A1. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms 4.

2, Page 4-1 to 4-63

DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Graphitization: -Some Carbon Chemistry, stress, time of exposure and temperature. -Hot-wall piping and -Not visible, -Use chromium -Damage may occur at midwall, so
1A: 4-1 (4.2.1) steels equipment in the FCC containing alloys for removal of full thickness samples
-0.5Mo steels -Addition of 0.7% Cr eliminates. Two types – random, -Catalytic reforming -Only observed by long term exposure from the field for examination using
800°F to 1100°F and chain or local. Two forms-WHAZ and non- and coker units metallographic over temps above metallographic techniques
(427°C to 593°C), WHAZ. -Multipass butt welds form what is known as examination 800°F (427°C) -Temps above 1025°F (551°C)
eyebrow graphitization. At elevated temps the steel spheriodization tends to occur
loss in strength, decomposes into graphite nodules.
ductility and creep -May develop in 5 years at temps above 1000°F Related Mechanism:
resistance (538°C), or 30 to 40 years at 850°F (454°C) Spheriodization at 1025°F (551°C)
4.2.2

Spheriodization: Most Carbon Chemistry, microstructure, time of exposure and -Hot-wall piping and -Not visible, -Very difficult to -Removal of full thickness samples
2A: 4-5 (4.2.2) steel, temperature equipment in the FCC prevent, minimize from the field for examination
Low alloy steel -Catalytic reforming -Only observed by exposure to elevated using metallographic techniques
850°F to 1400°F C-0.5Mo, -Spheriodization can occur in a few hours at 1300°F and coker units metallographic temperatures -Reduction in strength and
(440°C to 760°C) 1Cr-0.5Mo, (552°C), but will take several years at 850°F (454°C) examination hardness is a key indicator
1.25Cr-0.5Mo,
Loss in strength and 2.25Cr-1Mo, -Annealed steels are more resistant than normalized. Related Mechanism:
creep resistance 3Cr-1Mo, -Coarse grained are more resistant than fine grained -Related to graphitization 4.2.1
5Cr-0.5Mo, -Fine grained silicone steels are more resistant than
9Cr-1Mo, aluminium
Temper -2.25Cr-1Mo, Alloy composition, thermal history, time of exposure -Reactors, hot feed -Not visible -Pressurization -Install blocks of original heats
Embrittlement: prior to 1972, and temperature. /effluent exchanger sequence to about inside reactors and remove
3A: 4-8 (4.2.3) -3Cr-1Mo, components, hot HP -Impact testing 25% of the MDP for periodically for impact testing
-High strength -Presence of alloying elements such as manganese, separators required, may temps below MPT
650°F to 1100°F low alloy Cr- silicone, phosphorus, antimony, arsenic. Strength level -Catalytic reforming contain crack like -Ensure proper pressurization
(343°C to 593°C) Mo-V rotor of heat treatment to be considered units (reactors and flaws -Limit levels of sequence is followed
steels. -Can be temporarily reversed by heat treating at exchangers), FCC manganese, silicone,
Loss in toughness 1150°F (620°C) for 2 hours per inch and rapidly reactors, coker and phosphorus, tin, Related Mechanism:
that is not evident cooling to room temperature visbreaking units antimony, arsenic. -N/A
in operation
Strain Aging: -Mostly older Better steel in the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) than -In walls of vessels, -Brittle cracks Sufficient amounts -No inspections
4A: 4-12 (4.2.4) (pre-1980) CS in the Bessemer or Open Hearth Furnace materials with no stress through of aluminum
Increase in hardness -C-0.5Mo, relieving metallurgical (+0.015 wt%) Related Mechanism:
and strength. -Better is a fully killed steel rather than a rimmed and analyses -Referred to dynamic Strain Aging
Reduction in capped with higher amounts of nitrogen and carbon -PWHT to weld when in intermediate temperature
ductility and repairs, buttering to -Blue Brittleness is another form
toughness. -Found in cold worked materials without stress minimize welding
relieving on old material
885°F (475°C) -400 Series SS Alloy composition, chromium content, amount of -Ferritic SS, -Not visible with -Use of low ferrite -Impact or bend test from samples
Embrittlement: -Duplex SS ferrite phase, temperature fractionator trays and metallography or non-ferrite alloys in the field.
