1.1.1. Land Use Change
Land Use Change
Human land use, and its influence
on land cover, is a major driver of
the distribution and functioning
of ecosystems, and thus in the
delivery of ecosystem services. Our
need for space, whether it is to
produce food, to live, to recreate, to
work or to provide energy all
compete for land as a resource.
Land use is also the prime cause of
the loss or fragmentation of
natural habitats and their species.
The landscape to a large extent
reflects the choices that we make
when using land and sea. For
analysing the relationship between
land use changes and their impacts
on biodiversity, land cover and land
and sea use information is needed at
different spatial and temporal
scales – from local to global and
from historic records to future
models. Such information is also a
prerequisite for spatial planning at
local and regional levels.
Land use change is a process by
which human activities transform
the natural landscape, referring to
how land has been used, usually
emphasizing the functional role of
land for economic activities. Land
use changes are often nonlinear and
might trigger feedbacks to the
system, stress living conditions, and
threaten people with vulnerability.
Therefore, not only do land use
change trajectories need
assessment, but also possible future
conditions must be projected for
certain assumptions, both basic to
ensuring sustainable conditions.
1.1.1.1. Human Causes of 1.1.3.1. Human Causes
Land-Use Change
Land use is obviously constrained
by environmental factors such as
soil characteristics, climate,
topography, and vegetation. But it
also reflects the importance of land
1.1.3. Land Use Change
The most important driving force of
the functioning and distribution of
ecosystems is the land used by
humans and their influence on land
and hence in the services of
ecosystem delivery. The human’s
need for space to work, live, to
produce food, to provide energy or
to recreate, all strive for land as a
resource. Use of land is the primary
cause of fragmentation or loss of
natural habitats and their species.
The landscape largely indicates the
choices that a person make while
using the sea and land. To analyse
the relationship among the changes
in use of land and their effect on
biodiversity, land cover and sea and
land use information is required at
various temporal and spatial scales
– from local to global and from
historic data to future models. This
information is must for spatial
planning at regional and local
levels.
The process by which human
actions transform the natural
landscape and it refers to how land
has been used, generally give
emphasis on the functional role of
land for economic functions is
known as land use change. These
are usually nonlinear and may
activate feedbacks to the system,
threaten vulnerable people, stress
living conditions. Thus, it is not
only necessary to assess the
trajectory of land use change, but
also to project possible future
conditions for some assumptions,
both of which are fundamental to
ensure favourable conditions and
sustainable event.
of 1.1.5.1. Human Causes
Land-Use Change Land-Use Change
Environmental factors like climate,
topography, soil characteristics, and
vegetation evidently limit land use.
However, it also emphasises the
importance of land as a limited
1.1.5.
The way humans use land,
particularly its impact on land
cover, is a primary driver of
ecosystem distribution and function,
and consequently of ecosystem
service delivery. Humans need for
space, whether for food production,
living, recreation, labour, or energy
generation, all fight for land as a
resource. Natural ecosystems and
species are also being lost or
fragmented as a result of land
development. The landscape reflects
our decisions about how we use
land and sea to a considerable
extent. Land cover and land and sea
use information are needed at
various geographical and temporal
scales, i.e., from local to global, and
from historic records to future
models in order to analyse the link
between land use changes and their
consequences on biodiversity. At
the municipal and regional levels,
such data is also required for spatial
planning.
The process through which human
activities alter the natural
environment is defined as the land
use change. It refers to how land
has been utilised, with an emphasis
on its functional role in economic
activity. Land use changes are
frequently nonlinear, which can
cause systemic feedbacks, stress
living conditions, and put people at
risk. As a result, not only do land
use change trajectories need to be
assessed, but also probable future
circumstances for specific
assumptions must be forecast, both
of which are essential to
guaranteeing sustainable conditions.
of
Environmental elements like soil
composition, climate, topography,
and vegetation clearly limit land
usage. However, it also emphasises
the importance of land as a limited
as a key and finite resource for most
human activities including
agriculture, industry, forestry,
energy production, settlement,
recreation, and water catchment and
storage. Land is a fundamental
factor of production, and through
much of the course of human
history, it has been tightly coupled
to economic growth. As a result,
control over land and its use is often
an object of intense human
interactions.
Human activities that make use of,
and hence change or maintain,
attributes of land cover are
considered to be the proximate
sources of change. They range from
the initial conversion of natural
forest into cropland to on-going
grassland management (e.g.,
determining the intensity of grazing
and fire frequency).
Such actions arise as a consequence
of a very wide range of social
objectives, including the need for
food, fibre, living space, and
recreation; they therefore cannot be
understood independent of the
underlying driving forces that
motivate and constrain production
and consumption. Some of these,
such as property rights and the
structures of power from the local
to the international level, influence
access to or control over land
resources.
Others, such as population density
and the level of economic and
social development, affect the
demands that will be placed on the
land, while technology influences
the intensity of exploitation that is
possible. Still others, such as
agricultural pricing policies, shape
land-use decisions by creating the
incentives that motivate individual
decision makers.
Interpretations of how these factors In both policymaking and research
interact to produce different uses of settings, interpretations of how In policy and research settings,
the land in different environmental, these factors interact to produce interpretations of how these
resource for most human activities,
such as industry, agriculture, energy
production, forestry, recreation,
settlement, and water catchment
and storage. Land is a vital factor of
production, and it has been closely
linked to economic expansion for
much of human history.
Consequently, land ownership and
use are frequently the subject of
heated debate.
The proximate sources of change
are human activities that make use
of land cover features and hence
change or sustain them. They extent
the process of converting natural
woodland to agriculture to on-going
grassland management (e.g.,
determining the intensity of grazing
and fire frequency).
As a result of a wide range of social
aims, such as the need for food,
living space, recreation and fibre,
such activities cannot be known
without first understanding the
fundamental driving forces that
inspire and restrain consumption
and production. Some of these
factors, such as property rights and
power structures at all levels of
government, influence access to and
control of land resources.
Others, such as population density
and economic and social
development, have an impact on the
demands that will be made on the
land, while technology has an
impact on the level of exploitation
that is achievable. Others, such as
agricultural price regulations,
influence land-use decisions
through generating incentives for
individuals to make decisions.
resource for most human activities,
such as agriculture, industry,
forestry, energy generation,
habitation, recreation, and water
catchment and storage. Land is a
vital component of production, and
it has been closely linked to
economic expansion for much of
human history. As a result, land
ownership and usage is frequently
the subject of intense debate.
The proximal causes of change are
human activities that make use of
land cover features and hence
modify or sustain them. They span
the process of converting natural
woodland to agriculture to ongoing
grassland management. For
example, determining the intensity
of grazing and fire frequency.
As a result of a wide range of
societal aims, such as the need for
food, fibre, living space, and
entertainment, such activities cannot
be comprehended without first
understanding the fundamental
driving factors that inspire and
restrain production and
consumption. Some of these factors
are:
1) Property rights and power
arrangements at all levels of
government, impact access to
and control of land resources.
2) The demand that will be made
on the land, while technology
has an impact on the amount of
exploitation that is achievable is
also affected by the other
factors such as population
density and economic and
social development.
3) Agricultural price regulations,
influence land-use decisions
through generating incentives
for individuals to make
decisions.
historical, and social contexts are
controversial in both policymaking
and scholarly settings. Furthermore,
there are many theories regarding
which factors are the most
important determinants. Particular
controversy arises in assessing the
relative importance of the different
forces underlying land-use
decisions in specific cases.
For example, apparent dry land
degradation could be the result of:
overgrazing by increasingly
numerous groups of nomadic cattle
herders; an unintended consequence
of a “development” intervention
such as the drilling of bore holes
which increases stress on land close
to the wells; or the political clout of
groups that, through governmental
connections, are able to over-
exploit land belonging to the state
or local communities. Identifying a
particular cause may have
implications for the rights of
competing user groups or the
formulation of policy responses.
various uses of the land in different elements combine to generate
environmental, social and historical distinct uses of the land in different
contexts are antagonistic.environmental, historical, and social
Moreover, there are numerous contexts are contentious.
theories as to which factors are the Furthermore, there are several
most influential. In determining the theories as to which elements are
proportional relevance of the many the most influential. In determining
elements that influence land-use the proportional relevance of the
decisions in specific circumstances, many elements that influence land-
there is a lot of debate. use decisions in individual
circumstances, there is a lot of
Such as apparent dry land debate.
degradation can be the outcome of:
overgrazing by exceeding various For example, overgrazing by
groups of nomadic cattle herders, an increasingly numerous groups of
unintentional result of a nomadic cattle herders; an
“development” intervention for unintended consequence of a
example the drilling of bore holes “development” intervention such as
that increases stress on land close to the drilling of bore holes, which
the wells; or the political clout of increases stress on land near the
groups that, with the help wells; or the political clout of
government connections, are able to groups that are able to over-exploit
over-exploit land which belongs to land belonging to the state or local
the local or state communities. communities through governmental
Recognising a specific reason might connections. Identifying a specific
have effects for the rights of cause might have ramifications for
competing user groups or the rival user group’s rights or the
formation of policy responses. formation of responses of policy.

