ∆δ0 and x2 (0) = ∆ω0 = 0, and we obtain
(s + 2ζωn ) ∆δ0
∆δ(s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2
2 ∆δ
ωn 0
∆ω(s) = −
s2 2
+ 2ζωn s + ωn
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
∆δ0
∆δ(t) = p e−ζωn t sin (ωd t + θ)
1 − ζ2
ωn ∆δ0 −ζωn t
∆ω(t) = − p e sin ωd t
1 − ζ2
where, ωd is the damped frequency of oscillation, and θ = cos−1 ζ.

The motion of the rotor relative to the synchronously revolving field is
∆δ0
δ(t) = δ0 + p e−ζωn t sin (ωd t + θ)
1 − ζ2
and the rotor angular frequency is
ωn ∆δ0 −ζωn t
ω(t) = ω0 − p e sin ωd t
1 − ζ2

Dynamics due to Small Deviation in δ: Example

1 2
¯ = 1∠0o pu
V
Ē x12 = 0.3 pu
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu xt = 0.2 pu
d
2 Assume the per unit damping coefficient D = 0.138. Consider a small disturbance of ∆δ = 10o . Obtain equations
describing the motion of the rotor angle and the generator frequency.

Small Disturbance Stability: Small Change in Pm
If the mechanical input power Pm is increased by a small amount ∆P , the the linearized swing equation becomes
H d2 ∆δ d∆δ
+D + Ps ∆δ = ∆P
πf0 dt2 dt
d2 ∆δ
In terms of the standard second order differential equation dt2
+ 2ζωn d∆δ
dt
2 ∆δ = ∆u
+ ωn
q q
πf0 πf0 πf0
where, ωn = H
Ps , ζ = D
2 HPs
and ∆u = ∆P .
H
Writing the above equations in state variable form, we have

ẋ1 (t) 0 1 x1 (t) 0
= ∆u(t) or, ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + B∆u(t)
ẋ2 (t) −ωn2 −2ζω
n x2 (t) 1

Dynamics for Small Change in Pm
Taking Laplace transform and rearranging, we get

s + 2ζωn 1 0 ∆u
−ωn2 s 1 s
X(s) = (sI − A)−1 B∆U (s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn
2
Simplifying, we obtain
∆u
∆δ(s) =
s (s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn
2)
∆u
∆ω(s) = 2 2
s + 2ζωn s + ωn

Dynamics for Small Change in Pm
Taking Laplace transform and rearranging, we get

s + 2ζωn 1 0 ∆u
−ωn2 s 1 s
X(s) = (sI − A)−1 B∆U (s) =
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn
2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we obtain

( )
πf0 ∆P 1 −ζωn t
∆δ(t) = 1− p e sin (ωd t + θ)
Hωn 2
1 − ζ2
πf0 ∆P
∆ω(t) = p e−ζωn t sin ωd t
Hωn 1 − ζ2

Dynamics for Small Change in Pm : Example
1 2
¯ = 1∠0o pu
V
Ē x12 = 0.3 pu
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu xt = 0.2 pu
d
Assume the per unit damping coefficient D = 0.138.
1 Obtain equations describing the motion of the rotor angle and the generator frequency for a small change ∆P = 0.1
per-unit.

Large Disturbance Stability or Transient Stability

Transient stability studies involve the determination of whether or not synchronism is maintained after the machine has been
subjected to large disturbance.
From the swing equation with neglecting damping
d2 δ πf0
= (Pm − Pe )
dt2 H
dδ d2 δ 2πf0 dδ
2 = (Pm − Pe )
dt dt2 H dt
2
d dδ 2πf0 dδ
= (Pm − Pe )
dt dt H dt
2
dδ 2πf0
d = (Pm − Pe ) dδ
dt H
s Z δmax
dδ 2πf0
Integrating both sides: = (Pm − Pe ) dδ
dt H δ0
To ensure stability, relative speed w.r.t. synchronously rotating reference frame has to be zero.
Z δmax
(Pm − Pe ) dδ = 0
δ0
Equal Area Criterion

Consider a machine operating at the equilibrium point
δ0 , corresponding to the mechanical power input
Pm0 = Pe0 .
Consider a sudden step increase in input power (Pm1 ),

and Pm1 > Pe0 .
The excess energy stored in the rotor during the initial

acceleration
Z δ1
(Pm1 − Pe ) dδ = Area A1
δ0
Energy released by the rotor at the time of deceleration

The rotor will continue to swing upto the angle δmax ,
Z δmax where
(Pm1 − Pe ) dδ = Area A2 | Area A1 | = | Area A2 |
δ1

Application to Sudden Increase in Power Input

Using above condition, we get
(δmax − δ0 ) sin δmax + cos δmax = cos δ0
where, δmax = π − δ1 .
The above equation is in the form of f (δmax ) = c, and can be

solved numerically using Newton-Raphson method, starting
π (0)
with an initial estimate of < δmax < π.
2

c−f (k)
δmax
(k)
∆δmax =
df
dδmax (k)
δmax
The equal-area criterion can be used to determine the maximum
additional power Pm which may be applied for stability to be df (k) (k)
= δmax − δ0 cos δmax
maintained. dδmax δmax
(k)
(k+1) (k) (k)

To ensure stability: Area A2 has to be at least equal to Area A1 . δmax = δmax + ∆δmax

Sudden Increase in Power Input: Example
1 2
¯ = 1∠0o pu
V
Ē x12 = 0.3 pu
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu xt = 0.2 pu
d
1 Determine the maximum power input that can be applied without loss of synchronism.

Application to Three Phase Fault

1 2
Ē = E∠δ


1 2
Ē = E∠δ


1 2
Ē = E∠δ


1 2
Ē = E∠δ
The critical clearing angle can be found as

Z δc Z δmax
Pm dδ = (Pmax sin δ − Pm ) dδ
δ0 δc
Pm
cos δc = (δmax − δ0 ) + cos δmax
Pmax


1 2
Ē = E∠δ
The critical clearing angle can be found as

Pm
cos δc = (δmax − δ0 ) + cos δmax
Pmax
s
2H (δc − δ0 )
Critical fault clearing time tc =
πf0 Pm

Three Phase Fault: Example

1 2
Ē ¯ = 1∠0o pu
x12 = 0.3 pu V
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
xt = 0.2 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu
d
1 A temporary three-phase fault occurs at the sending end of the line 1-2. When the fault is cleared, both lines are intact.
Determine the critical clearing angle and the critical fault clearing time.

1 2
Ē = E∠δ


1 2
Ē = E∠δ
Applying equal-area criterion, we get

Z δc Z δmax
Pm (δc − δ0 ) − Pmax2 sin δdδ = Pmax3 sin δdδ − Pm (δmax − δc )
δ0 δc
Integrating both sides, and solving for δc , we obtain
Pm (δmax − δ0 ) + Pmax3 cos δmax − Pmax2 cos δ0

cos δc =
Pmax3 − Pmax2

1 2
¯ = 1∠0o pu
V
Ē x12 = 0.3 pu
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu xt = 0.2 pu
d
1 A three-phase fault occurs at the middle of one of the circuits of line 1-2. The fault is cleared by isolating the faulted
line. Determine the critical clearing angle.


1 2
¯ = 1∠0o pu
V
Ē x12 = 0.3 pu
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu xt = 0.2 pu
d
3 1 2
0.3
0.5
∞
0.15 0.15

Numerical Solution of Nonlinear Equation

Consider the first-order differential equation
dx(t)
= f (x)
dt
Objective: To obtain
t0 t1 t2 ···
x0 x1 x2 ···


dx(t)
= f (x)
dt
t0 t1 t2 ···
x0 x1 x2 ···
Euler’s Method

dx(t)
x1 ≈ x0 + ∆t
dt t0


dx(t)
= f (x)
dt
t0 t1 t2 ···
x0 x1 x2 ···
Euler’s Method

dx(t)
x1 ≈ x0 + ∆t
dt t0
= x0 + f (x0 )∆t


dx(t)
= f (x)
dt
t0 t1 t2 ···
x0 x1 x2 ···
Euler’s Method

dx(t)
x1 ≈ x0 + ∆t
dt t0
= x0 + f (x0 )∆t

dx(t)
x2 ≈ x1 + ∆t
dt t1
= x1System
Power + f Operation
(x1 )∆t and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 143 / 256

dx(t)
= f (x)
dt
t0 t1 t2 ···
x0 x1 x2 ···
Euler’s Method

dx(t)
x1 ≈ x0 + ∆t
dt t0
= x0 + f (x0 )∆t

dx(t)
x2 ≈ x1 + ∆t
dt t1
= x1System
Power + f Operation

dx(t)
= f (x)
dt
t0 t1 t2 ···
x0 x1 x2 ···
Euler’s Method

dx(t)
x1 ≈ x0 + ∆t
dt t0
= x0 + f (x0 )∆t In general

dx(t) dx(t)
x2 ≈ x1 + xk+1 ≈ xk + .∆t
dt t
∆t
dt t1 k
= x1System
Power + f Operation

dx(t)
= f (x)
dt


Consider the first-order differential equation Modified Euler’s Method (Prediction-Correction Method)
dx(t)
dt
= f (x)
p dx(t)
xk+1 ≈ xk + ∆t = xk + f (xk )∆t
dt t
k


dx(t)
dt
= f (x)
p dx(t)
xk+1 ≈ xk + ∆t = xk + f (xk )∆t
dt t
k
Predicted slope at tk+1

dx(t) p
= f (xk+1 )
dt t
k+1


dx(t)
dt
= f (x)
p dx(t)
xk+1 ≈ xk + ∆t = xk + f (xk )∆t
dt t
k
Predicted slope at tk+1

dx(t) p
= f (xk+1 )
dt t
k+1
Corrected value of xk+1 is computed from the average of two slopes
!
1 dx(t) dx(t)
xk+1 ≈ xk + + ∆t
2 dt t dt t
k k+1

Numerical Solution of The Swing Equation

For one-machine, infinite bus system
d2 δ πf0
= (Pm − Pmax sin δ)
dt2 H
In state variable form

dδ
= ∆ω
dt
d∆ω πf0
dt H


d2 δ πf0
dt2 H

dδ
= ∆ω
dt
d∆ω πf0
dt H
Prediction

p dδ
δk+1 = δk + ∆t
dt t
k


d2 δ πf0
dt2 H

dδ
= ∆ω
dt
d∆ω πf0
dt H
Prediction

p dδ
δk+1 = δk + ∆t = ∆ωk .∆t
dt t
k


d2 δ πf0
dt2 H

dδ
= ∆ω
dt
d∆ω πf0
dt H
Prediction

p dδ
δk+1 = δk + ∆t = ∆ωk .∆t
dt t
k

p d∆ω
∆ωk+1 = ∆ωk + ∆t
dt t
k


d2 δ πf0
dt2 H

dδ
= ∆ω
dt
d∆ω πf0
dt H
Prediction

p dδ
δk+1 = δk + ∆t = ∆ωk .∆t
dt t
k

p d∆ω
∆ωk+1 = ∆ωk + ∆t
dt t
k
πf0
= ∆ωk + (Pm − Pmax sin δk )
H


d2 δ πf0 dδ p
(Pm − Pmax sin δ) = ∆ωk+1
dt t
=
dt2 H k+1

d∆ω πf0 p

= Pm − Pmax sin δk+1
In state variable form dt t H
k+1
dδ
= ∆ω
dt
d∆ω πf0
dt H
Prediction

p dδ
δk+1 = δk + ∆t = ∆ωk .∆t
dt t
k

p d∆ω
∆ωk+1 = ∆ωk + ∆t
dt t
k
πf0
H


d2 δ πf0 dδ p
(Pm − Pmax sin δ) = ∆ωk+1
dt t
=
dt2 H k+1

d∆ω πf0 p

= Pm − Pmax sin δk+1
In state variable form dt t H
k+1
dδ
= ∆ω
dt
d∆ω πf0
dt H
Prediction Correction
!
p dδ 1 dδ dδ
δk+1 = δk + ∆t = ∆ωk .∆t
dt t
δk+1 = δi + + ∆t
k 2 dt t dt t
k k+1
!
d∆ω
p
∆ωk+1 = ∆ωk + ∆t 1 d∆ω d∆ω
dt t ∆ωk+1 = ∆ωk + + ∆t
k 2 dt t dt t
k k+1
πf0
H
Numerical Solution of The Swing Equation: Example
1 2
¯ = 1∠0o pu
V
Ē x12 = 0.3 pu
∞
x12 = 0.3 pu
′
x = 0.3 pu xt = 0.2 pu
d
A three-phase fault occurs at the middle of one of the circuits of line 1-2 at 0.1s. The fault is cleared at 0.2s by isolating the
faulted line. Obtain the numerical solution of the swing equation for 1.0 s using modified Euler’s method with a step size
of ∆t = 0.01 s.