5A: 4-14 (4.2.5) -Wrought and internals, HT vessels in
cast 300 Series -Precipitation of an embrittling intermetallic phase at the FCC -Confirmed from -Modifications in -More susceptible during
600°F to 1000°F -SS containing 885°F (475°C) -Crude, vacuum and samples removed chemical turnarounds, shutdowns when the
(316°C to 540°C) ferrite in welds -Not noticed at operating temperatures, will be noticed coker units. and either bend or composition material is below 200°F (93°C)
and weld during shut downs, start ups, upsets -Duplex SS heat impact tested Related Mechanism:
Loss in toughness overlay, -Operating time within the critical temperature exchanger tubes above -N/A
-Can be reversed by heat treating to dissolve 600°F (316°C)
precipitates followed by rapid cooling
A2. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms 4.2, Page 4-1 to 4-63
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Sigma Phase -300 SS Alloy composition, time, temperature. -SS cyclones, piping -Not visible. -300 SS can be de- -Physical testing of samples.
Embrittlement: -Cast 300 SS ductwork sigmatized by
6A: 4-16 (4.2.6) with HK & HP -Most rapid in the ferrite phase. -HT valves in the FCC -Only observed by annealing at 1950°F -Visuals on turnarounds, start up,
-400 SS -Can occur in austenitic SS subjected to 1275°F regeneration service. metallographic (1066°C) for 4 hours shutdowns or when material is
1000°F to -Ferritic and (690°C) PWHT. -300 SS overlays, tube examination and followed by a water below 500°F (260°C)
1750°F Martensitic with -Precipitation rate increases with increasing amounts of to tube sheet impact testing. quench
(538°C to 954°C) 17% Cr or more chromium and molybdenum. attachment welds -Control ferrite Related Mechanism:
-Duplex SS -Cooling below 500°F (260°C) may show lack of -SS heater tubes -Cracking at range to 5% to 9% -N/A
Loss of fracture toughness welds or in areas for 347 SS.
toughness of high restraint -PWHT for overlay
should be limited

Brittle Fracture: -Carbon steel, Size, shape, amount of applied and residual stress, stress -Equipment -Straight cracks, -Use low temp steels -Not normally used
7A: 4-19 (4.2.7) -Low alloy concentration manufactured to ASME non branching, no -Controlled chem.
steel, IX Div.1 prior to necking or shear compositions Related Mechanism:
Sudden rapid -400 SS -Steel cleanliness, grain size,. thicker materials December 1987 lip around the -Special heat -Temper Embrittlement 4.2.3
fracture under -Most cases, brittle fracture occurs only at temperature Addenda crack treatments and -Strain Age Embrittlement 4.2.4
stress, no below the charpy impact transition temperature -Light hydrocarbons, impact testing. Min. -885°F (475°C) Embrittlement
evidence of -Can occur during start up, shut down, ambient alkyalation, olefin units pressure at ambient 4.2.5
ductility or hydrotest/ tightness test. Thick walled equipment and polymer plants temps during start -Titanium Hydriding 5.1.3.2
plastic -Storage bullets/spheres up and shut down -Sigma Embrittlement 4.2.6
deformation

Creep/ Stress -All metals and Type of material, load and temperature -HT equipment, heater -Only by scanning -Cannot reverse, -Combination of UT, RT EC, and
Rupture: alloys tubes, tube supports, electron after identified, you dimensional measurements,
8A: 4-23 (4.2.8) -Increase of 25°F (12°C) or 15% stress can reduce hangers, hot wall microscope can reduce -Destructive sampling and
remaining life in half. catalytic reforming metallography temperature. metallographic examination.
Time dependant -Sensitive to both load and temperature reactors, hot wall FCC -Visual followed by PT or WFMT
deformation of -More likely in course than fine grain reactors, FCC main -Bulging before -Higher PWHT can every several years.