1.1.1.2. Impact of Land-use 1.1.3.2. Impact of Land-use 1.1.5.2. Impact of Land-use

Change Change Change
1) Impact of Land-use Change Following are the impacts of land Following are the impacts of land-
on Soil Biodiversity: Land-use use change:
change is the major driver 1) Impact of Land-use Change 1) Impact on Soil Biodiversity:
affecting soil biodiversity and on Soil Biodiversity: Soil
future soil sustainability. Land- biodiversity and future soil
use changes (tillage, erosion, sustainability are greatly
dams, change in plant species) influenced by land-use change.
affecting soil physical and Changes in land use (erosion,
chemical properties, soil tillage, plant species change,
structure, and the base of the dams) affect soil physical and
soil food web (chemical chemical properties, soil
composition of plants, amount structure, and the base of the
of organic matter, oil, pollution, soil food web (chemical
manure) have direct impacts on composition of plants, quantity
species composition. The of organic matter, oil, manure,
conversion of a natural pollution), all of which have
grassland or forest to a direct effects on species
managed system for agriculture, composition. The factors of soil
pasture, urban, or industrial use, biodiversity, vegetation, soil
changes the determinants of soil structure, and microclimate
biodiversity, the vegetation, soil vary when a natural grassland
structure, and microclimate. or woodland is converted to a
The disruption to the natural managed system for
use change:
The soil biodiversity and the
future of soil sustainability is
majorly affected by the change
in land use. Changes in land use
such as tillage, erosion, dams,
plant species change, affect soil
physical and chemical
properties, soil structure, and
the base of the soil food web
(the chemical composition of
plants, amount of organic
matter, oil, pollution, manure),
all of which have direct effects
on composition of species. The
factors of soil biodiversity,
vegetation, soil structure, and
microclimate vary when a
natural grassland or woodland
is converted to a managed
system for agricultural, grazing,
 vegetation and the soil habitat
with land-use change decouples
the nutrients provided by the
decomposition food web from
plant uptake. The result is a loss
in soil fertility provided by the
original soil and its inhabitants.
agricultural, pasture, urban, or
industrial use. Land-use change
decouples the nutrients given
by the decomposing food web
from plant uptake by disrupting
natural vegetation and soil
habitat. As a result, the original
soil’s fertility is lost, and the
soil becomes less fertile.
urban, or industrial use. Land-
use change decouples the
nutrients given by the
decomposing food web from
plant absorption by disrupting
natural vegetation and soil
habitat. As a result, the original
soil and its occupants produce
less soil fertility.

Additional fertilizer is required,
and pesticides may be necessary,
especially with more intensive
agriculture, because the new soil
food web generally has fewer
predators, resulting in a change
in or loss of biocontrol of plant
pathogens. While tillage
methods are beneficial in
conserving carbon in soils and
creating a food web that is more
detritus-based, some lower level
of herbicides and pesticides is
generally used. There are
examples from tropical wet and
dry forests, grasslands, deserts,
and other ecosystems showing
that these land-use changes
affect the total soil biota
(macrofauna, microfauna, and
microflora), generally reducing
species diversity. Desertification
resulting from land-use change
has a considerable impact on
soil processes, including soil
carbon, soil structure, soil biota,
and soil fertility.
Surplus fertilizer is needed and
pesticides might be important,
mainly with more intensive
agriculture, as the new soil food
web usually has less predators,
causing in a change or loss of
bio control of plant pathogens.
Whereas techniques of tillage
are useful in preserving carbon
in soils and making a food web
which is based on detritus,
certain lower level of pesticides
and herbicides is often used.
Such as – from wet and dry
tropical forests, grasslands,
deserts and other ecosystems in
the tropics, and changes in
these land uses affect the entire
soil biota (micro fauna, macro
fauna, micro flora), it generally
indicates that it reduces
biodiversity. Desertification due
to changes in land use has a
significant influence on soil
processes such as soil structure,
soil biota, soil carbon, and soil
fertility.
Because the new soil food web
typically contains fewer
predators, resulting in a shift in
or loss of bio-control of plant
diseases, additional fertiliser
and pesticides may be required,
especially with more intensive
agriculture. Herbicides and
insecticides are commonly
utilised at lower levels while
tillage practises help to
conserve carbon in soils and
create a more detritus-based
food web. These land-use
changes influence the overall
soil biota (macrofauna,
microfauna, and microflora),
typically diminishing species
diversity, as seen by examples
from tropical wet and dry
forests, grasslands, deserts, and
other habitats. Desertification as
a result of land-use change has
a significant influence on soil
processes such as carbon,
structure, biota, and fertility.

2) Socioeconomic Impacts: Land 2) Socioeconomic Impacts: 2) Socioeconomic Impacts: In