Trajectory of rotor angle
60
55
50
45
(in degree)
40
35
30
Fault initiated
25
Fault removed
20
15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (in s)
H = 8 MJ/MVA, , D = 0, Pm = 1.5 pu, Pmax1 = 3.0568 pu, Pmax2 = 1.1038 pu, Pmax3 = 2.4837 pu, δ0 = 0.5129 rad = 29.3872o


Trajectory of rotor angle
50
45
(in degree)
40
35 Fault removed
30
Fault initiated
25
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (in s)
H = 8 MJ/MVA, , D = 0.138, Pm = 1.5 pu, Pmax1 = 3.0568 pu, Pmax2 = 1.1038 pu, Pmax3 = 2.4837 pu, δ0 = 0.5129 rad = 29.3872o

Dynamics of Multi-Machine Systems

Assumptions
n+1
ȳ g
i
1 Synchronous machine is represented by a constant
i l voltage source behind the direct axis transient
ȳ g
reactance.
ȳ d
j l
j 2 Governor’s actions are neglected and input powers are

assumed to be constant.
n+2
ȳ g
3 Loads are represented by constant impedances.
k
ȳ d
m
k
4 Mechanical rotor angle of a machine coincides with the
n + ng
angle of the voltage behind transient reactance.
n-bus power system


n+1
ȳ g
i
′ ′
i l
x = 0.05 x = 0.05
d d
ȳ g ȳ d
j l 1 3
j
z̄ 13 = j0.10
n+2
ȳ g
k z̄ 12 = 0.12 + j0.16 z̄ 23 = 0.12 + j0.16
ȳ d
m
k
n + ng
n-bus power system
Pre-disturbance voltage:
V̄10 = 1.0∠0o pu,
V̄20 = 0.98∠ − 5o pu,
V̄30 = 1.02∠2o pu.


n+1
ȳ g
i G1 G2
i l
ȳ g ȳ d 4 5
′ ′
j l x = 0.05 x = 0.05
d d
1 3
n+2
m z̄ 13 = j0.10
ȳ g
k
ȳ d
m
k
z̄ 12 = 0.12 + j0.16 z̄ 23 = 0.12 + j0.16

n + ng
n-bus power system
2
ȳ d
2


Network Equation
n+1
ȳ g     
i
 0   Ȳnn Ȳnm  V̄ 
i l
 =  
I¯g Ȳmn Ȳmm Ē
ȳ g ȳ d
j l
From the above equation, we get,

n+2
m
0 = Ȳnn V̄ + Ȳnm Ē
−1
ȳ g
k
V̄ = −Ȳnn Ȳnm Ē
ȳ d
m
k
I¯g = Ȳmn V̄ + Ȳmm Ē

n + ng
n-bus power system −1
= −Ȳmn Ȳnn Ȳnm Ē + Ȳmm Ē

−1
= Ȳmm − Ȳmn Ȳnn Ȳnm Ē = Ȳred Ē
Electrical power output of generator i

∗
Pei = Re Ēi I¯g
i

Incorporate disturbance: Update Ȳnn , Ȳred .
Update generator current :
I¯g (tk ) = Ȳred .Ē(tk )
Prediction: For all generator i

∗
Pei (tk ) = Re Ēi (tk ).I¯g (tk )
i

dδi
= ∆ωi (tk )
dt t
k

p dδi
δi (tk+1 ) = δi (tk ) + ∆t
dt t
k

d∆ωi πf0
= Pmi − Pei (tk ) − Di .∆ωi (tk )
dt t Hi
k

p d∆ωi
∆ωi (tk+1 ) = ∆ωi (tk ) + .∆t
dt t
k
p p
Ēi (tk+1 ) = Ei ∠δi (tk+1 )


Predict generator current from network equation:
p p
I¯g (tk+1 ) = Ȳred .Ē (tk+1 )
Correction: For all generator i

p p p∗
Pe (tk+1 ) = Re Ēi (tk+1 ).I¯g (tk+1 )
i i

dδi p
= ∆ωi (tk+1 )
dt t
k+1

d∆ωi πf0 p p

= Pmi − Pe (tk+1 ) − Di .∆ωi (tk+1 )
dt t Hi i
k+1
!
1 dδi dδi
δi (tk+1 ) = δi (tk ) + + .∆t
2 dt t dt t
k k+1
!
1 d∆ωi d∆ωi
∆ωi (tk+1 ) = ∆ωi (tk ) + + .∆t
2 dt t dt t
k k+1


Incorporate
disturbance: update
Ynn , Yred
Solve network Increment time

equation, find
¯
I g , Pe
Correct
Dynamics of Multi- δ, Δω
Find first Machine System for next time
slope: predict
instant
δ, Δω
for next time

instant
Find second
slope
Solve network
equation, find
p p
¯
I , Pe
g

Dynamics of Multi-Machine Systems: Example

G1 G2
Pre-disturbance voltage
V̄10 = 1.0∠0o pu,
4
′ ′
5 V̄20 = 0.98∠ − 5o pu,
x = 0.05 x = 0.05
d d
V̄30 = 1.02∠2o pu.

1 3
z̄ 13 = j0.10
Inertia Constant
H1 = 8 MJ/MVA
H2 = 6 MJ/MVA
z̄ 12 = 0.12 + j0.16 z̄ 23 = 0.12 + j0.16
Self-clearing fault (z̄f = j0.001 pu)

2
Fault initiation time: 0 s

ȳ d
2
Fault clearing time: 0.1 s
Simulate the dynamics upto 0.02 s, taking ∆t = 0.01 s.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Mathematical Background: Optimization Technique
Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses
Economic Dispatch of Generation
Economic Dispatch Including Losses
Module 4
Economic Dispatch of Generation:

Constrained Optimization, Economic Dispatch neglecting and including Losses,
Kron’s Loss Formula

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Problem Formulation
100 M W ≤ Pg ≤ 400 M W 100 M W ≤ Pg ≤ 400 M W
1 2
During load flow analysis, real power generation at PV buses

assumed known.
1 2
z̄ 12 = j0.10
Under any operating (loading) condition, total generation must

be equal to the total load demand and the total losses in a
system.
z̄ 13 = 0.12 + j0.16 z̄ 23 = 0.15 + j0.22 Under normal operating conditions, generation capacity is more
than total load and losses.
3 If we allow to vary generator’s real (and reactive) power within

certain limits so as to meet a particular load demand, we will
500 M W
get many options (often infinite!) for scheduling generation for
the given (total) load.
P g1 = 100 MW, P g2 = 400 MW ? OR,
P g1 = 400 MW, P g2 = 100 MW ? OR,
P g1 = 250 MW, P g2 = 250 MW ? OR,
P g1 = 249 MW, P g2 = 251 MW ? ···

Load Flow Analysis Formulation
Problem
1.0 Dispatch
Economic IntroductionNeglecting Losses
Automatic Control of Generation By definition, electrical demand is the rate at which electrical power is being consumed over
a given time interval by all the defined loads of a well-defined area. For all the practical
Problem Formulation 1.1. Load Curve

A plot showing the variation in demand met with respect to time is known as the load curve.
If this curve is plotted over a period of time for 24 hours, it is known as daily load curve
100 M W ≤ Pg ≤ 400 M W 100 M W ≤ Pg ≤ 400 M W
1 2 (Figure 1). If it is plotted for a week, month or a year it is named as weekly, monthly and
yearly load curve respectively. The load curve reflects the activity of a population of society
with respect to electrical power consumption over a given period of time.
Evening Peak
1 2
z̄ 12 = j0.10
Morning Peak
GW->
z̄ 13 = 0.12 + j0.16 z̄ 23 = 0.15 + j0.22 Day Lean
Night Lean
3
500 M W Figure 1: Typical All India Load Curve

Figure: Typical All India Load Curve
A typical load curve may be demarcated by four cardinal points:
P g1 = 100 MW, P g2 = 400 MW ? OR,
P g1 = 400 MW, P g2 = 100 MW ? OR, 1. Night Lean
2. Morning Peak
Ref.:“Electricity Demand Pattern Analysis”, POSOCO, 2016
P g1 = 250 MW, P g2 = 250 MW ? OR, 3. Day Lean or Afternoon trough
P g1 = 249 MW, P g2 = 251 MW ? ··· 4. Evening Peak
These four cardinals exists in load curve, however, shapes/width/magnitude may vary state to
Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta state and depends upon the customer types (i.e. domestic, agricultural, commercial and159 / 256
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Problem Formulation
100 M W ≤ Pg ≤ 400 M W 100 M W ≤ Pg ≤ 400 M W
1 2
Objective of economic dispatch problem is to find an optimal
combination of generations by minimizing the total cost of
generating real power (production cost) while satisfying the loads
and losses in a system.
1 2
z̄ 12 = j0.10
z̄ 13 = 0.12 + j0.16 z̄ 23 = 0.15 + j0.22
500 M W
P g1 = 100 MW, P g2 = 400 MW ? OR,

P g1 = 400 MW, P g2 = 100 MW ? OR,
P g1 = 250 MW, P g2 = 250 MW ? OR,
P g1 = 249 MW, P g2 = 251 MW ? ···

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Problem Formulation
100 M W ≤ Pg ≤ 400 M W 100 M W ≤ Pg ≤ 400 M W
1 2
Objective of economic dispatch problem is to find an optimal
combination of generations by minimizing the total cost of
generating real power (production cost) while satisfying the loads
and losses in a system.
1 2
z̄ 12 = j0.10
Operating Cost of a Thermal Plant
Operating Cost (Rs./h)
Fuel Input (Btu/h)

z̄ 13 = 0.12 + j0.16 z̄ 23 = 0.15 + j0.22
or,
3
500 M W
min max
P g1 = 100 MW, P g2 = 400 MW ? OR, Pg Pg
i i
P g1 = 400 MW, P g2 = 100 MW ? OR, Pg (M W )

i
P g1 = 250 MW, P g2 = 250 MW ? OR, 2
P g1 = 249 MW, P g2 = 251 MW ? ··· F i Pg i = ai Pg + bi Pgi + ci Rs/h
i
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Problem Formulation
100 M W ≤ Pg
1
≤ 400 M W 100 M W ≤ Pg
2
≤ 400 M W Economic Dispatch Problem
X
ng ng
X
2
minimize F i P gi = a i Pg + bi Pg i + c i
P̄g i
i=1 i=1
1 2
z̄ 12 = j0.10
Subject to:
X
ng
Pgi = PD + PL
i=1
min max
z̄ 13 = 0.12 + j0.16 z̄ 23 = 0.15 + j0.22 Pg ≤ Pg i ≤ Pg i = 1, 2, . . . , ng
i i
3 Pg i active power output of generator i

ng total number of generators
500 M W PD total active power demand
PL total active power loss
P g1 = 100 MW, P g2 = 400 MW ? OR,
Pgmin minimum real power output below which
P g1 = 400 MW, P g2 = 100 MW ? OR, i
P g1 = 250 MW, P g2 = 250 MW ? OR, it is uneconomical (or technically infeasible)
P g1 = 249 MW, P g2 = 251 MW ? ··· Pgmax maximum output limit
i
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Vector
Real valued vector x̄ ∈ Rn
 
x1
 x2 
  x3
x̄ =  
 ..  , where xi ∈ R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n
 .  x2
xn
0
x1
Vector Norm
1
P
n p
Lp norm of a vector x̄ ∈ Rn : ||x̄||p = |x|pi where p ∈ R+
i=1