stressed fractionator, final fracture produce more creep -Flaws should be mapped
components -Creep threshold for Carbon Steel is 700F regenerator internals ductile material
Study chart on -HAZ at nozzles, long Related Mechanism:
page 4-25 seam welds, welds on -Re-heat Cracking 4.2.19
dissimilar metals
Thermal -All Materials Temperature swings and frequency are key factors -Mixing points of hot -Dagger shaped -Blend grinding, -Visual examination, MT, PT
Fatigue: and cold streams, coke transverse or smooth transitions -SWUT on reinforcing pads
9A: 4-27 (4.2.9) -Start up and shut down of equipment drum shells and skirts, transgranular and weld profile,
-Temp swings of 200°F (93°C) superheater and cracks on surface heating and cooling Related Mechanism:
Repeated thermal -Rapid changes in surface temperature reheater, soot blowers and are oxide at start/shut, slip -Corrosion Fatigue 4.5.2
cycling -Notches, sharp edges or corners containing condensate, filled spacer for steam -Dissimilar Metal Weld Cracking
rigid attachments -Toe of fillet equipment, drain 4.2.12
welds on steam lines for soot
equipment. blowers
Short Term -All fired heater Temperature, time and stress are key factors -In fired heaters: visual, IR of
Overheating- tubes and -All tubes, coker units, -Deformation, -Min. local tubes, tubeskin thermocouples
Stress Rupture: common -Flame impingement or overheating hydroprocessing bulging, rupture temperature, proper -In refractory lined equipment: use
10A: 4-23 materials -Overheating the design temperature reactors, refractory often called burner management, heat indicating paint, IR scans
(4.2.10) lined equipment in the “fishmouth” install bed Related Mechanism:
Permanent FCC, sulphur plant thermocouples in Creep/ Stress Rupture 4.2.8
deformation reactors
A3. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms 4.2, Page 4-1 to 4-63
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Steam -Carbon Steel, Heat flux and fluid flow -All steam generating -Open burst with -Proper burner -Look for bulging, ensure burners
Blanketing: -Low Alloy units. fractured edges, management. are properly maintained
11A: 4-35 Steel -Flame impingement or damaged burners -Fired boilers, heat severe elongation -Proper BFW
(4.2.11) -Dented tubes exchangers, sulphur of the grain treatment Related Mechanism:
Individual -Hoop stress plants, hydrogen structure due to -Caustic Corrosion 4.3.10
bubbles join to reformers, and FCC plastic -Short Term Overheating 4.2.10
form this, it is a -This is caused by short term overheating and happens units, superheaters, deformation
condition known in a few minutes reheaters
as Departure
From Nucleate
Boiling (DNB)
Dissimilar Metal -Carbon steel, Type of filler metal used, heating and cooling rate, -Piping around the -Cracks form at -Nickel base filler -Visual, MT, PT, and UT for
Weld (DMW) -Low alloy steel metal temp, time at temp, weld geometry, undercut, FCC, regenerator the toe on the metals internals
Cracking: austenitic SS thermal cycling vessels, ferritic side of the
12A: 4-38 hydroprocessing weld, support lugs -Use a pup piece Related Mechanism:
(4.2.12) -Expansion between the two metal differ by 30% which reactors, superheaters with a intermediate -Thermal Fatigue 4.5.9
lead to a high stress at high temperatures and reheaters -Welds joining thermal expansion -Corrosion Fatigue 4.5.2
Occurs in the -Area affected is the weld tubes are the most coefficient between
ferrtic side of the -Thermal cycling aggravates the problem common the two metals
weld

Thermal Shock: -All metals and Temperature differentials and coefficient of thermal -FCC, cokers, catalytic -Surface cracks -Install thermal -Difficult to locate, but can use PT,
13A: 4-32 alloys expansion reforming units. may also appear sleeves MT
(4.2.13) -HT piping and “craze” cracks -Minimize restraint,
-Cyclic stresses equipment in any unit. -Minimize rain or
Contact of cooler -Water Quenching -Equipment subject to fire water deluge Related Mechanism:
liquid onto a -Constraint – preventing expansion and contraction of accelerated cooling situations, -Thermal Fatigue 4.2.9
warmer surface components procedures -Review hot/cold
injection points
Erosion/ -All metals and Metal loss rates depends on the velocity of the -Bends, elbows, tees, -In the form of -Increase pipe -Visual, UT, RT, to detect metal
Erosion- alloys impacting medium reducers, pumps, pits, grooves, diameter to decrease loss
Corrosion: blowers, propellers, gullies, waves, velocity, -IR scans to detect refractory loss
14A: 4-44 -Size, shape, density, and hardness of the impacting impellor, agitator, rounded holes and streamlining bends,
(4.2.14) medium agitated vessels, heat valleys use harder alloys, Related Mechanism:
-Temperature, pH exchanger tubing, -Localized loss of hardfacing or -Cavitation 4.2.15
Accelerated -Also known as Liquid Impingement Erosion orifices, turbine blades, thickness surface hardening, -Liquid Impingement Erosion
mechanical - Erosion/ Corrosion occurs when corrosion contributes nozzles, ducts, vapour impingement plate 4.2.14
removal of to Erosion lines, scrapers, cutters, -Higher -Fretting
surface material. -Sometimes referred to as abrasive wear and wear plates molybdenum
-Seawater using materials to resist
naphthenic acid
Cavitation: -Carbon steel Inadequate NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) can -Pump casings, pump -Sharp edged -Mechanical -Visual, external UT and RT for
15A: 4-49 -Low alloy steel result in cavitation impellors, piping pitting or a modification or loss of thickness.