is one of three major factors of Among three major factors of
production in classical production that are – land,
economics (along with labor labour and capital. Land has
and capital) and an essential been considered as the most
input for housing and food important input for housing and
production. Thus, land use is food production in classical
the backbone of agricultural economics. Therefore, land use
economies and it provides is the foundation of agricultural agricultural economies and
substantial economic and social economies and it gives
benefits. Land use change is significant social and economic
necessary and essential for advantages. Land use plays an
economic development and important role in social
social progress. Land use progress and economic
change, however, does not development. Land use change,
come without costs. Conversion however, does now no longer
of farmland and forests to urban come without costs. Conversion
classical economics, land is one
of the three basic components
of production (together with
labour and capital) and an
important input for housing and
food production. As a result,
land usage is critical to
delivers significant economic
and social advantages. Changes
in land usage are required for
economic development and
social advancement. Changes in
land usage, on the other hand,
are not free. The quantity of
land accessible for food and
development reduces the
amount of lands available for
food and timber production.
Soil erosion, salinization,
desertification, and other soil
degradations associated with
intensive agriculture and
deforestation reduce the quality
of land resources and future
agricultural productivity.
Urbanization presents many
challenges for farmers on the
urban fringe. Conflicts with
nonfarm neighbours and
vandalism, such as destruction
of crops and damage to farm
equipment, are major concerns
of farmers at the urban fringe.
Neighbouring farmers often
cooperate in production
activities, including equipment
sharing, land renting, custom
work, and irrigation system
development. These benefits
will disappear when
neighbouring farms are
converted to development.
Farmers may no longer be able
to benefit from information
sharing and formal and
informal business relationships
among neighbouring farms.
Urbanization may also cause
the “impermanence syndrome”
(i.e., a lack of confidence in the
stability and long–run
profitability of farming),
leading to a reduction in
investment in new technology
or machinery, or idling of
farmland.
As urbanization intensifies,
agricultural and nonagricultural
land use conflicts become more
severe. This may lead to an
increase in local ordinances
designed to force farmers to pay
for some of the negative
impacts generated by
agriculture. As the nearest input
suppliers close because of
insufficient demand for farm
of farmland and forests to urban
improvement reduces the
quantity of lands to be had for
meals and wood production.
Salinization, soil erosion,
desertification, and different
soil degradations related to in
depth agriculture and
deforestation lessen the quality
of land resources and future
productivity of agriculture.
Many challenges for farmers on
urban fringe have been
introduced by urbanisation. At
the urban fringe, conflicts with
vandalism and non-farm
neighbours like, damage of
crops and destruction to farm
equipment are the main
problem of farmers.
Neighbouring farmers generally
cooperate in production related
activities by sharing
equipments, renting land,
irrigation system development
and custom work. Such
advantages will fade when
neighbouring farms changed to
development. Farmers may not
be capable of making profit by
sharing information and formal
and informal business
relationships among
neighbouring farms. The
“impermanence syndrome” is
the result of urbanisation which
means lack of confidence in the
stability and long-run
profitability of farming, leads to
a decrease in investment in new
technology or machinery, or
idling of farming land.
Agricultural and non-
agricultural land use conflicts
became more serious as
urbanisation increases. This can
results into increase in local
laws which are made to force
farmers to pay certain of the
negative effects created by
agriculture. Because the nearest
input suppliers close due to
inadequate demand for farm
wood production decreases
when agriculture and forests are
converted to urban expansion.
The land quality and future
agricultural production is
lowered by the soil erosion,
salinisation, desertification, and
other soil degradations linked to
intensive agriculture and
deforestation.
Farmers on the outskirts of
cities face several obstacles as a
result of urbanisation. They are
concerned about conflicts with
nonfarm neighbours and
vandalism, such as crop
destruction and damage to farm
equipment. Neighbouring
farmers frequently collaborate
on production activities such as
equipment sharing, land rentals,
custom work, and the creation
of irrigation systems. When
nearby farmland are converted
to development, these benefits
will be lost. Farmers may no
longer be able to take advantage
of information exchange and
official and informal
commercial partnerships
between farms. The
“impermanence syndrome” (a
lack of faith in the stability and
long–term profitability of
farming) may be aggravated by
urbanisation, resulting in a
decline in investment in new
technology or machinery, as
well as idling of farms.
The conflicts between the
agricultural and non-
agricultural use of land
becomes worse as the
urbanisation intensifies. This
might result in a rise in local
regulations requiring farmers to
pay for some of the negative
effects of agriculture. Because
of low demand for farm
supplies, the nearest input
inputs, a farmer may have to
pay more for inputs or spend
more time to obtain equipment
repairs. Competition for labor
from nonagricultural sectors
may raise farmers’ labor costs.
When the total amount of
farmland falls below a critical
mass, the local agricultural
economy may collapse as all
agricultural supporting sectors
disappear.
Suburbanization brings urban
and rural people and problems
together. Most land areas are
rural, most watersheds are in
rural places, and most of the
atmosphere exists above rural
space. Urbanites and agencies
have legitimate concerns about
the use and condition of rural
natural resources, just as rural
populations have legitimate
concerns about urban–based
pressures on the natural world.
These shared interests in the
natural environment have
important economic, social, and
political implications, which
may profoundly impact society
in the future. In response to the
increasing urbanization, many
local governments have
imposed strict land use control.
Some of the efforts have been
quite successful in slowing
down development.
Land use change provides many
economic and social benefits,
but comes at a substantial
economic cost to society. Land
conservation is a critical
element in achieving long–term
economic growth and
sustainable development. Land
use policy, however, must
strike a balance between private
property rights and the public
interest.
inputs, a farmer may have to
pay more for inputs or spend
more time to acquire equipment
repairs. The labour cost of
farmers may be increase from
competition for labour from
non-agricultural sectors. The
local agricultural economy may
collapse as all agricultural
supporting sectors disappear if
the total amount of farmland
decreases below a particular
mass.
The process of bringing urban
and rural people and problems
together is known as
suburbanisation. Most of the
watersheds, land areas and
atmosphere are in rural places
and exist above the rural space.
Agencies and urbanites have
legitimate issues about
regarding the use and condition
of rural natural resources, such
as rural populations have
legitimate issues regarding
urban based pressures on the
natural world. These common
environmental concerns have
significant social, political and
economic effects that could
have a significant impact on
society in the future. Many
local governments have adopted
strict land use control in
response to increasing
urbanisation. Some of the
attempts have proven to be
fairly effective in slowing down
development.
Changes in land use have
several economic and social
benefits, but it also comes with
a significant financial cost to
society. Land conservation is an
important part of achieving
long–term economic growth
and sustainable development.
However, land use regulation
must find a balance between the
public interest and private
property rights.
suppliers may close, forcing a
farmer to pay more for inputs or
wait longer for equipment
maintenance. Farmer’s labour
expenses may rise as a result of
competition for workers from
non-agricultural sectors. The
local agricultural economy may
collapse if the entire areas of
farmland falls below a critical
mass, as all agricultural
supporting sectors vanish.
The people and issues from the
rural and the urban are put
together by the suburbanisation.
The majority of land areas are
rural, as are the majority of
watersheds, and the majority of
the atmosphere lies above rural
space. Urbanites and agencies
have genuine worries about
rural natural resource usage and
condition, just as rural people
have reasonable concerns about
urban–based pressures on the
natural environment. These
common environmental
concerns have significant
economic, social, and political
ramifications that might have a
significant influence on society
in the future. Many municipal
governments have adopted tight
land use controls in response to
rising urbanisation. Some of the
attempts have proven to be
fairly effective in slowing down
growth.
Though, land use change has a
lot of economic and social
benefits, but it also has a lot of
financial costs. Long–term
economic growth and
development require land
conservation. However, land-
use policy must find a balance
between private property rights
and the public good.
3) Environmental Impacts: 1) Environmental
Land–use change is arguably
the most pervasive
socioeconomic force driving
changes and degradation of
ecosystems. Deforestation,
urban development, agriculture,
and other human activities have
substantially altered the Earth’s
landscape. Such disturbance of
the land affects important
ecosystem processes and
services, which can have wide–
ranging and long–term
consequences.
Farmland provides open space
and valuable habitat for many
wildlife species. However,
intensive agriculture has
potentially severe ecosystem
consequences. For example, it
has long been recognised that
agricultural land use and
practices can cause water
pollution and the effect is
influenced by government
policies. Runoff from
agricultural lands is a leading
source of water pollution both
in inland and coastal waters.
Conversions of wetlands to
crop production and irrigation
water diversions have brought
many wildlife species to the
verge of extinction.
Forests provide many
ecosystem services. They
support biodiversity, providing
critical habitat for wildlife,
remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, intercept
precipitation, slow down
surface runoff, and reduce soil
erosion and flooding. These
important ecosystem services
will be reduced or destroyed
when forests are converted to
agriculture or urban
development. For example,
deforestation, along with urban
sprawl, agriculture, and other
human activities, has
Impacts: 3) Environmental
Changes in land use are likely
the most prevalent social force
driving environmental changes
and degradation. Urbanisation
agriculture, deforestation, and
other human activities have
affected the Earth’s landscape
significantly. The effects of
such land disturbances on
essential ecological services
and processes can have far-
reaching and long–term effects.
A large number of wildlife
species depend on farmland for
open space and essential
habitat. Intensive agriculture,
on the other hand, has the
potential to harm the
environment. For example,
agricultural land use and
practices have long been
recognised as contributing to
water contamination, and the
impact is influenced by
government policy. A major
cause of water pollution in both
inland and coastal areas is
runoff from agricultural lands.
Many wildlife species have
been brought to the area by the
conversion of wetlands to crop
development and irrigation
water diversions.
Many ecosystem services are
provided by forests. They help
to maintain biodiversity by
providing important wildlife
habitat, as well as removing
carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, intercepting
precipitation, slowing surface
runoff, and reducing soil
erosion and flooding. When
forests are converted to
agriculture or urban
development, these significant
ecosystem services are reduced
or destroyed. Deforestation, for
example, has significantly
altered and fragmented the
Impacts:
Changes in land use are likely
the most ubiquitous social
driver causing environmental
changes and deterioration.
Deforestation, urbanisation,
agriculture, and other human
activities have affected the
Earth's terrain significantly. The
effects of such land
disturbances on essential
ecological processes and
services can have far-reaching
and long–term repercussions.
Many animal species rely on
farmland for open space and
essential habitat. Intensive
agriculture, on the other hand,
has the potential to harm the
environment. For example,
agricultural land use and
practises have long been
recognised as contributing to
water contamination, and the
impact is impacted by
government policy. A major
cause of water pollution in both
inland and coastal areas is
runoff from agricultural fields.
Many animal species have been
driven to extinction as wetlands
have been converted to
agricultural cultivation and
irrigation water has been
diverted.
Many ecological services are
provided by forests. They help
to maintain biodiversity by
providing important wildlife
habitat, as well as removing
carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, intercepting
precipitation, slowing surface
runoff, and reducing soil
erosion and floods. When
forests are converted to
agriculture or urban
development, these critical
ecological services are lost or
destroyed. Deforestation, for
example, has significantly
changed and fragmented the
 substantially altered and Earth’s vegetative cover, as has Earth’s vegetative cover, as has
fragmented the Earth’s urban sprawl, agriculture, and urban development, agriculture,
vegetative cover. Such other human activities. By and other human activities. By
disturbance can change the altering the energy balance on altering the energy balance on
global atmospheric the surface of earth, these Earth's surface, such
concentration of carbon interruptions can influence the disturbances can influence the
dioxide, the principal heat– global atmospheric global atmospheric
trapping gas, as well as affect concentration of carbon concentration of carbon
local, regional, and global dioxide, the primary heat– dioxide, the primary heat–
climate by changing the energy trapping gas, and impact local, trapping gas, as well as effect
balance on Earth’s surface. regional, and global climate. local, regional, and global
climate.