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Vector
 
x1
 x2 
  x3
x̄ =  
 ..  , where xi ∈ R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n
 .  x2
xn
0
x1
Vector Norm
1
P
n p
i=1
||x̄||2 indicates length of the vector

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Vector
 
x1
 x2 
  x3
x̄ =  
 ..  , where xi ∈ R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n
 .  x2
xn
0
x1
Vector Norm
1
P
n p
i=1
||x̄||2 indicates length of the vector

Infinity norm ||x̄||∞ = max(|x1 |, |x2 |, . . . , |xn |)
Negative Infinity norm ||x̄||−∞ = min(|x1 |, |x2 |, . . . , |xn |)
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Taylor Series expansion

Gradient of a function f : Rn → R
 ∂f 
∂x1
 ∂f 
 
 ∂x2 
∇x̄ f (x̄)(≡ ḡ(x̄)) =  . 
 . 
 . 
∂f
∂xn
Example: f (x̄) = (x1 − 1)2 + x22 + 10
" #
2 (x1 − 1)
∇x̄ f (x̄) =
2x2

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Gradient of a function f : Rn → R
First order Taylor Series expansion of f : Rn → R
 ∂f 
∂x1
 ∂f 
  ∂f
f (x̄ + ∆x̄) ≈ f (x̄) + ∆x1
 ∂x 
∇x̄ f (x̄)(≡ ḡ(x̄)) =  . 2  ∂x1 x̄
 . 
 . 
∂f
∂f ∂f
+ ∆x2 + ∆x3
∂xn ∂x2 x̄ ∂x3 x̄

∂f
Example: f (x̄) = (x1 − 1)2 + x22 + 10 +··· + ∆xn
∂xn x̄
" #
2 (x1 − 1)
∇x̄ f (x̄) = f (x̄ + ∆x̄) ≈ f (x̄) + (∆x̄)T ∇f (x̄)
2x2

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
60
First order Taylor Series expansion
50
f (x̄ + ∆x̄) ≈ f (x̄) + (∆x̄)T ∇f (x̄) 40
f(x)
30
Example: f (x̄) = (x1 − 1)2 + x22 + 10 20
10
f(x)
−2 2
Check Taylor Series at x̄ = , ∆x̄ = h̄ = . (x+h)
0 0 0 f(x+h)
5
x h 4
0 2
0
x2 -5 -4
-2 x1

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Unconstrained Optimization
60 2.5
Problem Statement
50
minimize f (x̄) where f : Rn → R 2
x̄
40
Alternative form 1.5
f(x)
f(x)
30
Find x̄∗ = argmin f (x̄) 20

1
0.5
10
f is called the objective function (or cost function) and 0 0
x̄∗ is the minimizer. 5 5
5
0
x2 0 x1 x2
-5 -5

1
Suppose f (x̄) = (x1 − 1)2 + x22 + 10. From observation, f (x̄) is minimum at x̄∗ = .
0
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Local Minimizer
x̄∗ is a local minimizer for f : Rn → R if for all x̄ ∈ Rn and ||x̄ − x̄∗ || ≤ ϵ, (ϵ ≈ 0)
f (x̄∗ ) ≤ f (x̄)

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Local Minimizer
f (x̄∗ ) ≤ f (x̄)
2
f(x)
-1
-1 0 1 2 3
x
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Local Minimizer
f (x̄∗ ) ≤ f (x̄)
4
4
60
3 50
3
40
2
2
f(x)
30
f(x)
f(x)
1 20
1
10
0 0
0
x* 5
5
0
-1 -1 0
-1 0 1 -1 2 03 1 2 3 -5 -5
x2 x1
Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo x
x Sengupta 166 / 256
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Condition for a Local Minimum

Necessary Condition
If x̄∗ is a local minima for f : Rn → R, then ∇f (x̄)|x̄=x̄∗ = 0.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Necessary Condition
Proof: Suppose x̄∗ is the local minima and ∆x̄ ∈ Rn is an arbitrary vector such as ||x̄ − x̄∗ || ≤ ϵ, (ϵ ≈ 0). Now,
f (x̄∗ + ∆x̄) ≈ f (x̄∗ ) + (∆x̄)T ∇f (x̄)
Since ∆x̄ is an arbitrary vector, (∆x̄)T ∇f (x̄) can take any sign. To ensure f (x̄∗ ) ≤ f (x̄∗ + ∆x̄), ∇f (x̄) has to be zero at
x̄∗ .

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Necessary Condition
f (x̄∗ + ∆x̄) ≈ f (x̄∗ ) + (∆x̄)T ∇f (x̄)
x̄∗ .
Exercise: Find the local minima for the function

4 × 106
f (x̄) = x1 + + 250x2
x1 x2

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Necessary Condition
f (x̄∗ + ∆x̄) ≈ f (x̄∗ ) + (∆x̄)T ∇f (x̄)
x̄∗ .
Exercise: Find the local minima for the function

4 × 106
f (x̄) = x1 + + 250x2
x1 x2
Hint: Equate gradient to zero and solve. Ans: x1 = 1000, x2 = 4.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Constrained Optimization: Equality Constraints

Example: minimize
2
f (x̄) = (x1 − 8) + (x2 − 6)
2
x̄
subject to : h(x̄) : x1 + 3 − x2 = 0
80
70
60
50
f(x)
40
30
20
10
0
12 10 8 12 14
6 8 10
4 2 6
0 2 4
x2 x1

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Example: minimize
2
f (x̄) = (x1 − 8) + (x2 − 6)
2
x̄
subject to : h(x̄) : x1 + 3 − x2 = 0
80
70
60
50
f(x)
40
30
20
10 15
10
0
5
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 0
2 0
x1
x2

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Example: minimize
2
f (x̄) = (x1 − 8) + (x2 − 6)
2
x̄
subject to : h(x̄) : x1 + 3 − x2 = 0
80
70
60
50
f(x)
40
30
20
10 15
10
0
5
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 0
2 0
x1
x2

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Example: minimize
2
f (x̄) = (x1 − 8) + (x2 − 6)
2
x̄
subject to : h(x̄) : x1 + 3 − x2 = 0
80
70
60
50
40
f(x)
30
20
10
0
15
10
5
4 2 0
10 8 6
0 16 14 12
x1 18
x2

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Lagrange Multiplier Approach

With the help of certain unspecified parameters, known as Lagrange multiplier, one can convert the contained optimization problem to
an equivalent unconstrained optimization problem.
Consider the following optimization problem

minimize f (x̄)
x̄
subject to : h1 (x̄) = 0
h2 (x̄) = 0
.
.
.
hp (x̄) = 0
The method of Lagrange multiplier converts this problem to the following unconstrained
Xp optimization problem as
minimize L(x̄, λ̄) = f (x̄) + λi hi (x̄)
x̄,λ̄
i=1
The unconstrained function L(x̄, λ̄) is called Lagrangian function, and λ̄ = [λ1 , λ1 , · · · , λp ]T is called Lagrangian multiplier which
is unspecified and can take any value.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Minima of the constrained optimization problem can be found
equating the gradient of the Lagrangian function
X
p
L(x̄, λ̄) = f (x̄) + λi hi (x̄)
i=1
w.r.t. x̄, λ̄.

∂L
= 0
∂x1
.
.
.
∂L
= 0
∂xn
∂L
= 0
∂λ1
.
.
.
∂L
= 0
∂λp
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Minima of the constrained optimization problem can be found Example:
equating the gradient of the Lagrangian function
2 2
minimize f (x̄) = (x1 − 8) + (x2 − 6)
X
p x̄
L(x̄, λ̄) = f (x̄) + λi hi (x̄) subject to : h(x̄) : x1 + 3 − x2 = 0
i=1
w.r.t. x̄, λ̄.

Lagrangian function
∂L
= 0 2 2
∂x1 L(x̄, λ) = (x1 − 8) + (x2 − 6) + λ (x1 + 3 − x2 )
.
.
.
∂L Gradient
= 0 2(x1 − 8) + λ = 0
∂xn
∂L 2(x2 − 6) − λ = 0
= 0
∂λ1 x1 + 3 − x2 = 0
.
.
. Solving
∂L ∗ ∗ ∗
= 0 λ = 5, x1 = 5.5, x2 = 8.5
∂λp
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Example: minimize
2
f (x̄) = (x1 − 8) + (x2 − 6)
2
x̄
subject to : h(x̄) : x1 + 3 − x2 = 0
80
70
60
50
f(x)
40
30
20
10
0
15
10
5 0
8 6 4 2
0 16 14 12 10
18
x1
x2

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and No Generator Limits
X
ng ng
X h iT
2
minimize F i Pg i = a i P g + b i Pg i + c i where, P̄g = Pg1 , Pg2 , . . . , Pgng
P̄g i
i=1 i=1
X
ng
subject to : Pg i = PD
i=1

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and No Generator Limits
X
ng ng
X h iT
2
P̄g i
i=1 i=1
X
ng
i=1
ng
P P
ng
Lagrangian function: L(P̄g , λ) = ai Pg2 + bi Pgi + ci +λ PD − Pg i
i
i=1 i=1
At optimal point
∂L
= 0, (i = 1, 2, . . . , ng)
∂Pgi
∂L
= 0
∂λ

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and No Generator Limits: Analytical Approach
ng
P P
ng
Lagrangian function: L(P̄g , λ) = ai Pg2 + bi Pgi + ci +λ PD − Pg i
i
i=1 i=1
At optimal point ∂L
= 2ai Pgi + bi − λ = 0, (i = 1, 2, . . . , ng) (1)
∂Pgi
!
∂L Xng
= PD − Pg i = 0 (2)
∂λ i=1
From (1), we get

λ − bi
Pgi = , (i = 1, 2, . . . , ng)
2ai
P
ng λ − b
i
Replacing Pgi in (2), PD − =0
i=1 2ai
P
ng b
i
PD +
i=1 2ai λ∗ − bi
Simplifying above equations, optimal solution can be found as: λ∗ = , Pg∗ = , (i = 1, 2, . . . , ng)
P
ng 1 i 2ai
i=1 2a i
Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

∂Fi
The derivative = 2ai Pgi + bi is referred to as Incremental Cost (IC) of generation.
∂Pgi
For optimum dispatch, all the individual generators must operate at equal incremental production cost. In addition they must individually add
up to demand power PD .
)h W M/sR( C I
IC of Generator-1
∗
λ
IC of Generator-2
∗ ∗
Pg Pg
1 2
Pg
At optimal condition: Pg∗ + Pg∗ = PD

1 2

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Example
The fuel-cost functions for three thermal plants in Rs/h are given by
F1 (Pg1 ) = 0.004Pg21 + 5.3Pg1 + 500

