PSY 375 Project Two Template

Smartphones and How They Affect our Cognition

Topic Summary and Theory Background

The increased amount of cognitive related issues among young adults has raised
concern as to whether it could be linked to the way they interact with technology, more
precisely, smartphones (Alsunni & Latif, 2020). There is evidence supporting that some cognitive
functions, like working memory capacity and fluid intelligence, are negatively affected by
smartphone use, however, much research lack addressing individual differences that moderate
this cognitive interference (Canale et al., 2019). Moreover, smartphone addiction among teens
and adolescents has been an increasing health issue as studies point out possible negative
impacts on youth’s growth and development due to the uncontrolled use of smartphones (Tang
& Lee, 2021).
For example, Canale et al. (2021) were interested in exploring the influence of positive
urgency and negative urgency, two emotional-related impulsivity traits, on the ability to
voluntarily inhibit high-priority tasks for task-irrelevant behaviors, such as checking your
smartphone. Results showed that positive urgency plays a role in explaining the differential
effect of smartphone availability on cognitive performances. In addition, potentially harmful
effects, such as attention-deficit symptoms, impaired emotional and social intelligence,
 technology addiction, social isolation, impaired brain development, and disrupted sleep, have
been linked to extensive use of screen time and technology (Small et al., 2020).
Johnson, Kaiser & Swan (2019) believe two potential theories could address the
detrimental effects of smartphone availability in face-to-face interactions are expectation
violation theory, which suggests the presence of smartphones in face-to-face interaction is seen
by others as a negative social behavior, and cognitive load theory, which suggests that
smartphone use in face-to-face interactions can be a distraction. Another study provides a
hypothetical model that differentiates immediate from long-term effects of smartphone use on
attention, inhibition, and working memory as well as describes the relations between these
cognitive functions (Liebherr et al., 2020). Finally, there is evidence supporting that increased
screen time is associated with poor language development and executive functioning, especially
during infancy and early childhood (Small et al., 2020).

Compare and Contrast Primary Research Articles

To test if the mere presence of smartphones causes effects on face-to-face interaction
and cognitive distractions, researchers designed an experiment to understand the effects of the
use of smartphones by a conversation partner and the effects of the use of smartphone on the
person using it. 87 college students, ages ranging from 18 to 22 years old, 44 females and 43
males, participated in this experiment (Johson, Kaiser & Swan, 2019). Further, experiments are
also an option when scientists need to test a new treatment. For example, Tang & Lee (2021)
designed a study containing 240 participants from four different primary schools in Hong Kong,
to examine the effects of a group mindfulness-based cognitive program on resilience,
smartphone behavior, and addictive symptoms among adolescents. Selecting participants for a
research study is extremely important as they need to be representative of the population being
studied (Forzano, 2014). A large number of participants are more representative of a population
than a small sample, hence, Tang & Lee's (2021) study is more representative of a population
being studied (primary school students) than the Johnson, Kaiser & Swan's (2019) study because
it contains more students from different schools rather than from one place only.
There are several different ways in which scientists study human behavior and
cognition. Canale et al. (2019) tested the cognitive interference effect of how smartphone
availability and impulsivity traits impact cognitive functioning. They assessed the participants’
visual working memory capacity through a recognition memory task. Impulsivity traits and
problematic use of smartphones were assessed through validated self-report scales. In another
study, by Tang & Lee (2021), to measure the effects of a cognitive treatment program for
smartphone addiction, researchers split participants into two different experimental groups. The
intervention group will receive the mindfulness-based cognitive program (MBCP), whereas the
control group will receive existing counseling services for students with emotional and
behavioral issues. Measures will be taken at the start of the trial, one month, two months, and
three months after the program. Other measures include: smartphone behavior, which will be
assessed through one closed-ended question; resilience will be measured by the Connor-
Davidson Resilience Scale, which reflects five factors on resilience; and smartphone addictive
symptoms will be assessed using the Smartphone Addiction Scale. Hence, researchers may use
scales (questionnaires), close-ended questions, or computer-based tasks to measure the effects
and relationships among the variables (Forzano, 2014).
Every research study has its own limitations. They are characteristics of the research
design or methods used that could impact or influence how the findings are interpreted
(Forzano, 2014). For instance, in Canale et al. (2019), some of the limitations the authors
 acknowledged regarding the study include compromised generalizability of the findings due to
the convenience sample being college students, self-reported measures, which may contain
biased data, and psychological factors, other than emotional-related impulsivity traits, may also
moderate the cognitive interference effect. In Johnson, Kaiser & Swan (2019), the authors
highlighted that the results should not be over-generalized to different populations and that the
methodology also limits the generalization to other uses of smartphones, other than texting, as
a distractor. Therefore, research findings cannot be overgeneralized to other populations. For
example, if all participants of a study are college students, the results cannot be applied to other
populations, like children or middle-aged adults.

Conclusions
After reviewing the primary sources, there is evidence suggesting that the uncontrolled
use of smartphones among teenagers and adolescents can lead to negative impacts on their
cognitive and emotional development (Tang & Lee, 2021). In Canale et al. (2019), results showed
that positive urgency plays a role in explaining the differential effect of smartphone availability
on cognitive performances. Another study reveals that there may have been negative effects of
smartphone use during face-to-face interactions on both social evaluation and attention. For
instance, social evaluation analyses indicate that people using their smartphones during a face-
to-face conversation are rated as less desirable to speak with. In addition, this study also shows
that people are less likely to retain information from a face-to-face conversation if they are
using their phones for texting during the interaction (Johnson, Kaiser & Swam, 2019).

References
Alsunni, A. A., & Latif, R. (2021). Higher emotional investment in social media is related to anxiety and
depression in university students. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 16(2), 247-252.
doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2020.11.004

Canale, N., Vieno, A., Doro, M., Rosa Mineo, E., Marino, C., & Billieux, J. (2019). Emotion-related
impulsivity moderates the cognitive interference effect of smartphone availability on working
memory. Scientific Reports, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54911-7

Forzano, L. B. (2014). Research methods for the behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning, Inc.

Greenfield, D. N. (2021). Digital distraction: What makes the internet and smartphone so addictive? In
Human capacity in the attention economy. (pp. 27–47). American Psychological Association.
https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.1037/0000208-003

Johnson, T. J., Kaiser, M. Y., Swan, A. B. (2019). Social and cognitive effects of smartphone use in face-to-
face verbal interactions. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 24(4), 265–273.
https://doi.org/10.24839/2325-7342.jn24.4.265

Liebherr, M., Schubert, P., Antons, S., Montag, C., & Brand, M. (2020). Smartphones and attention, curse
or blessing? - a review on the effects of smartphone usage on attention, inhibition, and working
memory. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 1, 100005.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2020.100005
Small, G. W., Lee, J., Kaufman, A., Jalil, J., Siddarth, P., Gaddipati, H., Moody, T. D., & Bookheimer, S. Y.
(2020). Brain health consequences of digital technology use. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience,
22(2), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.31887/dcns.2020.22.2/gsmall

Tang, A. C., & Lee, R. L. (2021). Effects of a group mindfulness-based cognitive program on smartphone
addictive symptoms and resilience among adolescents: Study protocol of a cluster-randomized
controlled trial. BMC Nursing, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-021-00611-5