Urban development has been
linked to many environmental
problems, including air
pollution, water pollution, and
loss of wildlife habitat. Urban
runoff often contains nutrients,
sediment and toxic
contaminants, and can cause
not only water pollution but
also large variation in stream
flow and temperatures. Habitat
destruction, fragmentation, and
alteration associated with
urban development have been
identified as the leading causes
of biodiversity decline and
species extinctions. Urban
development and intensive
agriculture in coastal areas and
further inland are a major
threat to the health,
productivity, and biodiversity
of the marine environment
throughout the world.
Many environmental concerns Many environmental issues
have been related to urban have been connected to urban
expansion, including water expansion, including air
pollution, air pollution and the pollution, water pollution, and
loss of wildlife habitat. Urban the loss of wildlife habitat.
runoff frequently holds Urban runoff frequently
nutrients, toxic contaminants contains nutrients, silt, and
and sediment and it can lead to hazardous chemicals, and it can
not only water pollution but result in not just water pollution
also significant changes in but also significant changes in
stream flow and temperature. stream flow and temperature.
The main causes of biodiversity The primary drivers of
reduction and species extinction biodiversity reduction and
have been recognised as habitat species extinction have been
destruction, modification and recognised as habitat
fragmentation linked with urban destruction, fragmentation, and
development. Urbanisation and modification connected with
intensive agriculture in coastal urban development.
and inland areas pose a severe Urbanisation and intensive
danger to the marine agriculture in coastal and inland
environment’s health, areas pose a serious danger to
productivity, and biodiversity the marine environment’s
around the world. health, productivity, and
biodiversity across the world.

1.1.1.3. Causes of 1.1.3.3. Causes of 1.1.5.3. Causes of

Deforestation
1) Agricultural Activities:
Agricultural activities are one
of the major factors affecting
deforestation. Due to over-
growing demand for food
products, huge amount of trees
are fell down to grow crops and
for cattle grazing.
2) Logging: Apart from this,
wood-based industries like
paper, match-sticks, furniture,
etc., also need a substantial
amount of wood supply. Wood
is used as fuel both directly and
Deforestation
Following are the causes of
deforestation:
1) Agricultural Activities: These
activities are one of the main
factors that impacts
deforestation. Large number of
trees are fell down to grow
crops and for cattle grazing
because of the significant
demand for food products.
2) Logging: Industries which are
dependent on match-sticks,
furniture, paper etc., are also
require considerable quantity of
Deforestation
Following are the causes of
deforestation:
1) Agricultural Activities: One of
significant reasons for
deforestation is agricultural
activities. Large amount of trees
and forests are cut in order to
grow crops as a result of the
increasing need of food
products.
2) Logging: Aside from that,
wood-based sectors such as
paper, matchsticks, and
furniture require a significant
 indirectly, therefore trees are wood supply. Wood has been
chopped for supplies. Firewood used as fuel directly and
and charcoal are examples of indirectly both. Therefore trees
wood being used as fuel. are cutting down to meet the
3) Desertification of Land: Some demands. For example –
of the other factors that lead to Charcoal and firewood has been
deforestation are also part used as fuel.
natural and part anthropogenic 3) Desertification of Land: 3) Desertification of Land: Other
like desertification of land. It Others factors which are the
occurs due to land abuse part of natural and
making it unfit for growth of anthropogenic such as land
trees. desertification that results into
4) Mining: Oil and coal mining deforestation of land. It happens
require considerable amount of because of land abusing which
forest land. Apart from this, means making a land unfit for
roads and highways have to be the growth of trees.
built to make way for trucks 4) Mining: Coal mining and oil
and other equipment. The waste need substantial amount of
that comes out from mining forest land. Besides this,
pollutes the environment and highways and roads should
affects the nearby species. built to make way for trucks
and other equipment. The waste
that coming out from mining
pollutes the environment and
impacts the species around.
quantity of wood supplies.
Because wood is utilised as a
fuel source both directly and
indirectly, trees are cut down
for supply. For example, wood
is utilised as a fuel in the form
of firewood and charcoal.
causes that contribute to
deforestation include
desertification of land, which is
both natural and partly
manmade. It happens as a result
of land misuse, which makes it
unsuitable for tree development.
4) Mining: Oil and coal mining
both need a significant amount
of forest area. Aside from that,
roads and highways must be
constructed to accommodate
trucks and other heavy
equipment. Mining waste
pollutes the environment and
has an impact on the species
around it.

1.1.1.4. Afforestation 1.1.3.4. Afforestation 1.1.5.4. Afforestation

Programmes
The scheme of plantation of new
forest is called Afforestation. Under
this scheme, newly planted forests
are carefully supervised to protect
against forest fires. Research is also
being carried out to ascertain the
type of trees that grow best in
different regions and type of soil.
Programmes
Afforestation refers to the scheme
of plantation of new forest. Under
this program, supervision is given
to the newly planted forests for
protecting against fires. Research is
also being conducted to make sure
the type of trees that grow best in
various types of soil and regions.
Programmes
The process of plantation of new
forest is defined as the afforestation.
In this, careful supervision and
protection is provided to the newly
planted forests from threats like
forest fires. Researches are also
conducted to determine the types of
plant suitable in different types
region and soil.