F2 (Pg2 ) = 0.006Pg22 + 5.5Pg2 + 400
F3 (Pg3 ) = 0.009Pg23 + 5.8Pg3 + 200
where Pg1 , Pg2 , and Pg3 are in MW. The total load, PD , is 800 MW. Neglecting losses and generator limits, find the
optimal dispatch and the total cost in Rs/h by analytical approach.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and No Generator Limits: Lambda Iteration Technique
From the condition of optimality, we got where, Xng

λ k − bi
f (λk ) =
Xng
λ − bi i=1
2ai
= PD
2ai Xng
i=1 ∂f 1
=
or, f (λ) = PD ∂λ 2a i
i=1
λ is updates as
Starting with an initial lambda (λk ), we wish to to find
λk+1 = λk + ∆λk
appropriate ∆λk that will satisfy the above equation.
until the mismatch
Expanding f (λ) around λk , we can write
|PD − f (λk )| ≤ ϵ
∂f
f (λk ) + ∆λk = PD P
ng
∂λ λ which indicates PD ≈ Pg i .
k
i=1
PD − f (λk )
or, ∆λk =
∂f
∂λ
λk

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Example
F1 (Pg1 ) = 0.004Pg21 + 5.3Pg1 + 500

F2 (Pg2 ) = 0.006Pg22 + 5.5Pg2 + 400
F3 (Pg3 ) = 0.009Pg23 + 5.8Pg3 + 200
where Pg1 , Pg2 , and Pg3 are in MW. The total load, PD , is 800 MW. Neglecting losses and generator limits, find the
optimal dispatch and the total cost in Rs/h using lambda iteration technique. Assume initial value of λ = 6.0 Rs/MWh.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and Including Generator Limits
X
ng ng
X h iT
2
P̄g i
i=1 i=1
X
ng
i=1
min max
Pg ≤ Pg i ≤ P g i = 1, 2, . . . , ng
i i

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and Including Generator Limits: Lambda Iteration Technique
Assume initial lambda as

P
ng b
i
PD +
i=12ai Mark participating generators for next iteration
λk = (k = 0)
P
ng 1
Make a set (I) of generators whose limits are not violated.
i=1 2ai
Positive mismatch (∆P ) signifies power generation need to
λ k − bi be increased. Therefore, clipping the generation at the
Find Pgi = , (i = 1, 2, . . . , ng)
2ai lower limit may be relaxed. Such generators may be added
to I.
Check generator limits
 Negative mismatch (∆P ) signifies power generation need
Pgmin , if Pgi < Pg
min
to be decreased. Therefore, clipping the generation at the
i i
Pg i = upper limit may be relaxed. Such generators may be added
P max , if Pgi >
max
Pg
gi i to I.
P
ng
Find mismatch: ∆P = PD − Pg i
i=1

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses and Including Generator Limits: Lambda Iteration Technique
Update lambda as
∆P
∆λk = , λk+1 = λk + ∆λk
∂f
∂λ
λk

∂f X 1
where, =
∂λ λ ∀i,i∈I
2ai
k
Repeat the steps until |∆P | ≤ ϵ.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Example
F1 (Pg1 ) = 0.004Pg21 + 5.3Pg1 + 500

F2 (Pg2 ) = 0.006Pg22 + 5.5Pg2 + 400
F3 (Pg3 ) = 0.009Pg23 + 5.8Pg3 + 200
where Pg1 , Pg2 , and Pg3 are in MW. Find the optimal dispatch and the total cost in Rs/h when the total load, PD , is 950
MW with the following generator limits (in MW).
200 ≤ Pg1 ≤ 450

150 ≤ Pg2 ≤ 350
100 ≤ Pg3 ≤ 225

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

X
ng ng
X h iT
2
P̄g i
i=1 i=1
X
ng
subject to : Pg i = PD + P L
i=1
min max
Pg ≤ Pg i ≤ P g i = 1, 2, . . . , ng
i i
X
ng X
ng
where, PL = Pgi Bij Pgj (George’s Loss Formula)
i=1 j=1
X
ng X
ng X
ng
or, PL = Pgi Bij Pgj + B0i Pgi + B00 (Kron’s Loss Formula)
i=1 j=1 j=1
B00 , B0i , Bij are the loss coefficients or B-coefficients.

Proof of Loss formula: Refer Power System Analysis by Hadi Saadat.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

!
ng
P P
ng
Lagrangian function: L(P̄g , λ) = ai Pg2 + bi Pgi + ci +λ PD + P L − P gi
i
i=1 j=1
From the condition of optimality:

∂L
= 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , ng (1)
∂Pgi
∂L
= 0 (2)
∂λ
From (1), we get
∂PL
2ai Pgi + bi + λ − λ = 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , ng (3)
∂Pgi
∂PL X
ng
where, = 2Bij Pgj + B0i (obtained from Kron’s loss formula )
∂Pgi j=1
Rearranging
X
ng
ai 1 B0i bi
+ Bii Pg i + Bij Pgj = − − , i = 1, 2, . . . , ng (4)
λ j=1,j̸=i
2 2 2λ

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Writing (4) in matrix form
 
 a1   Pg  1 − B01 −
b1
+ B11 B12 ··· B1ng 1  λ

   
λ

 a2  P 


 1 − B02 −
b2 

 B21 + B22 ··· B2ng  g 2
  λ 
 λ    
  1
=  
  .  (5)
2 
 . . .. .  . .
 . . .  .   . 
 . . . .    . 
    
 Pg   
ang  bng 
Bng1 Bng2 ··· λ + Bngng ng 1 − B0ng − λ
Also, from (3)
P
ng
λ (1 − B0i ) − bi − 2λ Bij Pgj
j=1,j̸=i
P gi = , i = 1, 2, . . . , ng (6)
2 (λBii + ai )

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Lambda Iteration Technique
Initialize lambda ignoring loss:

P
ng b
i
PD +
2ai
i=1
λk = , (k = 0)
P
ng 1
i=1 2ai
Find generation using present lambda:

 
 a1   Pg  1 − B01 −
b1
+ B11 B12 ··· B1ng 1  λ

   
λ

   
 1 − B02 −
b2 
 P  
a2
 B21 + B22 ··· B2ng g2
   
λ
 λ
   1  
  . =  
 . . .. .  .  2
. 
 . . .  .   . 
 . . . . 




. 

    
ang Pgng  bng 
Bng1 Bng2 ··· λ + Bngng 1 − B0ng − λ

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation

Lambda Iteration Technique
Check generator limits 

Pgmin , if Pgi < Pg
min
i i
Pg i =
P max , if Pgi >
max
Pg
gi i
P
ng
Update loss (PL ) using loss formula. Find mismatch: ∆P = PD + PL − P gi .
i=1
Form the set of participating generators I.

Update lambda as
λk+1 = λk + ∆λk
 
P
ng
ng  ai (1 − B0i ) + Bii bi − 2ai Bij Pgj 
∆P ∂f X  j=1,j̸=i 
where, ∆λk = , =  
∂f ∂λ λ  2 (λk Bii + ai )2 
∂λ k i=1
λk
Repeat from step 2 until the mismatch |∆P | ≤ ϵ.

Load Flow Analysis
Problem Formulation
Economic Dispatch Including Losses: Example
The fuel-cost functions for two thermal plants in Rs/h are given by
F1 (Pg1 ) = 0.0040Pg21 + 8.0Pg1 + 200

F2 (Pg2 ) = 0.0048Pg22 + 6.4Pg2 + 300
where Pg1 and Pg2 are in MW. Total loss of the network can be found from B-coefficients

8.3831 −0.0494 0.3750
Bij = × 10−3 , B0i = × 10−3 , B00 = 0.0901 × 10−3
−0.0494 5.9635 0.1949
if generations are expressed in per-unit (100 MVA base). The total load, PD , is 500 MW. Ignoring generator limits, find the
optimal dispatch and the total cost in Rs/h.

Load Flow Analysis
Automatic Load Frequency Control
Scheduling and Dispatch Procedure
Availability Based Tariff (ABT)
Module 5
Automatic Control of Generation :

Automatic Load Frequency Control, Grid Management in India, Availability Based Tariff

Load Flow Analysis
Previous module (economic dispatch of generation) dealt with the optimal scheduling of generation for forecasted steady load.
However, both active and reactive power demands are never steady and continuously change over time.
Mismatch between demand and mechanical input is always compensated through change in electrical power output of a generator at
the expense of machine’s kinetic energy, resulting fluctuation of frequency.
Steam input to turbo-generator (or water input to hydro-generator) must, therefore, be continuously regulated to match the active
power demand.
To automatically control speed of synchronous generator (and therefore frequency), a device must sense either speed or frequency in
such a way that comparison with a desired value can be used to create an error signal to take corrective action.
A fly ball speed sensor with ideal linkage to a hydraulic amplifier and piston for turbine valve opening control is such a device that
regulates mechanical input of the machine sensing frequency of the system.

Load Flow Analysis
Speed Governing System

Load Flow Analysis
Components of Speed Governing System

Linkage Mechanism
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link

pivoted at D
the link mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in

proportion to change in speed
l1 : length of AB
l2 : length of BC
l3 : length of CD
l4 : length of DE
Fly ball speed governor
senses change in speed (frequency)
as speed increases, fly balls move outwards and the point B on

linkage mechanism move downwards
reverse happens when the speed decreases

Load Flow Analysis
Hydraulic Amplifier
comprises of pilot valve and main piston arrangement
power level pilot valve movement is converted into high power

level piston valve movement
this is necessary in order to open or close the steam valve

against high pressure steam
Speed Changer
provides steady state power output setting for the turbine
downward movement opens the upper pilot valve → more

steam admitted to turbine → more steady state power
output
reverse happens for upward movement

Load Flow Analysis
The position of the pilot valve can be affected via linkage system in
three ways:
1 Directly, by the speed changer : A small downward movement of

the linkage point A corresponds to an increase ∆PC in the
reference power settings.
2 Indirectly, via feedback, due to position changes of the main

piston.
3 Indirectly, via feedback, due to position changes of linkage point

B resulting from speed changes.

Load Flow Analysis
Operation of Speed Governing System

0
For a fixed speed changer setting PC , suppose that a load is removed from a
generator causing excess mechanical input to it.
This excess power will cause an increase in generator speed and hence in
frequency.
This will increase the velocity of fly ball and hence lower point B.
Lowering point B results in a lower of point C since they are connected by

rigid link.
Lowering point C must either lower D (if E does not change) or raise E (if D
does not change).
If point D is lowered, high pressure fluid will enter the hydraulic amplifier
through the lower channel and exert a force on the main piston to move
up point E.
Thus, in any case, lowering C results in a raising of E and corresponding

decrease in steam input to the turbine.
Decrease in steam input will eventually stop the increase in speed that
initiated the movement of point B.
Load Flow Analysis
Model of Speed Governing System
Assume that the system is initially operating under steady state

conditions
linkage mechanism stationary and pilot valve closed
steam valve opened by a definite magnitude
turbine running at constant speed with turbine output

balancing the generator load
Let the operating conditions be characterized by
f0 : system frequency (speed)

0
PG : generator output (= turbine output,
neglecting generator loss)
0
yE : steam valve setting

Load Flow Analysis

Suppose the point A is moved downwards by a small amount ∆yA
through speed changer to implement ∆PC increase in turbine output
power.
∆yA = kC ∆PC

Load Flow Analysis

power.
∆yA = kC ∆PC
This will cause an upward movement of point C.

l2
∆yC = − ∆yA = −k1 ∆yA = −k1 kC ∆PC
l1

Load Flow Analysis

power.
∆yA = kC ∆PC

l2
∆yC = − ∆yA = −k1 ∆yA = −k1 kC ∆PC
l1
Change in frequency also causes the point C to move. Suppose, increase

in frequency ∆f causes the fly balls to move outwards so that B moves
downwards by a proportional amount k2′ ∆f .

