Topic 18: Photosynthesis

LO 1: Identify components of chloroplasts and mitochondria in drawings, photomicrographs and

electron micrographs.

Part of chloroplast Structure Property Function

Thylakoid system - Flattened, fluid-filled - Site of light-dependent

sacs bound by thylakoid stage of photosynthesis.
membrane.

- Thylakoid membrane Thylakoid membrane is:

- impermeable to
charged particles such
as H+, to allow for
generation of proton
gradient.
- Generate proton
gradient between
thylakoid lumen
(SMALLER space) &
stroma (LARGER
space)

- Thylakoids form stacks - contains ATP synthase, which

called grana (singular: phosphorylates ADP to ATP by
granum) at intervals, with chemiosmosis.
intergranal lamellae
between the grana. - affords a large surface area to
accommodate more electron
transport chain to allow more
energy to be released at each
step and to absorb more light
energy.

Stroma Semi-fluid substance Contains soluble enzymes for Site of light independent
containing soluble Calvin cycle, eg. ribulose stage/Calvin cycle of
enzymes involved in bisphosphate decarboxylase photosynthesis
Calvin Cycle (Ribulose
Bisphosphate
carboxylase)
circular dsDNA
70s ribosomes

Chloroplast - Double membrane with - Hydrophobic core of - Allows for

envelope phospholipid bilayer chloroplast envelope makes it compartmentalisation:
 Impermeable to polar ● Maintains a high
molecules and charged ions concentration of
- Permeable to small, enzyme and
non-polar molecules via substrate in specific
transient gap compartments to
allow for high rate of
metabolic reactions
● Isolate harmful
substances from the
rest of the cell
● Prevent interference
of intermediate
reaction pathways to
allow incompatible
reactions to take
place simultaneously.
- Regulate the entry of
substances into and out of
chloroplast

Location: Structure Property Function

embedded in the
thylakoid
membrane

Chlorophyll a and b Different side chains on Structural differences modify Increases range of
the head their absorption spectra wavelengths of light
absorbed

Carotenoid Basic structure Photoprotection: absorb and

comprises two small dissipate excessive light
rings linked by a energy
hydrocarbon chain
Act as accessory pigments:
broaden the spectrum of light
absorbed

Features: Mitochondria: Chloroplast:

Number of 2 membranes: outer, inner 3 membranes: outer, inner, thylakoid

membranes membranes membranes
Structure of Inner membrane is folded to form Inner membrane is smooth
membranes cristae

Orientation of ATP Orientation of ATP synthase is ATP synthase is oriented “inside out” in
synthase “outside in” in mitochondria chloroplast

Presence of Absence of chlorophyll Presence of chlorophyll

chlorophyll

Presence of starch Do not contain starch grains Contains starch grains

grains
LO 2: Explain the absorption and action spectra of photosynthetic pigments.

Absorption spectrum: shows the degree of absorption of each wavelength of light by a particular
pigment
● Shows how much photons are absorbed at which wavelength of light (ONE pigment)

Action spectrum: shows the effectiveness of different wavelengths of light on a photochemical process,
i.e. photosynthesis
● It is a cumulation of the number of photos absorbed by all the pigments present in the bigger
system (e.g. a leaf) at that wavelength of light

Rate of photosynthesis at each wavelength is the summation of all/ total number of photons absorbed
by all the pigments in the absorption spectrum.
LO 3: With reference to the chloroplast structure, describe and explain how light energy is harnessed
and converted into chemical energy during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Light-dependent stage / Light Stage

Location: Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts

Involves: Photolysis of water, generation of proton gradient
Purpose: To synthesise (1) reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and (2)
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

a. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Photosystems involved: PSI and PSII

Processes involved: Photolysis of water, leading to the evolution of oxygen, synthesis of ATP and NADPH

1. Photon of light strikes accessory pigment in PSII

2. Energy is transferred via resonance to a pair of special chl a, P680 in reaction centre of PSII
3. Electron excited to a higher energy state
4. High energy electron from P680 are passed to the primary electron acceptor
5. Photolysis of water occurs in the thylakoid lumen
6. Electron replaces those lost in P680 of PSII
7. Oxygen is produced as by-product
8. High energy electron is passed from primary electron acceptor down electron transport chain to
PSI
9. Via series of redox reactions
10. During which, energy released is used to pump H+ from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen.
11. H+ accumulates in the thylakoid lumen and a proton gradient is generated.
12. which is coupled to ATP synthesis
13. Another photon struck accessory pigment in PSI
14. Energy transferred via resonance to excite electron in pair of special chl a, P700, of PSI
15. Electron excited to higher energy state in PSI is transferred to a different primary electron
acceptor
16. High energy electron passed to ferredoxin
17. Electron passes from ferredoxin ---------------------→ NADP+ + 2e- + H+ → NADPH
NADP reductase
18. Electron from ETC will replace that electron of P700 of PSI