To meet the deficiency of supply of
wood in view of the growing
demand, three important schemes
were undertaken:
1) Plantation of quick growing
species;
2) Plantation of economic species
like teak, sissoo and semal, etc.
3) Plantations to be raised under
the scheme of rehabilitation of
degraded forests.
To meet the shortage of wood Following are the three schemes
supply considering the growing should be undertaken in order to
demand, following are the three meet the shortage of supply with
schemes undertaken: respect to the increasing demand:
1) Plantation of economic species 1) Plantation of those species that
such as– sissoo, semal and grows quickly.
steak. 2) Plantation of those species
2) Under the scheme of which are economic like semal,
rehabilitation of degraded sesso, teak and so on.
forests, plantations to be raised. 3) Plantations to be established as
3) Plantation of fast growing part of a plan to restore
species. degraded forests.

The Central and State Governments The State and Central Governments Following are some of afforestation
have undertaken many afforestation have initiated many afforestation programmes introduced by the
programmes such as: programmes like: Central and State Governments:
1) Agro Forestry: In this the 1) Agro Forestry: Under this 1) Agro Forestry: In agro
same piece of land is used for programme the same land is forestry, farming, forestry and
farming, forestry and animal used for forestry, animal animal husbandry are all done
husbandry. husbandry and farming. in the same piece of land.
2) Social Forestry: In this trees 2) Social Forestry: Under this 2) Social Forestry: In social
are raised for fuel wood, fodder, programme trees are raised for forestry, trees are planted for
edible fruits, agricultural fodder, fuel wood, agricultural the purpose of fuel, wood,
implements and construction implements, edible fruits and edible fruits, agricultural
purposes for rural populations. construction purposes for rural implements and construction of
3) Urban Forestry: In this the populations. the rural people.
ornamental fruit trees are grown 3) Urban Forestry: Under this 3) Urban Forestry: Ornamental
in urban areas such as house programme, the ornamental fruit trees are cultivated in
compounds, common parks and fruit trees are grown in urban urban locations such home
along roads. In India, ever since areas for example – common complexes, common parks, and
1950, a special function of tree parks along roads, house along highways in this. Since
plantation namely Van compounds. A special function 1950, a unique tree-planting
Mahotsava is held each year to of tree plantation namely Van event known as Van Mahotsava
make people forest-conscious. Mahotsava is conducted in has been organised every year
Van Mahotsava is celebrated India since 1950 every year so in India to raise forest
twice a year during the months that people might aware about awareness. The festival of Van
of February and July. forests. Van Mahotsava is Mahotsava is held twice a year,
celebrated in the month of in the months of February and
For a week in each of these months, February and July twice a year. July.
tree plantation is carried out in
barren unproductive fallow land. Tree plantation is done in barren In each of these months, tree
Thereafter, with regular care and unproductive fallow land for a week planting takes place for a week
protection these saplings grow into in all of such months. in barren, unproductive fallow
full fledged trees. Van Mahotsava is Subsequently, these saplings grow ground. Following that, with
not merely a festival, it is a process as full-fledged trees with proper proper care and protection,
of land transformation to recreate care and supervision. Van these seedlings will mature into
forests where there were none Mahotsava can be understood as a full-fledged trees. Van
before. process of transforming barren land Mahotsava is more than just a
into a growing land by recreating celebration; it is a process of
forests. It is not only a festival but a land transformation aimed at re-
process of change. creating woods where none
previously existed.

National Afforestation National Afforestation National Afforestation

Programme (NAP)
It continues to be the flagship
scheme of National Afforestation
and Eco-Development Board
(NAEB), in so much as it provides
support, both in physical and
capacity building terms, to the
Forest Development Agencies
(FDAs) which in turn are the main
organs to move forward
institutionalisation of Joint Forest
Management. The FDA has been
conceived and established as a
federation of Joint Forest
Management Committees (JFMCs)
at the Forest Division level to
undertake holistic development in
Programme (NAP): It remains the
flagship programme of the National
Afforestation and Eco-Development
Board (NAEB), in that it supports
the Forest Development Agencies
(FDAs), who are the major organs
for moving forward
institutionalisation of Joint Forest
Management, both physically and
in terms of capacity building. The
FDA was designed and founded as
a federation of Joint Forest
Management Committees (JFMCs)
at the Forest Division level to carry
out holistic forestry development
with the participation of the public.
This is an important change from
Programme (NAP) remains the
flagship project of the National
Afforestation and Eco-
Development Board (NAEB), in
that it supports the Forest
Development Agencies (FDAs),
who are the major organs for
moving forward institutionalisation
of Joint Forest Management, both
physically and in terms of capacity
building. The FDA was designed
and founded as a federation of Joint
Forest Management Committees
(JFMCs) at the Forest Division
level to carry out holistic forestry
development with the participation
of the public. This is a significant
the forestry sector with people’s previous afforestation programmes, change from previous afforestation
participation. This is a paradigm which were funded by state programmes, which were funded by
shift from the earlier afforestation governments. state governments.
programmes wherein funds were
routed through the State
Governments.