Load Flow Analysis

power.
∆yA = kC ∆PC

l2
∆yC = − ∆yA = −k1 ∆yA = −k1 kC ∆PC
l1

0
The consequent
movement of C with A remaining fixed at yA is
l1 + l2 ′
k2 ∆f = +k2 ∆f .
l1

Load Flow Analysis

power.
∆yA = kC ∆PC

l2
∆yC = − ∆yA = −k1 ∆yA = −k1 kC ∆PC
l1

0
The consequent
movement of C with A remaining fixed at yA is
l1 + l2 ′
k2 ∆f = +k2 ∆f .
l1
The net movement of C is, therefore

∆yC (t) = −k1 kC ∆PC (t) + k2 ∆f (t)

Load Flow Analysis
The movement of D, ∆yD , is the amount by which the pilot valve

opens. It is contributed by ∆yC and ∆yE .

l4 l3
∆yD = ∆yC + ∆yE
l3 + l4 l3 + l4
= k3 ∆yC + k4 ∆yE

Load Flow Analysis
The movement of D, ∆yD , is the amount by which the pilot valve

opens. It is contributed by ∆yC and ∆yE .

l4 l3
∆yD = ∆yC + ∆yE
l3 + l4 l3 + l4
= k3 ∆yC + k4 ∆yE
∆yD (t) = k3 ∆yC (t) + k4 ∆yE (t)
The movement ∆yD depending upon its sign opens one of the
channels of the pilot valve admitting high pressure oil into the cylinder
thereby moving the main piston and opening the steam valve.

Load Flow Analysis
Assumptions
1 Inertial reaction forces of main piston and steam valve are negligible
compared to the forces exerted on the piston by high pressure oil.
2 Because of (1) above, the rate of oil admitted to the cylinder is

proportional to pilot valve opening ∆yD .
The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder is, thus, proportional to the
time integral of ∆yD .
The movement ∆yE is obtained by dividing the oil volume by the area
of the cross-section of the piston.
Z
∆yE (t) = k5 (−∆yD (t))dt

Load Flow Analysis

Taking Laplace transform, we get
k1 kC
R = (speed regulation of the governor)
k2
∆YC (s) = −k1 kC ∆PC (s) + k2 ∆F (s)
k1 k3 k C
Ksg = (gain of the speed governor)
∆YD (s) = k3 ∆YC (s) + k4 ∆YE (s) k4
1
1 Tsg = (time constant of the speed governor)
∆YE (s) = −k5 ∆YD (s) k4 k5
s
Eliminating ∆YC (s) and ∆YD (s), we can write
k1 k3 kC ∆PC (s) − k2 k3 ∆F (s)

∆YE (s) =
s
k4 +
k5

1 Ksg
= ∆PC (s) − ∆F (s) ×
R 1 + Tsg s

Load Flow Analysis

Taking Laplace transform, we get
k1 kC
R = (speed regulation of the governor)
k2
∆YC (s) = −k1 kC ∆PC (s) + k2 ∆F (s)
k1 k3 k C
Ksg = (gain of the speed governor)
∆YD (s) = k3 ∆YC (s) + k4 ∆YE (s) k4
1
1 Tsg = (time constant of the speed governor)
∆YE (s) = −k5 ∆YD (s) k4 k5
s
+
Eliminating ∆YC (s) and ∆YD (s), we can write Ksg
ΔPC (s) ΔYE (s)
1 + Tsg s
−
Change in speed Change in turbine
k1 k3 kC ∆PC (s) − k2 k3 ∆F (s) changer setting Speed Governor valve position
∆YE (s) = Transfer Function
s 1
k4 + R
k5 Speed Regulation Change in
frequency

1 Ksg
= ∆PC (s) − ∆F (s) × ΔF (s)
R 1 + Tsg s
Block diagram representation

Load Flow Analysis
Turbine Model
Output power of turbine changes due to change in valve opening ∆YE
Transfer function of a two stage steam turbine can be written as

∆Pt (s) Kt
=
∆YE (s) 1 + Tt s
Kt : gain of the turbine, Tt : turbine time constant (typically between 0.2 to 2.5 s)
HP LP
Stage Stage
Kt
Steam Valve ΔYE (s) ΔPt (s)
1 + Tt s
Change in turbine Change in
valve position Turbine turbine output
Reheater Transfer Function
Figure: Turbine transfer function model

Figure: Two-stage steam turbine

Load Flow Analysis
Generator Load Model

Assume that
0 0
The system is originally running in its nominal state with complete power balance, i.e. PG = PD + losses . The frequency is at
normal value f 0 . All rotating equipment represents a total kinetic energy of Wke = Wke0
.
By connecting additional load to the system the load demand increases by ∆PD . The generator will immediately increases its output
∆PG to match the new load, i.e., ∆PG = ∆PD .
There will be now an imbalance between input and output power, ∆Pt − ∆PD . This mismatch will be accounted for in two ways.
1 Kinetic energy of the generator rotor will decrease resulting change in speed or frequency.
As the kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed, new kinetic energy of the rotor will be
!2
0 f 0 + ∆f 0 2∆f
Wke = Wke ≈ Wke 1 +
f0 f0
2 Most of the practical power system loads are frequency dependent in nature. Thus, if the frequency changes, load will also vary to
some extend.
∂PD
Let the frequency dependency of load be expressed as: D = , i.e., ∆PD = D∆f .
∂f

Load Flow Analysis
Generator Load Model

Taking Laplace transform, we can write
Combining both, power balance equation can be written as
d 2H
∆Pt − ∆PD = (Wke ) + D∆f ∆Pt (s) − ∆PD (s) = s∆F (s) + D∆F (s)
dt f0
0
2Wke d Kps
= (∆f ) + D∆f or, ∆F (s) = [∆Pt (s) − ∆PD (s)] ×
f 0 dt 1 + sTps
1
Dividing by the generator rating Pr , we get Kps = (power system gain, Hz/pu MW)
D
0
2Wke d D 2H
∆Pt(pu) − ∆PD(pu) = (∆f ) + ∆f Tps = (time constant of power system)
0
f Pr dt Pr Df 0
2H d ΔPD (s)
= (∆f ) + D(pu) ∆f
f 0 dt Change in load
−
+ Kps
ΔPt (s) ΔF (s)
H: inertia constant (unit: MW.s/MW or s) 1 + Tps s

Unit of the above equation is often written as in ‘pu MW’ output frequency
Power System
Transfer Function

Load Flow Analysis
Complete Block Diagram Representation of ALFC
Change in load
ΔPD (s)
Change in speed valve position turbine output
changer setting
ΔYE (s) −
+ ΔPt (s)
Ksg Kt + Kps
ΔPC (s) ΔF (s)
1 + Tsg s 1 + Tt s 1 + Tps s
−
Change in
Speed Governor Turbine frequency
Power System
Transfer Function Transfer Function
Transfer Function
Speed Regulation
PRIMARY ALFC LOOP

Load Flow Analysis
Concept of Control Area
The theory discussed so far assumes a single generator feeding power to an isolated load which is a rare situation.
For a practical system with number of generating stations and load, it is possible to divide an extended power system (say, national
grid) into subareas (e.g. State Electricity Boards) in which all generator in a region are tightly coupled together so as to form a
coherent group, i.e. all the generators respond in unison to change in load or speed changer settings.
Such a coherent area is called a control area in which the frequency is assumed to be same throughout in static as well as dynamic
conditions.
For purposes of developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can be modeled as an equivalent single generator load system.

Load Flow Analysis
Concept of Control Area: Example

Example 1: Determine the primary ALFC loop parameters for a control area having the following data
Total rated capacity Pr = 2000 MW

0
Nominal operating load PD = 1000 MW
Inertia constant H = 5s
Regulation R = 2.40 Hz/pu MW (all area generators)
Assume that the load-frequency dependency is linear, meaning the the load would increase one percent for one percent frequency increase.

Load Flow Analysis
Concept of Control Area: Example

Example 1: Determine the primary ALFC loop parameters for a control area having the following data
Total rated capacity Pr = 2000 MW

0
Nominal operating load PD = 1000 MW
Inertia constant H = 5s
Regulation R = 2.40 Hz/pu MW (all area generators)
Assume that the load-frequency dependency is linear, meaning the the load would increase one percent for one percent frequency increase.
∂PD 10 20
D= = = 20 MW/Hz = = 0.01 pu MW/Hz.
∂f 0.50 2000
2×5
Tps = = 20s
50 × 0.01
1
Kps = = 100 Hz/pu MW
0.01

Load Flow Analysis
Static Performance of Speed Governor

Remarks
The generator power increment ∆PG depends entirely upon the changes ∆PD in the load being fed from the generator. Generator
always adjusts its output to meet the change in demand ∆PD . These adjustments are essentially instantaneous, certainly in
comparison with the slow changes in PT , and therefore, ∆PG = ∆PD .
An increase in ∆Pt results from an increase in ∆PC and a decrease in ∆f . Therefore, for small increments
1
∆Pt = ∆PC − ∆f
R

Load Flow Analysis

Remarks
1
∆Pt = ∆PC − ∆f
R
Example 2: Consider a 100 MW generator with a regulation parameter R of four percent (i.e. 0.04 pu). By how much will the turbine power
increase if the frequency drops by 0.1 Hz with the reference unchanged?

Load Flow Analysis

Remarks
1
∆Pt = ∆PC − ∆f
R
Example 2: Consider a 100 MW generator with a regulation parameter R of four percent (i.e. 0.04 pu). By how much will the turbine power
increase if the frequency drops by 0.1 Hz with the reference unchanged?
A 0.04 pu regulation parameter means that the turbine power will increase 1 pu, or 100 MW for a 0.04 pu, or 2 Hz drop in frequency

∆f
in general, R = − .
∆Pt
Therefore, for a frequency change of 0.1 Hz, i.e. 0.002 pu, turbine power will thus experience a static change of
1
∆Pt = − (−0.002) = 0.05 pu = 5 MW
0.04

Load Flow Analysis
Steady State Response of Primary ALFC Loop
Suppose speed changer has a fixed settings (∆PC = 0) and load demand changes. This is known as free governing operation.
For such an operation, the steady state change in system frequency for a sudden change in load demand by an amount ∆PD , i.e.
∆P
∆PD (s) = sD is obtained as follows:
− Kps
ΔPD (s) ΔF (s)
1 + Tps s
+
Kt Ksg 1
−
1 + Tt s 1 + Tsg s R

Load Flow Analysis

− Kps
ΔPD (s) ΔF (s)
1 + Tps s
+
Kt Ksg 1
−
1 + Tt s 1 + Tsg s R

Kps ∆PD
∆F (s)|∆P = − ×
C (s)=0 Ksg Kt Kps /R s
(1 + sTps ) + (1+sTsg )(1+sTt )

Kps
∆f (t)|t→∞ = lim s ∆F (s)|∆P = ∆PD
s→0 C (s)=0 1 + (Ksg Kt Kps /R)
While Kt and Kps are fixed, Ksg can be easily adjusted by changing the length of various links of a speed governor system. Thus,
assuming Ksg is so adjusted that Ksg Kt ≈ 1 and replacing Kps = (1/D), we get

1
∆f (t)|t→∞ = − ∆PD
D + (1/R)
Load Flow Analysis

∆PC
Consider now the steady state effect of changing speed changer settings ∆Pc (s) = s with load demand remaining fixed (i.e.
∆PD = 0)
+
Ksg Kt Kps
ΔPC (s) ΔF (s)
1 + Tsg s 1 + Tt s 1 + Tps s
−

