Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other

materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is
then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Portland Cement', the
most commonly used type of cement.
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The
most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water.
 The relative density or specific gravity is the weight of the material particles themselves and
for cement, this density is typically 3.11. The Density Varies from 1300 to 1600 kg/m3.
Cement = 1440 kg/m3
Sand Dry= 1450 to 1500 kg/m3, Sand Wet = 1920 kg/m3
Steel =7850 kg/m3
water =981 kg/m3
Aggregate =1450 to 1550 kg/m3

Typical constituents of Portland cement

Name CCN Mass%

Lime (Calcium oxide) CaO
Silica (Silicon dioxide) SiO2
Alumina (Aluminum oxide) Al2O3
Calcium Sulphate (Caso4)
Iron oxide (Ferric oxide) Fe2O3
Sulfate (Sulphur)
Magnesia (Mgo)
Alkalies
C 61–67%
S 19–23%
A 2.5–6%
4%
F 0–6%
S 1%
2%
1%

The above constituents forming the raw materials undergo chemical reactions during burning
and fusion, and combine to form the following compounds called BOGUE COMPOUNDS

Name Chemical name Mass%

TRicalcium Silicate (Cao)3 Sio2 C3S 45–75%
Dicalcium silicate (CaO)2 · SiO2 C2S 7–32%
Tricalcium aluminate (CaO)3 · Al2O3 C3A 0–13%
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (4CaO) · C4AF 0–18%
Al2O3 · Fe2O3
Gypsum CaSO4 · 2 H2O 2–10%

INITIAL & FINAL SETTING TIME 

Initial setting time is that time period between the time water is added to cement and time at
which 1 mm square section needle fails to penetrate the cement paste, placed in the Vicat’s
mould 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the mould.
Final setting time is that time period between the time water is added to cement and the time
at which 1 mm needle makes an impression on the paste in the mould but 5 mm attachment
does not make any impression.

Soundness of cement is the property of hardened cement paste undergoing large change in
volume after setting without delayed destructive expansion. This destructive expansion is
caused by excessive amounts of free lime or magnesia. This change in volume may cause
crack and disintegration of concrete. Soundness of cement can be checked by using Le-
Chatliers apparatus.

Soundness = L2-L1 mm. Where L1 = Length of Specimen after 24 Hrs of

Casting
L2 = Length of Specimen after Accelerated Curing.

Split Tensile strength = 2P/ π dl P = Compressive load on Cylinder

D = Dia of Cylinder
L = Length of Cylinder
Flexural Strength (fb) = When a>133mm then fb = Pl/bd2 a = Breaking point
When a<133mm then fb = 3pa/bd 2
b = Breadth, d = depth.

Type/Name Of Referenced Indian Initial Setting Final Setting Soundness

Cement Stanadard Time, mints Time, mints Expansion (max.)
(min.) (max.)
OPC(33) IS:269-1989 30 600 10 mm
OPC(43) IS:8112-1989 30 600 10 mm
OPC(53) IS:12269-1987 30 600 10 mm
SRC IS:8041-1990 30 600 10 mm
PPC IS:12600-1989 30 600 10 mm
RHPC IS:6909-1990 30 600 5 mm
PSC IS:1489-1991(part 1) 30 600 10 mm
High alumina IS:455-1976 30 600 10 mm
Super sulphated IS:6452-1989 30 600 5 mm
Low heat IS:12330-1988 60 600 10 mm
Masonry cement IS:3466-1988 90 1440 10 mm
IRS-T-40 Railway standards 60 600 5mm

Alkali–aggregate reaction is a reaction which occurs over time in concrete between the

highly alkaline cement paste and non-crystalline silicon dioxide, which is found in many
common aggregates. This reaction can cause expansion of the altered aggregate, leading
to spalling and loss of strength of the concrete.
The alkali–silica reaction (ASR) is a reaction which occurs over time in concrete between
the highly alkaline cement paste and reactive non-crystalline (amorphous) silica, which is
found in many common aggregates.
This reaction causes the expansion of the altered aggregate by the formation of a
swelling gel of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). This gel increases in volume with water, and
exerts an expansive pressure inside the material, causing spalling and loss of strength of the
concrete, finally leading to its failure.
ASR can cause serious cracking in concrete, resulting in critical structural problems that can
even force the demolition of a particular structure.
The alkali–carbonate reaction is a process suspected for the degradation
of concrete containing dolomite aggregate.
M5 1:5:10 M15 1:2:4
M7.5 1:4:8 M20 1:1.5:3
M10 1:3:6 M25 1:1:2