1.1.1.1. Mining Techniques 1.1.3.5. Mining Techniques 1.1.5.5. Mining Techniques

Mining techniques can be divided Following are the two types of
into two common excavation types mining techniques:
as follows: 1) Surface Mining: It is carried
1) Surface Mining: Surface out with the help of removing
mining is done by removing dirt, vegetation when needed,
(stripping) surface vegetation, bedrock layers for the purpose
dirt, and if necessary, layers of of reaching buried ore deposits.
bedrock in order to reach buried It is very usual and produces
ore deposits. It is much more such as 85 per cent of minerals
common, and produces, e.g., 85 (excluding natural gas and
per cent of minerals (excluding petroleum) in the United States,
petroleum and natural gas) in consisting 98 per cent of
the United States, including 98 metallic ores. Following are the
per cent of metallic targets that are further divided
ores. Targets are divided into into two common materials:
two general categories of i) Placer Deposits: These
materials: deposits include valuable
i) Placer Deposits: These minerals contained within
deposits are consisting of river gravels, beach sands
valuable minerals contained and other unwanted
within river gravels, beach material.
sands, and other ii) Lode Deposits: These are
unconsolidated materials. the deposits in which
ii) Lode Deposits: These are valuable minerals are found
the deposits where valuable in veins, in mineral grains
minerals are found in veins, and in layers usually
in layers, or in mineral distributed through across a
grains generally distributed mass of actual rock.
throughout a mass of actual
rock. Both types of ore deposit, lode
or place are mined by
Both types of ore deposit, underground or surface
placer or lode, are mined by methods.
both surface and underground
methods.
2) Sub-Surface or Underground 2) Sub-Surface or
Mining: It consists of digging Underground Mining: It
tunnels or shafts into the earth includes digging shafts or
to reach buried ore deposits. tunnels into the earth to reach
Ore, for processing, and waste buried ore deposits. Ore, for
rock, for disposal, are brought refining, disposal or waste
to the surface through the rock are carried to the surface
tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface by the shafts and tunnels.
mining can be classified by the Sub-surface mining could be
type of access shafts used, the categorised by the sort of
extraction method or the access shafts used, the
technique used to reach the technique used or the
Following are the two types of
mining techniques:
1) Surface Mining: To reach
underground mineral reserves,
surface mining involves
removing (stripping) surface
plants, soil, and, if required,
layers of bedrock. It is
significantly more prevalent,
producing 85% of minerals in
the United States (excluding
petroleum and natural gas),
including 98% of metallic ores.
The materials used to create the
targets are classified into two
categories:
i) Placer Deposits: Placer
deposits involve precious
materials that composites
beach sands, gravels and
other unconsolidated
materials.
ii) Lode Deposits: These are
deposits in which rich
minerals can be found in
veins, layers, or mineral
grains that are widely
scattered across a mass of
real rock.
Surface and subterranean
technologies are used to mine
both types of ore deposits.
2) Sub-Surface or Underground
Mining: It entails tunnelling or
shafting into the ground to
reach hidden mining resources.
Ore is carried to the surface for
processing, and waste rock is
hauled to the surface for
disposal, via tunnels and shafts.
The type of access shafts
utilised, the extraction process,
or the technology employed to
reach the mineral deposit may
 mineral deposit:
i) Drift Mining: It utilizes
horizontal access tunnels.
ii) Slope Mining: It uses
diagonally sloping access
shafts.
iii) Shaft Mining: It consists
of vertical access shafts.
1.1.2. Dam
A dam is a barrier built across a
stream, river or estuary to hold and
control the flow of water for such
uses as drinking water supplies,
irrigation, flood control, and electric
power generation. A dam is a
barrier that impounds water or
underground streams.
Dams generally serve the primary
purpose of retaining water, while
other structures such as floodgates
or levees (also known as dikes, an
elongate naturally occurring ridge
or artificially constructed fill or
wall) are used to manage or prevent
water flow into specific land
regions. Hydropower and pumped-
storage hydroelectricity are often
used in conjunction with dams to
generate electricity. A dam can also
be used to collect water or for
storage of water which can be
evenly distributed between
locations.
1.1.2.1. Impact/Effect of
Dam Building on
Environment, Forest,
Biodiversity and Tribal
Population
The effects of dams are discussed as Following are the impact of dam:
below:
1) Impact on Environment
i) Impact on Flood-
Dependent
Ecology/Agriculture: In
many developing countries,
the savanna and forest
ecology of the floodplains
depend on seasonal
extraction method to reach the
mineral deposit:
i) Drift Mining: Horizontal
access tunnels are used in
drift mining.
ii) Slope Mining: Diagonal
sloping access shafts are
used in it.
iii) Shaft Mining: It
incorporates vertical access
shafts.
1.1.4. Dam
A dam is a barrier that holds water
or underground streams. It is like a
barrier which is built throughout a
river, stream or estuary to hold and
control the water flow for the
purpose of drinking water supplies,
flood control, irrigation and electric
power generation. The main
purpose of dams is to retain water
whereas other structures like –
floodgates or levees (also known as
dikes, an elongate naturally
occurring ridge or artificially
constructed fill or wall) are used to
maintain or prevent pumped-storage
hydroelectricity are generally used
in conjunction with dams to
produce electricity. The main uses
of dam are collecting or storing
water that could be distributed
equally among locations.
1.1.4.1. Impact/Effect of
Dam Building on
Environment, Forest,
Biodiversity and Tribal
Population
1) Impact on Environment
i) Impact on Flood-
Dependent
Ecology/Agriculture: The
savanna and forest ecology
of the floodplains rely upon
seasonal flooding from
rivers in most of the
developing countries. The
all be characterised as
subsurface mining:
i) Horizontal access tunnels
are used in drift mining.
ii) Slope mining employs
access shafts that are
diagonally slanted.
iii) Shaft mining, on the other
hand, comprises of vertical
access shafts.
1.1.6. Dam
A barricade or barrier built across
the river, stream or estuary to hold
and control the water flow, for the
purposes like supply of drinking
water, irrigation, flood control and
generation of electricity, is known
as a dam. A dam is a structure that
keeps water or subsurface streams
from flowing freely.
Dams are used to hold water, while
floodgates and levees (also known
as dikes, an elongate naturally
occurring ridge or an artificially
created fill or wall) are used to
restrict or prohibit water flow into
certain geographical areas. Dams
are frequently used in combination
with hydropower and pumped-
storage hydroelectricity to generate
electricity. A dam can also be used
to gather water or store water that
can be dispersed equally across
several areas.
1.1.6.1. Impact/Effect of
Dam Building on
Environment, Forest,
Biodiversity and Tribal
Population
Following are the impacts of dam
building on environment, forest,
biodiversity and tribal population:
1) Impact on Environment: The
impact of dam building in
environment are:
i) Impact on Flood-
Dependent
Ecology/Agriculture:
Seasonal flooding from
 flooding from rivers. Dams risk of flood reduced by rivers is essential for the
attenuate floods which may dams which may impact the savanna and woodland
affect the ecology and ecosystem and agriculture ecosystems of the
agriculture seriously. severely. floodplains in many
ii) Impact on the Earth ii) Impact on the Earth developing nations. Dams
Itself: Reservoirs may Itself: The climate of earth reduce floods, which can
contribute to changes in the may change because of the have major consequences
Earth’s climate. Warm contribution of reservoirs. for the environment and
climate reservoirs generate Methane is generated by the agriculture.
methane, a greenhouse gas reservoirs of warm climate,
ii) Effect on the Earth as a
when the reservoirs are a greenhouse gas when the Whole: Reservoirs may
stratified, in which the reservoirs are stratified, in have an impact on global
bottom layers are anoxic that the bottom layers are climate change. When
(i.e., they lack oxygen), anoxic that is they lack reservoirs are stratified and
leading to degradation of oxygen), leading to the bottom layers are anoxic
biomass through anaerobic degradation of biomass (i.e., they lack oxygen),
processes. through anaerobic methane, a greenhouse gas,
iii) Impact on Humans processes. is produced, leading to
a) Diseases: Whilst iii) Impact on Humans biomass destruction through
reservoirs are helpful to a) Diseases: Whereas anaerobic processes.
humans, they can also reservoirs are useful as
iii) Impact on Humans: The
be harmful as well. One well as harmful to impacts of dam building on
negative effect is that humans. There is a humans are:
the reservoirs can downside of reservoirs, a) Diseases: Reservoirs
become breeding it can become breeding may also have some
grounds for disease grounds for disease disadvantages
vectors like mosquitoes vectors such as alongwith advantages.
(which are vectors for mosquitoes that are One disadvantage is
malaria) and snails vectors for malaria and that disease vectors
(which are vectors snails that are vectors such as mosquitoes
for Schistosomiasis) for Schistosmiasis. This (which transmit
can take advantage of can take benefit of this malaria) and snails
this slow flowing slow flowing water. (which transmit
water. b) Resettlement: Schistosomiasis) might
b) Resettlement: Dams Construction of dams take advantage of the
and the creation of and reservoirs also slow-moving water.
reservoirs also require involve relocation of b) Relocation: Dams and
relocation of potentially potentially great reservoirs necessitate
large human populations of human the relocation of
populations if they are when they are potentially significant
constructed close to constructed near to the human populations if
residential areas. household areas. they are built close to
residential areas.
2) Impact on Forest: When asked 2) Impact on Forest: Dams 2) Impact on Forest: Few
to name different causes of consist of various direct and individuals will say that
deforestation, few people will indirect cause of forest loss and hydroelectric dams are one of
mention hydroelectric dams as many have led to large scale the causes of deforestation
being one of them. Even fewer abuses of human rights. When a when questioned. Even fewer
will include them as a cause of person is asked to give various people will blame them for
human rights violations. reasons for deforestation, some human rights abuses. Dams, on
However, dams constitute a of them will state hydroelectric the other hand, are a major
major direct and indirect cause dams as the main cause among source of forest loss, both
of forest loss and most of them them. Few people will directly and indirectly, and the
have resulted in widespread hu- constitute them as a cause of majority of them have resulted
man rights abuses. human rights violation. in widespread human rights