Ksg Kt Kps ∆PC
∆F (s)|∆P = ×
D (s)=0 (1 + sTsg )(1 + sTt )(1 + sTps ) + Ksg Kt Kps /R s

Ksg Kt Kps
∆f (t)|t→∞ = lim s ∆F (s)|∆P (s)=0 = ∆PC
s→0 D 1 + (Ksg Kt Kps /R)

1
= ∆PC , taking Ksg Kt ≈ 1
D + (1/R)
Load Flow Analysis

Change in load
ΔPD (s)
Change in speed valve position turbine output
changer setting
ΔYE (s) −
+ ΔPt (s)
Ksg Kt + Kps
ΔPC (s) ΔF (s)
1 + Tsg s 1 + Tt s 1 + Tps s
−
Change in
Speed Governor Turbine frequency
Power System
Transfer Function Transfer Function
Transfer Function
Speed Regulation
If the speed changer setting is changed by ∆PC while the load changes by ∆PD , the steady state frequency change can be obtained by
PRIMARY ALFC LOOP
superposition, as

1
∆f (t)|t→∞ = (∆PC − ∆PD )
D + (1/R)
Load Flow Analysis
Dynamic Response of Primary ALFC Loop

First Order Approximation
Typical values of the times constants of load frequency control system are related as
Tsg < Tt ≪ Tps
Letting Tsg = Tt = 0 and Ksg Kt ≈ 1, ALFC block diagram can be reduced to:
ΔPD (s)
−
+ ΔPt (s)
+ Kps
ΔPC (s) 1 ΔF (s)
1 + Tps s
−

Load Flow Analysis

First Order Approximation
ΔPD (s)
−
+ ΔPt (s)
+ Kps
ΔPC (s) 1 ΔF (s)
1 + Tps s
−

Kps ∆PD Kps /Tps
∆F (s)|∆P = − × =− × ∆PD
C (s)=0 (1 + Kps /R) + sTps s R+Kps
s s + RTps
(
R+Kps
)
RKps − t
∆f (t) = − 1−e Tps R
∆PD
R + Kps

Load Flow Analysis
Primary ALFC Loop: Example

Example 3: Find the static frequency drop and trajectory of ∆f for a 100 MW system with following specification for one percent increase
in load. Given: R = 3 Hz/pu MW, D = 0.01 pu MW/Hz, Tps = 20 s, Ksg Kt = 1, Tsg = 0.4 s, Tt = 0.5 s.
-0.005
First order approximation
-0.01
-0.015
Exact response
-0.02
f (Hz)
-0.025
-0.03
-0.035
-0.04
-0.045
-0.05
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)

−1.7167t
∆PD = 0.01 pu, ∆f (t) = −0.029 1 − e Hz
Load Flow Analysis
Primary ALFC Loop: State Space Model

X3 (s) Ksg X2 (s) Kt X1 (s) Kps
= = =
X1 (s) X3 (s) 1 + sTt
1 + sTsg X2 (s) − ΔPD (s) 1 + sTps
ΔPC (s) −
R
ΔPD (s)
ΔYE (s) −
+ ΔPt (s) x1
Ksg Kt + Kps
ΔPC (s) ΔF (s)
1 + Tsg s 1 + Tt s 1 + Tps s
− x3 x2
Speed Governor Turbine Power System

Transfer Function Transfer Function Transfer Function
Speed Regulation
  Kps  
  − T1ps
Kps
0 
0 − Tps
ẋ1 (t) x1 (t)

Tps
   
       ∆PC (t)
   x2 (t)  0 0 
ẋ2 (t) =  
Kt
 0 − T1   
+ 
  
t Tt
    ∆P (t)
 Ksg  D
ẋ3 (t) Ksg
− RTsg 0 − T1sg x3 (t) Tsg 0

Load Flow Analysis

First order approximation Exact Response
0
f (Hz)
-0.02
-0.04
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
0.02
Y e (pu)
0.01
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
0.02
P t (pu)
0.01
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
Load Flow Analysis
Primary ALFC Loop: Example

Example 4: What would the frequency drop in the previous example have been if the speed governor loop were nonexistent or open?
-0.1
-0.2 with Primary ALFC Loop
-0.3
-0.4
f (Hz)
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
without ALFC
-0.8
-0.9
-1
0 50 100 150
Time (s)
This can be realized taking R → ∞

Load Flow Analysis
Secondary ALFC Loop: PI Control
ΔPD (s) Change in load

Change in speed Change in turbine Change in Change in
changer setting valve position turbine output frequency
−
Ki ΔPC (s) Ksg ΔYE (s) ΔPt (s) Kps ΔF (s)
Kt +
−
s + 1 + sTsg 1 + sTt 1 + sTps
−
Integral Speed Governor Turbine Power System

Controller 1 Transfer Function Transfer Function Transfer Function
R
Speed Regulation
PRIMARY ALFC LOOP
SECONDARY ALFC LOOP

Load Flow Analysis

From the previous analysis, it may be concluded that the steady state frequency change caused by change in load can be compensated
only by changing setting of the speed changer.
( )
1
∆f |steady state = 1
(∆PC − ∆PD )
D+ R
therefore, ∆f |steady state = 0, if ∆PC = ∆PD
Since load change is an external stochastic event, steady state frequency error can not be nullified using above condition. It leads to
the natural suggestion that the speed changer setting be adjusted automatically by monitoring frequency changes.
This can be achieved by feeding ∆f (t) through an integrator to the speed changer to make zero steady state error.
Z
∆PC (t) = −Ki ∆f (t)dt
Negative polarity must be chosen for the integrator to cause a positive frequency error to give rise to a negative or decrease
command.
The signal (∆f ) fed to into the integrator is referred to as Area Control Error (ACE).
As long as an error remains, the integrator output will increase, causing speed changer to move. The integrator output, and thus
the speed-changer position, attains a constant value only when the frequency error has been reduced to zero.

Load Flow Analysis

ΔPD (s) Change in load
Change in speed Change in turbine Change in Change in
changer setting valve position turbine output frequency
−
Kt +
−
−

R
Speed Regulation
PRIMARY ALFC LOOP
SECONDARY ALFC LOOP
Kps ∆PD
∆F (s) = − Kps Ksg Kt
×
Ki s
(1 + sTps ) + 1
R + s × (1+sTsg )(1+sTt )
Hence,
Power ∆f (t)|t→∞
System Operation = lim
and Control s∆F
©Ananyo (s) =
Sengupta 0 222 / 256
Load Flow Analysis
ALFC with Integrator: State Space Model

X4 (s) Ki X3 (s) Ksg X2 (s) Kt X1 (s) Kps
= − = = =
X1 (s)
1 + sTsg ΔPD (s)
X1 (s) s X3 (s) 1 + sTt X2 (s) − ΔPD (s) 1 + sTps
X4 (s) −
R
−
Kt +
−
x4 x3 x1
− x2

R
Speed Regulation
  
ps K    Kps 
ẋ1 (t) − 1 0 0 x1 (t) − Tps
   Tps Tps    
      
ẋ2 (t)  0  x2 (t)  0 
K
 0 − T1 t
  Tt    
= 
t
  K   +   ∆PD (t)
ẋ (t) − sg Ksg  x (t)  
 3   RTsg 0 − T1sg    0 
Tsg  
3
      
ẋ4 (t) −Ki 0 0 0 x4 (t) 0

Load Flow Analysis
Dynamic Response of ALFC with Integrator

0.01
-0.01
With integral control Without integral control

f (Hz)
-0.02
-0.03
-0.04
-0.05
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Dynamic Response of Load Frequency Controller with Integral Control Action (Ki = 0.1)

Load Flow Analysis
Dynamic Response of ALFC with Integrator

0.04
Ki = 0.2
0.03
0.02 Ki = 0.1
0.01
f (Hz)
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
Ki = 0.05 Ki = 0.01
-0.04
-0.05
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (s)
Dynamic Response of Load Frequency Controller with Integral Control Action with different Ki settings

Load Flow Analysis
ALFC of Multi-Control-Area Systems

A practical power system can be divided into a number of load frequency control areas interconnected by means of tie lines, and the
problem of load-frequency control becomes a joint undertaking. For any interconnected areas, or power pool, following operating
principles are maintained.
1 Under normal operating conditions each pool member or control area should strive to carry its own load, except such scheduled
portions of the others members’ load as have been mutually agreed upon.
2 Each control area must agree upon adopting regulating and control strategies and equipment that are mutually beneficial under
both normal and abnormal situations.
Without loss of generality, we shall consider a two-area case connected by a single tie line.
1 2
Tie Line
Control Area 1 Control Area 2
n1 bus subnetwork n2 bus subnetwork
Total no. of buses n = n1 + n2

Load Flow Analysis
ALFC of Multi-Control-Area Systems
Assume that two control areas are interconnected via a relatively weak tie-line. These areas are generally of different size and
characteristics.
In the single-area case we have represented frequency deviation by a single variable ∆f . In the present case it is assumed that each
area is individually strong. Having interconnected them with a weak tie-line therefore lead us to the assumption that the frequency
deviations in the two areas can be represented by two variables ∆f1 and ∆f2 respectively.
Any change in demand from the forecasted one will cause change in power flow through out the entire network. However, more
energy will be shared by the larger area as it possesses more kinetic energy.
This may cause a static error in tie-line power flow, referred to as inadvertent exchanges, indicating one area would have to support the
other on a steady-state basis.
A basic guiding principle in pool operation is that each area, in normal steady state, must supplies its own load.
Objective of two-area load frequency control is thus to regulate the frequency of each area and to simultaneously regulate the line power as
per inter-area power contracts.

Load Flow Analysis
Modelling of Tie-Line
In normal operation, power flow through the tie-line, from Area 1 to Area 2, can be written as
V 0V 0
0 0 0
Ptie,12 ≈ 1 2 sin δ1 − δ2
X12
where, V10 ∠δ10 , V20 ∠δ20 are the nominal voltages of bus 1 and 2 respectively.
For small deviation in the angles δ1 and δ2 , the tie-line power will change to
V 0V 0
0 0
Ptie,12 = 1 2 sin δ1 + ∆δ1 − δ2 − ∆δ2
X12
V10 V20 V 0V 0
0 0 0 0
≈ sin δ1 − δ2 + 1 2 cos δ1 − δ2 (∆δ1 − ∆δ2 )
X12 X12
0
= Ptie,12 + ∆Ptie,12
where, ∆Ptie,12 = T12 (∆δ1 − ∆δ2 )
V10 V20
0 0
T12 = cos δ1 − δ2 (synchronizing coefficient)
X12

Load Flow Analysis
Modelling of Tie-Line
d∆δ R
Now, = ∆ω = 2π∆f . Hence, change in angle can be written as ∆δ = 2π ∆f dt.
dt
By expressing tie-line power deviations in terms of incremental change in frequency ∆f rather than ∆δ, we thus get
Z Z
∆Ptie,12 = 2πT12 ∆f1 dt − ∆f2 dt
2πT12
∆Ptie,12 (s) = (∆F1 (s) − ∆F2 (s))
s
2πT21
Similarly, ∆Ptie,21 (s) = (∆F2 (s) − ∆F1 (s))
s
2πT12
ΔPtie,12 (s) −1 ΔPtie,21 (s)
s
+ −
ΔF1 (s) ΔF2 (s)

Load Flow Analysis
Two Area Load Frequency Control

Now, the incremental power balance equation for Area 1 can be written as
2H1 d
∆Pt1 − ∆PD1 = (∆f1 ) + D1 ∆f1 + ∆Ptie,12
f10 dt
Taking Laplace transform and reorganizing, we get