Permissible limited for solids in water used for concrete

Solid Permissible max.limit (mg/L)

Organic 200 mg/L
Inorganic 3000 mg/L
Sulphate 500 mg/L
Chloride 2000 mg/L for plain concrete & 1000 mg/L for RCC
work
Suspended matter 2000 mg/L

Sieve Analysis

I.S Sieve(mm) Weight retained Cumulative Wt % Cumulative Wt % Cumulative Wt

in gms retained in gms retained Passing
4.75 mm
2.56 mm
1.18 mm
600µ
300µ
150µ
Pan

Fineness Modulus of F.A is

Fine Sand 2.2-2.6

Medium Sand 2.6-2.9
Coarse Sand 2.9-3.2
 Name Size(mm) Other names

Large Boulder >630

Boulder >256 mm
Cobble 64–256 mm
Very coarse gravel 32–64 mm Pebble
Coarse gravel 16–32 mm
Medium gravel 8–16 mm
Fine gravel 4–8 mm
Very fine gravel 2–4 mm Granule
Very coarse sand 1–2 mm Coarse sand
Coarse sand 0.5–1 mm
Medium sand 0.25–0.5 mm Medium sand
Fine sand 125–250 µm Fine Sand
Very fine sand 62.5–125 µm
Silt Coarse silt 20–62.5 µm Mud
Medium silt 6.25–20 µm
Fine silt 2–6.25 µm
Clay < 2 µm Mud

Fineness Modulus of C.A 5.5 to 8

The crack width should be less than 0.2 mm for moderate and mild environments, and 0.1
mm for severe environment

Types of Admixtures

Concrete admixtures are used to improve the behaviour of concrete under a variety of
conditions and are of two main types: Chemical and Mineral.

Chemical Admixtures: Chemical admixtures reduce the cost of construction, modify

properties of hardened concrete, ensure quality of concrete during
mixing/transporting/placing/curing, and overcome certain emergencies during concrete
operations.

Chemical admixtures are used to improve the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting,
placement and curing. They fall into the following categories:

 air entrainers
 water reducers
 set retarders
 set accelerators
 superplasticizers
 specialty admixtures: which include corrosion inhibitors, shrinkage control, alkali-silica
reactivity inhibitors, and coloring.
 Mineral admixtures make mixtures more economical, reduce permeability, increase
strength, and influence other concrete properties.
 Mineral admixtures affect the nature of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or
pozzolanic activity. Pozzolans are cementitious materials and include natural
pozzolans (such as the volcanic ash used in Roman concrete), fly ash and silica fume.
 They can be used with Portland cement, or blended cement either individually or in
combinations.

Accelerating Admixture - an admixture that causes an increase in the rate of hydration of the
hydraulic cement and thus shortens the time of setting, increases the rate of strength
development, or both. The accelerators suitable for reinforced concrete one can find are:

1. sodium thiocyanates and other thiocyanate salts

2. triethanolamine and other alkanolamines
3. products based on sulfates, nitrates and formats

Types Of Slump

The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete,
the slump is termed as;

1. Collapse Slump
2. Shear Slump
3. True Slump

Slump Compacting
Degree of
Use for which concrete is suitable
workability Compaction
mm in
Factor
Very dry mixes; used in road
Very low 0-25 0-1 0.78 making. Roads vibrated by power
operated machines.
Low 25-50 1-2 0.85 Low workability mixes; used for
 foundations with light
reinforcement. Roads vibrated by
hand operated Machines.
Medium workability mixes;
manually compacted flat slabs
using crushed aggregates. Normal
Medium 50-100 2-4 0.92
reinforced concrete manually
compacted and heavily reinforced
sections with vibrations.
High workability concrete; for
sections with congested
High 100-175 4-7 0.95
reinforcement. Not normally
suitable for vibration