This lack of awareness can be
explained by the fact that for
many years large hydroelectric
dams have been portrayed as
synonymous with development.
Another reason can be that most
users of hydro-electricity live far
away from the impacted areas
and that the sites selected for
dam building have been often
those inhabited by indigenous
peoples, tribal people, ethnic
minorities and poor
communities having little
capacity of being heard by the
wider national community.
The fact is that more than
40,000 large dams — those that
measure more than 15 metres in
height — are currently
obstructing the world’s rivers,
whose reservoirs cover more
than 400,000 square kilometers
of land. They have also resulted
in deforestation elsewhere, as
farmers displaced by the dams
have had to clear forests in
other areas in order to grow
their crops and build their
homes. Additionally, dams
imply road building, thus
allowing access to previously
remote areas by loggers and
“developers”, resulting in
further deforestation processes.
However, the dams’ effects
have included much more than
forest loss and the major
environmental changes have
impacted on local people, at
both the dam site and in the
entire river basin. Not only are
the best agricultural soils
flooded by the reservoir, but
major changes occur in the
environment, where the river’s
flora and fauna begins to
disappear, with strong impacts
on people dependent on those
resources.
3) Impact on Tribal Population:
Hydroelectric dams have been
considered as development for
many years due to inadequate
awareness among people. The
other cause can be the users of
hydroelectricity live far away
from the affected places and the
location selected for
construction of dams have been
usually populated by tribal
people, indigenous people,
poor communities and ethnic
minorities. Such people have
little capacity of being heard by
the broad national community.
In fact above 40,000 large dams
– those which measure above
15 metres in height – are
presently disrupting the rivers
of the world and its reservoirs
cover above 400,000 square
kilometres of land. This
situation leads to deforestation
and the farmers dislocated by
the dams have had to clear
forests in another area for the
purpose of growing crops and
build their houses. Moreover,
dams involve road building,
therefore allowing access to
earlier remote areas by loggers
and “developers”, leads to more
deforestation.
On the other hand, the impacts
of dams consisting more than
forest and the significant
environmental changes have
affected local people, at the
dam site and in the entire river
basin. Not just the best
agricultural soils flooded by the
reservoir, however significant
changes occur in the
environment, where the flora
and fauna of river starts to
disappear, with strong impacts
on people rely on those
resources.
3) Impact on Tribal Population: 3) Impact on Tribal Population:
violations.
This lack of understanding can
be explained by the fact that
massive hydroelectric dams
have been associated with
growth for many years. Another
factor might be that most
hydropower consumers reside
far away from the afflicted
areas, and dam locations have
often been chosen by
indigenous peoples, tribal
peoples, ethnic minorities, and
destitute groups with limited
ability to be heard by the larger
national community.
More than 40,000 major dams
— those with a height of more
than 15 metres — presently
impede the world’s rivers,
whose reservoirs occupy more
than 400,000 square kilometres
of land. Farmers displaced by
the dams have had to remove
trees in other locations in order
to cultivate their crops and build
their homes, resulting in
deforestation elsewhere. Dams
also imply road construction,
providing loggers and
“developers” access to formerly
distant places, resulting in more
deforestation.
The consequences of dams,
however, have gone well
beyond forest loss, with severe
environmental changes
affecting local people both at
the dam site and across the river
basin. The reservoir floods the
finest agricultural soils and
leads to the substantial
environmental changes, such as
the disappearance of the river’s
vegetation and wildlife, with
serious consequences for those
who rely on such resources.
 Large dam building have
serious consequences on the
living conditions and culture of
populations, especially
indigenous people. They have
displaced large numbers of
people, who, when resettled,
have been unable to recover
acceptable conditions of
existence. People affected by
the negative impacts have not
always enjoyed the benefits
from the dam. Millions of
people living downstream from
dams (particularly those
depending on natural flood
plain function and fisheries)
have also suffered serious harm
to their livelihoods and the
future productivity of their
resources has been put at risk.
Major examples are the
Narmada Bachao Andolan
movement in India, the Bio Bio
Action Group in Chile, the
Coalition of Concerned NGOs
on Bakun in Malaysia, the
People Affected by Dams
movement in Brazil among
many others. It has now
become possible to stop large
hydro dams. They are definitely
not a symbol of development
but one of economic and
political power resulting in
social and environmental
degradation.
4) Impact on Biodiversity: Dams 4) Impact on Biodiversity: Dams 4) Impact
alter the ecosystems and
biodiversity of rivers. In the old biodiversity.
industrialised countries, countries of olden times,
development now is towards
the decommissioning of dams
rather than the construction of
new ones, but in many
developing countries development is progressing
exploitation of rivers is
proceeding at a fast rate. The
impact of a dam on biodiversity
may be divided into upstream
effects caused by the from changes in the flow and
impounded water, downstream
effects caused by changes in
flow and the quality of water
The living conditions and Dam construction has a
population’s culture, especially significant impact on the living
indigenous people are severely circumstances and culture of
impacted by the construction of populations, particularly
large dams. A large number of indigenous peoples. They have
individuals become homeless displaced vast numbers of
due to the construction of dams, people, who have been unable
who, when resettled, have not to re-establish decent living
been able to recover acceptable circumstances after being
conditions of existence. People relocated. People who have
impacted negatively and have been harmed by the dam’s
not always enjoyed the benefits negative effects have not
from the dam. Millions people always reaped the advantages.
living downstream from dams Millions of people living
(specifically those living rely downstream of dams (especially
on natural flood plain function those who rely on natural flood
and fisheries) have also plain function and fisheries)
suffered severe harm to their have had their livelihoods
livelihood and the future ruined, and their resource’s
efficiency of their resources has future productivity has been
been place at risk. jeopardised.
The Narmada Bachao Andolan The Bio Bio Action Group in
movement in India, the Chile, the Narmada Bachao
Coalition of Concerned NGOs Andolan in India, the Coalition
on Bakun in Malaysia, the Bio of Concerned NGOs on Bakun
Bio Action Group in Chile, and in Malaysia, and the People
the People Affected by Dams Affected by Dams in Brazil are
movement in Brazil and so on just a few instances. It is now
are the major examples of it. feasible to halt the construction
This cannot be considered as of big hydroelectric dams. They
development however it is one are not a sign of development,
of the political and economic but rather of economic and
powers that lead to political dominance, which has
environmental and social resulted in social and
degradation. environmental devastation.
on Biodiversity:
changes river ecosystems and Building of dams lead to the
Industrialised major changes in the ecosystem
and biodiversity of rivers. The
development is more towards growth of old industrialised
demolition than dam nations is primarily focused on
construction, but in many dam decommissioning rather
developing countries, river than the construction of new
ones, yet river exploitation is
rapidly. The effects on dam accelerating in many emerging
biodiversity can be divided into countries. Upstream impacts are
upstream impacts from created by impounded water,
backwater, downstream impacts downstream effects are caused
by changes in flow and the
quality of discharged water, and quality of water released, and
impacts from materials, downstream effects are caused
organisms, and energy that by creatures, minerals, and
released, and effects that occur cannot pass through the dam. energy being blocked from
because organisms, materials i) Upstream Impacts: going through the dam.
and energy are prevented from a) Creation of a i) Upstream Impacts:
passing the dam. Reservoir: A river a) Creation of a
i) Upstream Impacts: blocking leads to Reservoir: A reservoir
a) Creation of a reservoir upstream is created upstream
Reservoir: The from the dam. The from a dam when a
damming of a river reservoir waters spill river is dammed. The
creates a reservoir over in the surrounding reservoir waters
upstream from the dam. environments, overflow into the
The reservoir waters overflowing the natural neighbouring areas,
spill-out into the habitats which resided flooding natural
surrounding before the construction ecosystems that existed
environments, flooding of dams. Emissions of before the dam was
the natural habitats that greenhouse gas can also built. Reservoirs can
existed before the contributed by also contribute to the
dam’s construction. reservoirs. release of greenhouse
Reservoirs can also b) Fragmentation of River gases.
contribute to Ecosystems: Dam is the b) River Ecosystem
greenhouse gas barrier between the Fragmentation: A dam
emissions. upstream and also functions as a
b) Fragmentation of River downstream movement barrier between
Ecosystems: A dam also of migratory river migratory river species
acts as a barrier between animals. For example like salmon and trout
the upstream and trout and salmon. Dams moving upstream and
downstream movement blocks their movement downstream. Dams
of migratory river upstream to spawning prevent them from
animals, such as salmon areas, threat of migrating upstream to
and trout. Dams block decreasing reproduction spawning grounds,
their migration upstream figures, and reduce the threatening to lower
to spawning areas, species population. reproduction numbers
threatening to decrease c) Reservoir and the population of
reproduction numbers, Sedimentation: Four the species.
and reduce the species different types of c) Reservoir
population. sediment down their Sedimentation: Rivers
c) Reservoir riverbeds, enabling for transport four distinct
Sedimentation: Rivers the formation of types of sediment down
carry four different riverbanks, oxbow their riverbeds,
types of sediment down lakes, levees, rivers, allowing riverbanks,
their riverbeds, coast/coastal shores are river deltas, alluvial
allowing for the carried by rivers. The fans, braided rivers,
formation of flow of sediment oxbow lakes, levees,
riverbanks, river downstream is blocked and coast/coastal
delta/deltas, alluvial by the construction of a coastlines to develop.
fans, braided rivers, dam, resulting to The building of a dam
oxbow lakes, levees downstream erosion of prevents material from
and coast/coastal this sedimentary flowing downstream,
shores. The depositional causing downstream
construction of a dam environment, and degradation of the
blocks the flow of increased sediment sedimentary
sediment downstream, constitute in the depositional
leading to downstream reservoir. environment and
erosion of this ii) Downstream Impact increasing sediment
sedimentary a) Riverline and Coastal build-up in the
Erosion: Reduced reservoir.
 depositional sediment load ii) Downstream Impact
environment, and downstream is the a) Riverline and Coastal
increased sediment resultant of constructed Erosion: A dammed
build-up in the dams. A blocked river river is considered to be
reservoir. is considered to be “hungry” for sediment
“hungry” for sediment. since all dams reduce
ii) Downstream Impact
This causes coastal sediment load
a) Riverline and Coastal erosion, because downstream. Beaches
Erosion: As all dams beaches are not able to are unable to restore
result in reduced replace what waves what waves destroy
sediment load erode without the without the sediment
downstream, a dammed sediment deposition of deposition of
river is said to be supporting river supporting river
“hungry” for sediment. systems. systems, resulting in
This prompts coastal coastal erosion.
erosion, as beaches are b) Water Temperature: b) Water Temperature:
unable to replenish Reservoir’s water is Reservoir water is
what waves erode often cooler in the typically warmer in the
without the sediment summer and warmer in winter and cooler in the
deposition of the winter than it would summer than it would
supporting river be without a dam. Water be without the dam.
systems. flows into its river, the The temperature of the
b) Water Temperature: changed temperature river is affected by the
The water of a reservoir impacts the temperature temperature of the
is usually warmer in the of the river. This affects water as it flows into it.
winter and cooler in the the animal and plant’s This has an influence
summer than it would be life available in the on the plant and animal
without a dam. As this reservoir and the river life in both the reservoir
water flows into its river, frequently creating and the river, frequently
the altered temperature environments that are producing unnatural
also affects the abnormal to the endemic conditions for
temperature of the river. species. indigenous species.
This impacts the plant
and animal life present
in both the reservoir and
the river, often creating
environments that are
unnatural to the endemic
species.