b. Cyclic photophosphorylation

Photosystems involved: PSI only

Processes involved: Synthesis of ATP

1. Photon of light strike accessory pigments in PSI

2. Energy transferred via resonance to excite electron in pair of special chl a of P700 of PSI
3. Excited electron from PSI is taken up from the primary electron acceptor. Then passed to
ferredoxin to cytochrome complex to Pc and back to the same P700 special chl a in PSI
a. ATP is synthesised
b. No NADPH is synthesised
 4. Free energy is released as electrons move down the ETC
5. Which is used to pump H+ through proton pumps from the stroma to the thylakoid lumen,
generating a proton gradient
6. H+ return to the stroma through channels provided by ATP synthase
7. Which couples the movement of H+ down its concentration gradient to the phosphorylation of
ADP to ATP on the stromal side of the thylakoid membrane.

Features: Cyclic photophosphorylation: Non-cyclic photophosphoryla

First electron donor PSI/ P700 Water

Last electron acceptor PSI/ P700 NADPH

Products ATP only NADPH and ATP

Photosystem involved PSI PSI & PSII

Photolysis of water Does not occur Occurs to generate electrons to

replace electrons emitted from PSII

Number of ETCs 1 2
LO 4: Outline the three phases of the Calvin cycle in C3 plants: (i) CO2 fixation (ii) PGA reduction and
(iii) ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration, indicating the roles of rubisco, ATP and reduced NADP
in these processes that ultimately allow synthesis of sugars.

1. Carbon fixation
○ Rubisco catalyse the combination of 1 carbon dioxide and 1 RuBP
○ Forms an unstable six-carbon intermediate that splits into half immediately
○ Producing 2 stable molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate
2. PGA reduction
○ Each 3-phosphoglycerate is activated after receiving an additional phosphate group from
ATP to form 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate
○ NADPH donates a pair of electrons and reduces 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate to form
3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL)
3. Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration
○ PGAL is used to regenerate RuBP utilising ATP
LO 5: Discuss limiting factors in photosynthesis and carry out investigations on the effect of limiting
factors such as temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of
photosynthesis.

● Limiting factor
○ Directly affects the rate of a process if its quantity is changed
○ It is a factor which value is nearest its minimum value
○ Different factors can interact and be limiting at the same time

Temperature:
● Light-independent reactions are catalysed by enzymes
○ Temperature-sensitive

● Before optimum temperature - from 0oC up to optimum temperature

○ Rate of photosynthesis approximately doubles for every rise of 10oC → linear increase

● After optimum temperature

○ Further increase in temperature leads to a fall in rate of photosynthesis because
enzymes are denatured
○ The atoms which make up the enzyme molecule vibrate so vigorously that the hydrogen
bonds and hydrophobic interactions between the R groups of the amino acid residues
begin to break. The enzyme is said to be denatured and the shape of its active site is no
longer complementary to that of the substrate.

Pls write like below example: Split into At low, At high. Like temp above.
Light intensity:

● At low light intensities:

○ rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with increasing light intensity
○ Light intensity is the limiting factor

● At higher light intensities:

○ light saturation point is reached - rate of photosynthesis not affected by further increase
in light intensity.
○ Other factors have become limiting
 ● Compensation point (NET O2/CO2 output = 0): amt of CO2 produced/ O2 used in respiration =
amt of CO2 used/ O2 produced in photosynthesis
○ Rate of respiration = rate of photosynthesis
○ Products of photosynthesis are used up by respiration → no growth observed in the
plant

^^Also Remind yourself how to vary light intensity in expts + how to measure rate of photosynthesis
when investigating light intensity. What are the DVs you can use and why?

Carbon dioxide concentration:

● Carbon dioxide required in light-independent reactions for carbon fixation to take place

● Low atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide - 0.03% to 0.04%

○ Carbon dioxide is a major limiting factor
○ Increase in carbon dioxide concentration leads to increased rate of photosynthesis

● At higher atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide

○ The rate of photosynthesis plateaus
○ Another factor has become the limiting factor

^^Remind yourself how to vary carbon dioxide conc. in expts + how to measure rate of photosynthesis
when investigating carbon dioxide conc.. What are the DVs you can use and why? Are they the same DVs
as the ones used for measuring light intensity? Why?
LO 6: Outline chemiosmosis in photosynthesis and respiration (names of complexes in the ETC are not
required).

1. Chemiosmosis occurs
2. H+ diffuses out of thylakoid lumen in the stroma
3. Down proton gradient
4. This occur through hydrophilic channel provided by of ATP synthase
5. Movement of H+ is coupled with phosphorylation of ADP with Pi to ATP