(4.2.15) -Brass downstream of orifices, gouged operation change -Sounds like pebbles being trashed
Form of erosion, -Copper -Boiling point of a liquid can result in bubble formation turbulent flow, heat appearance required. around inside.
instantaneous -Cast iron -Abrasive particles can accelerate damage exchanger tubes, -Do not let absolute
collapse of -300 SS venturis, seals, pressure fall below Related Mechanism:
innumerable tiny -400 SS bearings, impellors the vapour pressure -Liquid Impingement or Erosion
vapour bubbles -Nickel base of the liquid 4.2.14
alloys
A4. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms 4.2, Page 4-1 to 4-63
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Mechanical -All engineering Geometry, stress level, number of cycles, material Thermal Cycling: -“Clam shell” -Generous radius -VT of smaller pipe
Fatigue: materials properties -Coke drums, auxiliary type fingerprint along corners and -Vibration monitoring
16A: 4-53 boilers, quench nozzles that has edges -PT, MT, SWUT,
(4.2.16) -Notches or stress risers, mismatch welds, grinding concentric rings -Good fit ups,
marks Mechanical Loading: called “beach smooth transitions, Related Mechanism:
Components -Operate below the stress endurance limit -Rotating shafts, small marks” -Remove burs, lips -Vibration Induced Fatigue 4.2.17
exposed to -Inclusions found in metal have an effect diameter piping -Use low stress
cyclical stresses, -Heat treatment helps, finer grain microstructure -HP drop control valves stamps
mechanical -Quenching and tempering or steam reducing -Proper support
loading or -The ratio endurance limit is usually between .4-.5 UTS stations
thermal cycling -Found in the toes of the weld
below yield
strength.

Vibration- -All engineering Amplitude and frequency of vibration -Socket welds, small -Crack at a -Proper supports, -Visible signs of vibration, pipe
Induced materials bore piping near pumps threaded or vibration dampening movement, water hammer, audible
Fatigue: -Input load synchronous or nearly synchronizes with the and compressors not welded joint equipment sounds
17A: 4-59 natural frequency of the component gusseted properly, heat -Gussets and -Inspect during shut downs, start
(4.2.17) -lack of or excessive support or stiffening exchanger tubes stiffeners in small ups, upsets
bore piping -Measure pipe vibration, damage to
Cracks produced -Minimize vortex insulation, pipe supports, spring
from a result of shedding hangers
dynamic loading -PT and MT are the best
due to vibration Related Mechanism:
-Mechanical Fatigue 4.2.16
-Refractory Degradation 4.2.18
Refractory -Insulated Proper selection of refractory, design and installation -Refractories are used -Cracking, -Proper selection of -Visual during shut downs,
Degradation: ceramic fibres in: FCC reactor spalling, lift off refractory, anchors -IR to monitor hot spots
18A: 4-62 -Castables -Anchors must be of proper thermal coefficient, regenerator vessels, from the and fillers and there
(4.2.18) -Refractory -Resistant to oxidation, piping, cyclones, slide substrate, proper design and
brick -Resistant to condensing sulphurous acids valves and internal, softening or installation
Damaged by -Plastic fluid cokers, cold shell general
cracking, refractories catalytic reforming degradation, coke Related Mechanism:
spalling, erosion, reactors, waste heat deposits may -Oxidation 4.4.1
corrosion due to boilers, thermal develop behind -Sulfidation 4.4.2
oxidation, reactors in sulphur refractory -Flue Gas Due Point Corrosion
sulfidation and plants 4.3.7
other HT
mechanisms
Reheat -Low alloy steel Type of material, grain size, residual stress, notches and -Heavy wall piping and -Surface or -Proper joint Visual, UT, MT,
Cracking: -300 SS stress concentrators, weld and base metal strength, vessels, nozzle welds embedded configuration, UT on embedded cracks
19A: 4-63 -Nickel base welding and heat treating conditions -HSLA steels are cracking adequate preheat,
(4.2.19) alloys such as known -HAZ avoid short radius
Stress relaxing 800 H -Requires presence of high stress fillets or undercut
during PWHT or -Cracks mostly found at the heat affected zone -Long seam welds Related Mechanism:
in service at -No evidence of deformation are susceptible to -Also known as Stress Relieve