1.1.2.2. Dam: Benefits and 1.1.4.2. Dam: Benefits 1.1.6.2. Dam: Benefits and
Problems and Problems Problems
1) Benefits of Dams: The benefits Following are the benefits of dams: Following are the benefits and
of dams are usually to the 1) Benefits of Dams: The benefits problems associated with dams:
advantage of humans. They of dams are often to the 1) Benefits of Dams: Benefits of
may include: advantage of humans. It may dams are as follows:
i) Water Supply: Large involve: i) Water Supply: Both
quantities of appropriate i) Water Supply: Domestic domestic and industrial
quality water are required and industrial both applications necessitate large
both for domestic and necessitate large quantities of volumes of high-quality
industrial purposes. Large high-quality water. For water. For numerous
urban areas depend greatly various purposes, large urban purposes, large metropolitan
on water stored in dams and areas rely heavily on water centres rely heavily on water
reservoirs for various stored in dams and stored in dams and
 purposes. Water is stored reservoirs. Water is reservoirs. Water is
during high rainfall and is conserved during periods of conserved during periods of
used at the time of low heavy rainfall and utilised heavy rainfall and utilised
rainfall. This is especially during periods of low during periods of low
important in dry areas of the rainfall. This is especially rainfall. This is especially
world. essential in the world’s arid essential in the world’s arid
ii) Meet the Rural regions. regions.
Agricultural Demands: ii) Meet the Rural
Large quantities of water ii) Meet the Rural Agricultural Demands:
are required all over the Agricultural Demands: Water is required in large
world for meeting the needs Water is required in large amounts all around the
of agricultural irrigation. quantities all around the world to satisfy the
Dams and reservoirs are world to meet the needs of demands of agricultural
required in sufficient agricultural irrigation. irrigation. Dams and
numbers to supply Reservoirs and dams must reservoirs must be built in
sufficient quantities of be built in sufficient sufficient numbers to
water, especially to arid and numbers to provide provide adequate water
semi-arid regions of the adequate water supplies, supplies, particularly in arid
world. particularly in dry and and semi-arid parts of the
semi-dry regions of the world.
iii) Dams Help in Flood world. iii) Dams Helps in Flood
Control: Excessive Control: Floods are caused
precipitation in an area iii) Dams Help in Flood by excessive precipitation
results in floods, which Control: Floods caused due in a certain region, resulting
causes huge loss to life and to excessive rainfall in the in significant loss of life
property in the low lying area. This leads to massive and property in the low-
areas of a river where the loss of human lives and lying portions of a river
flood water flows. properties in low lying areas where the flood water
iv) Animal Benefits: For of a river where the flood flows.
animals the benefits may water flows. iv) Animal Advantages:
include larger numbers of Larger populations of fish
fish and birds in the iv) Animal Benefits: The and birds in the reservoir, as
reservoir, and greater habitat benefits for animals may well as higher habitat
diversity. involve a significant number diversity, may be among
2) Problems with Dams: Some of of birds and fish in the the animal benefits.
the problems associated with reservoir and hence a greater 2) Problems with Dams:
dams are as following: habitat diversity. Following are some of the
i) The impacts of large dams 2) Problems with Dams: problems associated with dams:
of ecosystems are more Following are the certain i) Large dams have more
negative than positive and problems linked with dams are: harmful than beneficial
in many cases, thighs has i) In many cases the effects of effects on ecosystems, and
let to serious irrecoverable large dams of ecosystem in many cases, they have
loss of species and are more negative instead resulted in irreversible
ecosystem. of positive, thighs results in species and ecological
ii) Large dams have serious severe unrecoverable loss losses.
consequences on the living of species and ecosystem. ii) Large dams have significant
conditions and culture and ii) Living conditions, negative effects on living
population, especially population and culture, circumstances, culture, and
indigenous people. They particularly indigenous population, particularly
have displaced large people are critically among indigenous peoples.
number of people who affected by large dams. A They have displaced a
when resettled, have been great number of people lost considerable number of
unable to recover their homes and moved to individuals, who have been
acceptable condition of another place and again unable to reintegrate into
resettled there but they have acceptable living conditions
 existence.
iii) The loss of forest and
wildlife habitat and the
degradation of upstream
catchments areas due to
inundation of the reservoir
area.
iv) The loss of aquatic
biodiversity of upstream
and downstream fisheries
and of the services of
downstream flood plains,
wetlands and revering,
estuarine and advection
marine ecosystem.
been not able to recover
suitable living condition.
iii) Inundation of the reservoir
area causes the loss of
wildlife and forest habitat
and degradation of
upstream watersheds areas.
iv) The loss of downstream
fisheries, aquatic
biodiversity of upstream,
revering and wetlands, the
services of downstream
flood plains, advection
marine ecosystem and
estuarine.
after being relocated.
iii) The flooding of the
reservoir region has
resulted in the loss of forest
and wildlife habitat, as well
as the deterioration of
upstream catchment areas.
iv) The loss of upstream and
downstream fisheries'
aquatic biodiversity, as well
as downstream flood plains,
wetlands, and revering,
estuarine, and advection
marine ecosystem services.