Kps1
∆F1 (s) = ∆Pt1 (s) − ∆PD1 (s) − ∆Ptie,12 (s) ×
1 + sTps1
Similarly, for Area 2

Kps2
∆F2 (s) = ∆Pt2 (s) − ∆PD2 (s) − ∆Ptie,21 (s) ×
1 + sTps2
ΔPD1 (s) ΔPD2 (s)
− −
+ Kps + Kps
1 2
ΔPt1 (s) ΔF1 (s) ΔPt2 (s) ΔF2 (s)

1 + sTps 1 + sTps
1 2
− −
ΔPtie,12 (s) ΔPtie,21 (s)

Load Flow Analysis
In case of an isolated control area, ACE is the change in area frequency which when used in integral control loop forced the steady
state frequency error to zero.
In order that the steady state tie-line power error in a two-area control be made zero, another integral control loop (one for each area)
must be introduced to integrate the incremental tie-line power signal and feed it back to the speed changer.
This is accomplished by a single integrating block by redefining ACE as a linear combination of incremental frequency and tie-line
power.
Thus, for Control Area 1,

ACE1 (s) = ∆Ptie,12 (s) + b1 ∆F1 (s)
where the constant b1 is called area frequency bias.
Similarly, for Area 2,

ACE2 (s) = ∆Ptie,21 (s) + b2 ∆F2 (s)

1 ΔPD1 (s)
b1
R1
Control Area 1
− −
ACE1 ΔPC1 (s) Ksg Kps
Ki1 1
Kt + 1
1
∑
− ΔF1 (s)
s 1 + sTsg 1 + sTt 1 + sTps
+ 1 1 ΔPt1 (s) 1
ΔPtie,12 (s)
+
2πT12
s
−
−1
ΔPtie,21 (s)
Control Area 2
−
ACE2 ΔPC2 (s) Ksg Kps
Ki2 2
Kt + 2
2
∑ −
2
−
2 2
ΔPt2 (s) ΔF2 (s)
−
1
b2
R2
ΔPD2 (s)
Load Flow Analysis
Transmission and Grid Management
Transmission and Grid Management are essential functions for smooth evacuation of power from generating stations to the
consumers.
Transmission Management
primarily consists of construction and maintenance of the transmission infrastructure.

responsibility of operator is to give the operating instructions to the engineers in the field and ensure moment-to-moment power
balance in the system.
Grid Management
involves taking care of the overall reliability, security, economy and efficiency of the power system.

Load Flow Analysis
Grid Structure
The power grid of India is geographically divided in the five regions:
Northern, Eastern, Western, North-Eastern, Southern.
The first four out of five regional grids are operating in synchronous
mode.
implies that power across these regions can flow seamlessly as per
the relative load generation balance.
called NEW Grid.
The southern region is interconnected with the rest of India grid

through asynchronous links.
implies that quantum and direction of power flow between

southern grid and NEW grid can be manually controlled.

Characteristics of India’s Power Grid
1 Northern Region
Deficit region
Snow fed run of the river hydro
Highly weather sensitive load;
Adverse weather conditions: fog and dust storm
2 North-Eastern Region
Very low load
High hydro potential
Evacuation problem
3 Eastern Region
Low load
High coal reserves; Pit head based power plants
4 Western Region
Industrial load
5 Southern Region
High load
ÿ 123ÿ456ÿ Monsoon dependent hydro
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Load Flow Analysis
Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC)
Defines the rules, guidelines and standards to be followed to plan, develop, maintain and operate the power system in the most
secure, economic and efficient manner, while facilitating healthy competition in the generation and supply of electricity.
Provides the following:
Documentation of the principles and procedures which defines the relationship between the various users of the Inter-State
Transmission System (ISTS), National, Regional and State Load Dispatch Centres.
Facilitation of the optimal operation, coordination, maintenance planning of the grid and facilitation of development and
planning of economic and reliable National/Rational Grid.
Facilitation for development of power markets by defining a common basis of operation of ISTS, applicable to all the users of the
ISTS.
Facilitation of the development of renewable energy sources by specifying the technical and commercial aspects for integration of
these resources into the grid.

Load Flow Analysis
Role of Various Organizations and Their Linkages
National Load Dispatch Center @ New Delhi

ihleD weN @
erolagnaB @
atakloK @
RLDC
gnollihS @
iabmuM @
NRLDC ERLDC WRLDC NERLDC SRLDC
SLDC SLDC SLDC
GenCo (Generation Company)

TransCo (Transmission Company)
DisCo (Ditribution Company)
Figure: Grid Hierarchy

Load Flow Analysis
State Load Dispatch Centre (SLDC)
In line with the federal structure of governance in the country, every state has a State Load Dispatch Centre (SLDC), which is the apex
body to ensure integrated operation of the power in the state.
The SLDC shall
1 be responsible for optimum scheduling and dispatch of electricity within a state.

2 monitor grid operations.
3 keep accounts of the quantity of electricity transmitted through the state grid.
4 exercise supervision and control over the intra-state transmission system.
5 be responsible for carrying out real-time operations for grid control and dispatch of electricity within the state through secure
and economic operation of the state grid in accordance with the grid standards and state grid code.

Load Flow Analysis
Regional Load Dispatch Centre (RLDC)
Each of the five regions has a Regional Load Dispatch Centre (RLDC), which is the apex body, as per the Electricity Act 2003, to ensure
integrated operation of the power system in the concerned region.
The RLDC shall
1 be responsible for optimum scheduling and dispatch of electricity within the region, in accordance with the contracts entered
into with the licensees or generating companies operating in the region.
2 monitor grid operations.
3 keep accounts of the quantity of electricity transmitted through the regional grid.
4 exercise supervision and control over the inter-state transmission system.
5 be responsible for carrying out real-time operations for grid control and dispatch of electricity within the region through secure
and economic operation of the state grid in accordance with the grid standards and state grid code.

Load Flow Analysis
The RLDC may give such directions and exercise such supervision and control as may be required for ensuring stability of grid
operations and for achieving the maximum economy and efficiency in the operation of the power system in the region under its
control.
Every licensee, generating company, generating station, substation and any other person connected with the operation of the power
system shall comply with the direction issued by the RLDC.
All directions ordered by the RLDCs shall be issued through the SLDC and the SLDC shall ensure that such directions are duly complied
with by the licensees or generating company or sub-station.

Load Flow Analysis
The followings are the contemplated as exclusive functions of RLDCs:
1 System operation and control including inter-state / inter-regional transfer of power, covering contingency analysis and
operational planning on real-time basis.
2 Scheduling / re-scheduling of generation.
3 System restoration following grid disturbances.
4 Metering and data collection.
5 Compiling and furnishing data pertaining to system operation.
6 Operation of regional UI pool account, regional reactive energy account and congestion charge account.
7 Operation of ancillary services.

Load Flow Analysis
National Load Dispatch Centre (NLDC)
Role of NLDC
1 Supervision over the Regional Load Dispatch Centers.

2 Scheduling and dispatch of electricity over inter-regional links.
3 Coordination with RLDCs for achieving maximum economy and efficiency in the operation of National Grid.
4 Monitoring the operations and grid security.
5 Supervision and control over the inter-regional links as shall be required for ensuring stability of the system.
6 Coordination with Regional Power Committees for regional outage schedule.
7 Coordination for restoration of synchronous operation of national grid with RLDCs.

Load Flow Analysis
1.0 Introduction
By definition, electrical demand is the rate at which electrical power is being consumed over
a given time interval by all the defined loads of a well-defined area. For all the practical
1.1. Load Curve

A plot showing the variation in demand met with respect to time is known as the load curve. Each day is divided into 96 blocks of 15 minutes duration each.
If this curve is plotted over a period of time for 24 hours, it is known as daily load curve
(Figure 1). If it is plotted for a week, month or a year it is named as weekly, monthly and
yearly load curve respectively. The load curve reflects the activity of a population of society
Typical All India For each block, each SLDC of a region intimates the drawal
with respect to electrical power consumption over aLoad Curve
given period of time.
schedule.
Evening Peak Each Inter State Generating Station and other generating

stations intimates the generation injection schedule.
Morning Peak
Inter State Generating Station (ISGS)

GW->
A central generating station or other generating station in

Day Lean
which two or more state have shares.
Night Lean e.g., Talcher STPS in Odisha, owned by NTPC, supplies power to
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telengana, Bihar and West
Bengal.
Figure 1: Typical All India Load Curve
Ref.:“Electricity Demand Pattern Analysis”, POSOCO, 2016
A typical load curve may be demarcated by four cardinal points:
1. Night Lean
2. Morning Peak
3. Day Lean or AfternoonPower
trough System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 243 / 256
Load Flow Analysis

In all RLDC, the following timeline is maintained for scheduling:
Time Interaction Purpose

Load Flow Analysis

ISGS to RLDC Availability forecast, time wise for next day.

By 10:00 am

Load Flow Analysis


By 10:00 am
RLDC to SLDC Anticipated ISGS wise entitlement for the next day.
By 11:00 am

Load Flow Analysis


By 10:00 am
By 11:00 am
SLDC to RLDC The SLDC review the foreseen capabilities of ISGS and investigate
By 03:00 pm
their load patterns and their own generating capabilities including
bilateral exchanges and advise RLDC their drawal schedule.

Load Flow Analysis


By 10:00 am
By 11:00 am
By 03:00 pm
RLDC to ISGS and SLDC Final generation schedule to ISGS and net drawal schedule to SLDC
By 05:00 pm
for the next day.

Load Flow Analysis


By 10:00 am
By 11:00 am
By 03:00 pm
By 05:00 pm
for the next day.
Any ISGS or State to RLDC Changes in availability or requisition if any for the next day.
By 10:00 pm

Load Flow Analysis


By 10:00 am
By 11:00 am
By 03:00 pm
By 05:00 pm
for the next day.
Any ISGS or State to RLDC Changes in availability or requisition if any for the next day.
By 10:00 pm
RLDC to ISGS and SLDC Revised and final generation schedule to ISGS and net drawal sched-
By 11:00 pm
ule to SLDCs respectively for the next day.

Abnormally
High frequency lowoff-peak
during frequency during
hours peak-load
wasFlow
a result ofhours
the the Central generating companies and State utilities were
Load Analysis
was causedstations
generating by inadequacy of generating
not being backedShortcapacity
down and
adequately
Circuit
attempts
when
Analysis
being encouraged
Automatic to go
Load Frequency on generating, even when
Control the
to meet consumer demand
consumer demand came down. in excess of available generation.
Power System Stability consumer
Grid load had
Management come down (during off-peak hours).
in India
High frequency during off-peak
Economichours wasof aGeneration
Dispatch result of the Scheduling and Dispatch Procedure
generating stations not being backed downofadequately Availability Based Tariff (ABT)
Automatic Control Generationwhen
consumer demand came down.
Loopholes in Earlier Tariff Structure

We ste rn Region Hz
Eastern Region
Hz
51.5 51.5
50.5 50.5 Eastern Region

We ste rn Region Hz
Hz
51.5 51.5
49.5 49.5
50.5 50.5
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48.5 48.5
Tim e Tim e
Figures 1 & 2 : Frequency Profiles of Western and Eastern regional

47.5 47.5
grids in 2002 prior to ABT
00
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20
22
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Tim e Tim e
Figures 1 & 2 : Frequency Profiles of Western and Eastern regional grids in 2002 prior to ABT
Northe rn Region
Southern Region
Hz Hz
51.5 51.5
50.5 Southern Region 50.5 Northe rn Region

Hz Hz
51.5
49.5 51.5
49.5
50.5
48.5 50.5
48.5
49.5
47.5 49.5
47.5
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22
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48.5 Tim e 48.5
Tim e
47.5 47.5
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22
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Figures 3 & 4 : Frequency Profiles
Figure:
Tim e ofFrequency
Southern and Northern
profile regionalgrids
in regional grids in
in 2002
2002prior
Tim e
to ABT.
Figures 3 & 4 : Frequency Profiles of Southern and Northern regional grids in 2002 prior to ABT.
Load Flow Analysis
Loopholes in Earlier Tariff Structure

Low frequency situations result when the total generation available in the grid is less than the total customer load.
This can be controlled by enhancing generation and/or curtailing customer load.
High frequency is a result of insufficient backing down of generation when the total customer load has been fallen
during off-peak hours.
Prior to 2002, grid used to follow a simplistic, single-part, constant (Rs./kWh) tariffs, which disregarded drawal
pattern, deviation from schedules, system conditions (surplus/deficit) etc.
State utilities were not being discouraged from overdrawing, even when generation was inadequate (during peak-load hours).
Both the Central generating companies and State utilities were being encouraged to go on generating, even when the consumer
load had come down (during off-peak hours).