elevated -Creep deformation at the grain boundaries poor fit ups Cracking or Stress Relaxation
temperatures Cracking
observed on
heavy wall piping
B1. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness 4.3, Page 4-65 to 4-101
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING
Galvanic All materials Presence of an electrolyte, fluid such as water that can -Any unit with Occurs at welded -Anode to cathode -Visual inspections and UT checks
Corrosion: with the conduct a current conductive fluid. or bolted ratio should be good. -May be hidden under a bolt or rivet
20B: 4-65 exception of -Anode and cathode that come into to contact with an -Support towers. connections -More noble head
(4.3.1.1) most noble electrolyte. -Buried pipelines. material should be
metals -Further alloys are apart, higher corrosion. -Support towers. Loss of thickness, coated. -Cathode is more noble
Occurs in the -Oxidation -Anode is high if a small anode to cathode ratio. -Ship hulls appearance of a -Electric insulating Related Mechanism:
presence of an occurs at the -Anode is less if a large anode to cathode ratio. crevice, groove or bolt sleeves and -Soil Corrosion
electrolyte at the anode -Same alloy may act as anode and a cathode due to pitting. gaskets for piping
junction of -Oxidant occurs surface films.
dissimilar metals at the cathode -Anode to cathode reverses at water temps over 150F
Atmospheric -Carbon steel Location of plant, moisture, cooling tower mist, -Low operating temps -Corrosion or loss Proper coating and Visual and UT
Corrosion: -Low alloy steel presence of salts, sulphur and dirt compounds -Cycle operating temps in thickness. surface preparation
21B: 4-69 -Copper alloyed -Equipment shut down. -Iron oxide (red
(4.3.2) aluminum -Designs that trap water. -Water trapped under rust) scale forms -Corrosion rates
-Chlorides, H2S, fly ash, and others that may drift from pipe supports, wind, increase at
Occurs from cooling towers, furnace stacks. rain, bimetallic temperature up to Related Mechanism:
moisture -Bird poop connections. 250F -Corrosion Under Insulation
associated with -Marine locations very corrosive – 20 mpy, industrial is
atmospheric -5-10 mpy, moderate inland ~1-3 mpy, dry is >1 mpy
conditions
Corrosion -Carbon Steel Design of insulating systems, insulation type, operating Units with a higher Carbon and low Maintain the -Inspection plan for CUI should be
Under -Low alloy steel temperature, environment moisture content, alloy steels: insulation and considered
Insulation: -300 SS cooling towers, steam Appears as loose vapour barriers -Partial and full stripping
22B: 4-71 -Duplex SS -More severe between 212°F (100°C) and 250°F vents, deluge systems, flaky scale -UT for thickness
(4.3.3) (121°C) acid vapours 300 SS Proper selection of -RT for small bore piping
-Marine environments, cyclic or intermittent Calcium silicate insulation. -IR or neutron backscatter
temperatures Insulation support rings insulation techniques to look for wet
Water trapped -Equipment that operates below the water dew point with no standoff, ladder containing Low chloride insulation
under insulation -Insulation with chlorides can affect 300 SS and platform clips, chlorides will pit insulation for 300 Related Mechanism:
or fireproofing -Insulation that holds moisture called “wick” lifting lugs, nozzles and cause chloride SS -Atmospheric Corrosion
SCC -Chloride SCC
Cooling Water -Carbon steel Fluid temperature, type of water, type of cooling Water cooled heat -Wavy smooth Proper design, -Monitor: pH, oxygen, cycles,
Corrosion: -All SS system, oxygen content, fluid velocities exchangers corrosion at operation, and biocide residual, biological activity,
23B: 4-75 -Copper nozzle inlets chemical treatment outlet temps, hydrocarbon
(4.3.4) -Aluminum -Fouling may occur from mineral deposits Cooling towers -Corrosion at contamination, process leaks
-Titanium -Velocities should be high enough to prevent fouling ERW weld areas Side inlet temps -Ultrasonic flow meters to check
Caused by -Nickel -300 SS suffer pitting, crevice, and SCC in fresh, and appears as below 135°F (57°C) for velocity
dissolved salts, brackish, and salt water grooves -EC or IRIS inspection of tubes
gases, organic -Titanium suffers severe Hydriding Embrittlement at Periodic cleaning of
compounds or temperatures above 180°F (82°C) ID/OD of tubes Related Mechanism:
microbiological Microbiology Induced Corrosion
activity Chloride Stress Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
Boiler Water -Carbon steel Dissolved gases, oxygen, carbon dioxide result in External treatment Corrosion from -Oxygen scavenging -Water analysis, monitor pH,
Condensate -Low alloy steel corrosion in the BFW and condensate return systems systems, deaerating oxygen tends to treatments such as conductivity, chlorine, residual
Corrosion: -300 SS equipment, feedwater be pitting catalyzed sodium biocide, total dissolved solids
24B: 4-78 -Copper based -Maintain a layer of protective Fe3O4 (magnetite) in the lines, pumps, stage sulphide or -No proactive inspections
(4.3.5) alloys boiler heaters, economizers, Corrosion from hydrazine -WFMT on deaerater
Pitting in the -Oxygen scavengers and chemical treatment for scale steam generating carbon dioxide -Scale/deposit Related Mechanism:
boiler system and -For predicting BWCC, research records of deaerators systems, condensate tends to be a control/magnetite -CO2 Corrosion
condensate return operation return system smooth grooving maintenance -Corrosion Fatigue
piping of the pipe wall -Erosion/Erosion Corrosion
B2. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness 4.3, Page 4-65 to 4-101
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

C02 Corrosion: -Carbon steel Partial pressure of CO2, pH and temperature -BFW, condensate -Thinning Corrosion inhibitors Visual, UT, RT and angle probe on
25B: 4-80 -Low alloy steel systems, -Pitting -Vapor phase weld seams
(4.3.6) -Corrosion occurs in the liquid phase -Effluent gas streams, if -Weld roots inhibitors
-Increasing temperature increases corrosion rate the dew point of -Increasing the
CO2 dissolves in -Min of 12% chromium will begin to eliminate effluent stream drops condensate pH to
water to form below 300°F (149°C) a above 6
carbonic acid in corrosion rate of 1000 -300 SS, 400 SS and
which lowers the mpy could occur duplex SS are very Related Mechanism:
pH -Overhead systems of resistant. -Boiler Water Condensate
regenerators in CO2 Corrosion
removal plants -Carbonate Cracking
Flue-Dew Point -Carbon steel The concentrations of contaminants, operating -All fired processes and Carbon Steel: Maintain the Visual, UT, PT,
Corrosion: -Low alloy steel temperature of the flue gas metal boilers that burn fuels General wastage metallic surfaces at
26B: 4-84 -300 SS containing sulphur often with broad, the back of the
(4.3.7) -Severe if metal temperatures are below the dew points -Stacks shallow pits boiler
Sulphur and -Dewpoint of sulphuric depends on the amount of -Economizer Related Mechanism:
chlorine species sulphur trioxide in the flue gas, noticed at 280°F -HRSG with 300 SS 300 SS: Ensure fired heaters -Chloride Stress Corrosion -
form sulphur (138°C) feedwater will be Surface breaking are above the Cracking
dioxide, sulphur -Dewpoint of hydrochloric acid depends on the amount affected by chlorine cracks temperature of -HCL Corrosion
trioxide and of hydrogen chloride, notices at 130°F (54°C) and may suffer sulphuric acid
hydrogen Chloride SCC dewpoint corrosion
chloride -Boilers and heaters
Microbiology -Carbon steel Found in conditions of stagnant and low flow water -Heat exchangers Localized pitting -Water should be -Measure biocide, residual,
Induced -Low alloy steel -Storage tank bottoms under tubercles, treated with biocides microbe counts, visual appearance
Corrosion -300 SS -Can grow under conditions of lack of oxygen, light, -Stagnant or low flow such as chlorine, -Use special probes
(MIC) -400 SS dark, high salinity, pH range from 0 to 12 and temps piping systems Carbon Steel: bromine, ozone, -Foul smell
27B: 4-86 -Aluminum from 0°F to 235°F (-17°C to 113°C) -Hydro test equipment Cup shaped pits ultraviolet light,
(4.3.8) -Copper - Require carbon, nitrogen , and phosphorus to grow with standing water left proprietary
-Nickel in it Stainless Steel: compounds
Caused by living -It is a biological induced degradation -Fire water systems Subsurface -Cathodic protection Related Mechanism:
organisms such -Needs water to thrive cavities -Maintain flow -Cooling Water Corrosion
as bacteria, algae, velocities