Load Flow Analysis

Electricity tariff structure which depends upon the available output of a generating station.
The power plants have fixed and variable costs:
1 Fixed costs: interest on loan, return on equity, depreciation, O&M expenses, insurance, taxes and interest on working capital.
2 Variable costs: fuel cost (coal and oil in case of thermal plants and nuclear fuel in case of nuclear plant).
In ABT mechanism, the fixed cost and the variable cost components are treated separately.
Components of ABT
1 Capacity Charge
Fixed cost of a plant.
Based on the plant, i.e., its capability to deliver MWs one a day-to-day basis.
2 Energy Charge
Variable cost of a plant.
Paid for generating energy as per the given schedule for the day.
3 Charge for Unscheduled Interchange
Payment for deviation from schedule, at a rate dependent on system condition (frequency).

Load Flow Analysis
Daily Scheduling Process: Capacity and Energy Charge

Conducting optimal power flow analysis for the intra-state
generating stations considering the forecasted load, SLDCs
Suppose a 1000 MW ISGS has three beneficiaries - State A, B and provide their requisition to RLDC by 03:00 pm.
C, with allocated shares of 30%, 30% and 40%.
Table: Requisition
ISGS Beneficiary Drawal (in MW)
(State) 6 am - 10 pm 10 pm - 6 am
A 270 270
B 270 270
State A State B State C C 360 200
(30% share) (30% share) (40% share)
Suppose the station foresees a capability to deliver 900 MW on

the next day, and advised the same to the RLDC by 10:00 am.
RLDC would break it up and intimate SLDCs according to their

entitlements, i.e., 270, 270 and 360 MW by 11:00 am.

Load Flow Analysis
Daily Scheduling Process: Capacity and Energy Charge

Conducting optimal power flow analysis for the intra-state
generating stations considering the forecasted load, SLDCs
Suppose a 1000 MW ISGS has three beneficiaries - State A, B and provide their requisition to RLDC by 03:00 pm.
C, with allocated shares of 30%, 30% and 40%.
Table: Requisition
ISGS Beneficiary Drawal (in MW)
(State) 6 am - 10 pm 10 pm - 6 am
A 270 270
B 270 270
State A State B State C C 360 200
(30% share) (30% share) (40% share)
Table: Energy on which charge to be applied

Suppose the station foresees a capability to deliver 900 MW on Energy (in MWh)
the next day, and advised the same to the RLDC by 10:00 am.
State Capacity Charge Energy Charge
RLDC would break it up and intimate SLDCs according to their A 270×24 270×24
entitlements, i.e., 270, 270 and 360 MW by 11:00 am. B 270×24 270×24
C 360×24 360×16+200×8

Load Flow Analysis
Unscheduled Interchange
Frequency Linked Tariff
Figure 7: Present DSM Vector w.e.f 17 February.2014

Figure: Charges for deviation (applicable from 17.2.2014)
The present Deviation Settlement Mechanism in India came into force with effect from 17th
February, 2014 [3]. The salient features are as follows:
 Operational Frequency Band has been tightened to 49.90 - 50.05 Hz.
 Step size changed from 0.02 Hz to 0.01 Hz.
Load Flow Analysis
Unscheduled Interchange
Frequency Linked Tariff
If the actual energy supplied is higher than scheduled
ISGS will receive a payment for the excess energy

(unscheduled interchange) at a rate dependent on
frequency at that time.
If the energy actually supplied is less than what is scheduled
ISGS will have to pay for the energy shortfall, at the same
frequency dependent rate.
Similar mechanism will be applied to all beneficiaries (states)

who buy energy from the grid.

Figure: Charges for deviation (applicable from 17.2.2014)
Load Flow Analysis
Effect of UI Rate on ISGS
> 50 Hz
Frequency
Under-Supply Over-Supply
< 50 Hz
Under-Supply Over-Supply
Figure: UI Rate
 Power
The charges for deviation System
for each Operation
0.01 Hz andPaise/kWh
step is 35.60 Controlin©Ananyo Sengupta
the frequency 250 / 256
Load Flow Analysis

Frequency > 50 Hz
1 Over Supply
if f > 50.05 Hz, UI rate is zero.
means generating station may over-supply, but will not get any
payment for extra energy supply.
for 50 ≤ f ≤ 50.05 Hz, they will get payment at much lower rate.
forces ISGS to back-down its generation.
2 Under Supply
in this case, generating station will still be paid for scheduled energy
(at its energy charge rate).
it will thus be able to save on fuel cost (for the energy not
generated) and retain the energy charge as net savings.
provides strong incentive to backdown generation during high
Figure 7: Present DSM Vector w.e.f 17 February.2014 frequency situations.
Figure: UI Rate
 Step size changed from 0.02Power System
Hz to 0.01 Hz. Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 251 / 256
Load Flow Analysis
Frequency < 50 Hz
1 Over Supply
UI rate ramps up.
means, if a generating station supplies more energy than schedule, it
will get back money at higher rate.
2 Under Supply
for any shortfall, the generating station will have to pay back at the
same (high) rate.
a strong commercial incentive to maximize its generation during
low frequency period.

Figure: UI Rate
Load Flow Analysis
Effect of UI Rate on States
> 50 Hz
Frequency
over drawal under drawal
< 50 Hz
over drawal under drawal

Figure: UI Rate
 The charges for deviation for each 0.01 Hz step is 35.60 Paise/kWh in the frequency
Load Flow Analysis

1 Over Drawal
Frequency > 50 Hz
state can draw extra power at a low rate.
SLDC can achieve this by
a. reducing own generation which has a variable cost higher than
prevailing UI rate.
b. restoring customer load that had been shed.
2 Under Drawal

Figure: UI Rate
Load Flow Analysis

1 Over Drawal
Frequency > 50 Hz
state can draw extra power at a low rate.
SLDC can achieve this by
a. reducing own generation which has a variable cost higher than
prevailing UI rate.
b. restoring customer load that had been shed.
2 Under Drawal
an under drawal during high frequency conditions means that

state has to pay for the scheduled power quantum
unnecessarily.
SLDC should take action to reduce the under drawal by
a. restoring customer load that had been shed.

b. backing down intra-state generation having variable costs higher
Figure: UI Rate than prevailing UI rate.
c. re-settling drawal schedules from ISGSs for which energy charge
rate is higher than the present UI rate, and/or arrange bilateral sale.
Load Flow Analysis

1 Over Drawal
Frequency < 50 Hz
High UI rate during low frequency period induces all state to
reduce their drawal from the grid.
SLDC can take following corrective actions
a. maximize own generations having variable costs lower than
prevailing UI rate.
b. explore possibility o purchasing power through bilateral agreement.
c. curtail customer load.
2 Under Drawal
State needs to pay for scheduled energy quantum at the normal

rate.
SLDC may resort to
a. maximizing generation at all intra-state stations whose variable cost
is below the prevailing UI rate.
Figure 7: Present DSM Vector w.e.f 17 February.2014 b. curtailing customer load.
Figure: UI Rate
Load Flow Analysis
Western Region
Hz
51.5 Effect of ABT
50.5
Western Region
49.5 Hz
51.5
48.5
50.5
47.5
00
02
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06
08
10
12
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16
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22
49.5
Tim e
48.5
Figures 6 : Frequency Profile of W estern Regional Grid (synchronously connected with Eastern and North-
47.5
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
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eastern regions) in late 2003.
Tim e
Northern Region
Figures 6 : Frequency Profile of W estern Regional Grid (synchronously connected with Eastern and North-
Southern Region
Hz
eastern regions) in late 2003. Hz
51.5 51.5
50.5 50.5
Northern Region Southern Region
49.5 Hz 49.5 Hz
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Tim e Tim e
48.5
Figures 7 & 8 : Frequency Profiles of Northern & S outhern Regional Grids in late 2003. 48.5

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Power System Operation and Control

Dr. Ananyo Sengupta

Subject Code: EE3100

(Covered in: Power Generation,

Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 2 / 256

Single Line Diagram

Figure: Single Line Diagram of Power System

Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 3 / 256

Single Line Diagram

Figure: Radial Connection

Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 4 / 256

Single Line Diagram

Figure: Radial Connection Figure: Mesh Connection

Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 4 / 256

It’s not a Two Bus System ...

Fig. 3. IEEE 14-bus test system [18].

Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 5 / 256

Fig. 3. IEEE 14-bus test system [18].

Fig. 5. IEEE 30-bus te

Fig. 3. IEEE 14-bus test system [18].

Fig. 4. IEEE 24-bus test system [18].

MENT OF PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNITS FOR POWER SYSTEM OBSERVABILITY 1437

Fig. 5. IEEE 30-bus test system [18].

Figure: IEEE 30 Bus System

Fig. 5. IEEE 30-bus test system [18].

Fig. 4. IEEE 24-bus test system [18].

of radial buses and the number of zero-injection buses, for the

Figure: IEEE 118 Bus System

Baart ka ivaVut maanaica~

0 50.0 0 0 411 Q II II 50 218 280 8 NER P/P 6 LAKHIMPURntly

53 78 44 235 Q 400 R 400

26 136 50.1 1445ANPARA

185 SAMI 58 297 64 442 3 0 39 S 0 S 0.0

68 II S -18 0.0 JINDAL S 427

298 417 (AP) S

TALGUPPA 423 Malur 49.8 CHITTOOR

SHARAVATHI 0 PEENYA 228 -32

45.0 0 NYAPURA 160 99

UNDER CONSTRUCTION 109 9 105

419 50.0 STANLEY GATE

400 KV LINES 224

Q 999 Q9999 PYKARA 198 TS1

KUNDAH 3 Q0999 58 NEYVELI

67 37KUNDAH 4 136 26557 58 958 TPS(STG-I&II)

85 INGUR 116 KADALANGUDI

KUNDAH PALAKKAD THIRUCHENCODE 225 410

50.0 220 117 50.0 70 68 IIPERAMBALUR 50.1 (EXP) 331

NORTH TRICHUR SAMAYAPURAM

(MADAKATHARA) 180 69 -50 5 P P NALLUR

-55 414 50.0 51 105 71 49.9 PUGALUR 53

88 15 17 0 314 130PALLADOM 246 50.0

IDUKKI 107 137

**** 105 70 413 -51

LINES UNDER OUTAGES

126 125 VALATHUR

KAYATHAR 49.8 STERLITE

LINES CROSSES LIMIT-3 KUNDARA

225 Q 0 117 TUTICORIN

Figure: North Odisha

Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 10 / 256

Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 10 / 256

Balanced and Unbalanced Fault

Power System Operation and Control ©Ananyo Sengupta 10 / 256

Balanced and Unbalanced Fault