fungi, it appears
as a tubercles or
slimy organic
substance
Soil Corrosion -Carbon steel Operating temperature, moisture and oxygen in the soil, -Underground piping -Appears as -Use special -Measure the structure to soil
28B: 4-91 -Cast Iron soil resistivity, soil type, homogeneity, cathodic and equipment external thinning backfill, coatings potential using dedicated electrodes
(4.3.9) -Ductile Iron protection, coating type -Buried tanks due to pitting and cathodic -For piping use inline inspection
-Soil resistivity is used to estimate soil corrosivity -Ground supported -Poor protective protection devices or guides guided ultrasonic
Deterioration of -Soil resistivity is related to the moisture and dissolved structures coating damage -Most effective is a thickness tools or pressure testing
metals exposed to electrolytes content in the soil -Use ASTM STP 741 combo of is a
soils -High moisture, high dissolved salts, high acidity cause & API RP 581 PUB coating and cathodic Related Mechanism:
the most corrosion 581 to est. corrosion protection Galvanic Corrosion
Caustic -Carbon steel Presence of caustic (NaOH or KOH) -Boilers -Grooves in boiler -Reduce the amount -UT
Corrosion: -Low alloy steel -Steam generating tubes of free caustic -Check injection points
29B: 4-95 -Caustic is sometimes added to process streams such as equipment -Localized -Proper burner -Probing suspected areas with a
(4.3.10) BFW for a neutralizer or as a reactant -Heat exchangers gouging management. sharp instrument
Caustic or -Used for removal of sulphur compounds -Units that use caustic Related Mechanism:
alkaline salts -Steam Blanketing
occurs under
evaporative cond.
B3. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness 4.3, Page 4-65 to 4-101
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Dealloying: -Copper Composition of alloy, temperature, degree of aeration, -Underground cast -Color change -Addition of certain -May not be visible with the eye
30B: 4-98 -Brass pH, exposure time piping -Deep etches alloying elements -No changes in dimensions
(4.3.11) -Bronze -Cooling water -Cathodic protection -Metallurgical examination
-Tin -Exact condition under which dealloying occurs are -Heat exchangers coatings -Acoustic techniques
One or more -Alloy 400 often hard to define -BFW
constituents of an -Cast Iron Related Mechanism:
alloy are attacked -Referred as dezincification,
destannification, denickelification,
dealuminumification, graphitic
corrosion

Graphitic -Grey cast iron Composition of alloy, temperature, degree of aeration, -Underground piping, -May not be Very difficult to -May not be visible with the eye
Corrosion: -Nodular cast pH, exposure time BFW equipment, visible with the predict if exposure -No changes in dimensions
31B: 4-101 -Malleable cast valves, eye conditions will cause -Metallurgical examination
(4.3.12) irons -Graphite is a cathodic to the iron matrix -Fire water systems -Soft and easy to this form of -Acoustic techniques
-Loss of strength, ductility, density, low pH, stagnant gouge with a dealloying in an
Form of conditions, presence of moisture, knife particular
dealloying in -In the presence of an aqueous phase, usually below environment or not
which the iron 200F
matrix is
corroded
C1. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – High Temperature Corrosion [400°F (204°C)] 4.4, Page 4-105 to 4-126
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Oxidation -Carbon steel Begins at temperatures above a 1000°F (538°C) -Fired heaters/ boilers Carbon Steel -Upgrade to a better -Use tubeskin thermocouples and or
32C: 4-105 -Low alloy steel -Combustion piping -Thinning resistant alloy infrared thermography
(4.4.1) -Cast -Chromium content determines the rate and equipment -Chromium is the
-Wrought -300 SS are resistant up to 1500°F (816°C) primary resistant
Metal converting -All 300 SS SS & Nickel alloy Related Mechanism:
to oxide caused -400 SS -Very thin dark -Known as surface scaling
by oxygen -Nickel base scale
alloys

Sulfidation: -Carbon steel Alloy composition, temperature, concentration of -HT environments -Uniform thinning -Aluminum -Look for increasing temps or a
33C: 4-109 -Low alloy steel sulphur compounds -Crude, FCC, Coker, -Scale covers the diffusion treatment change in sulphur content
(4.4.2) -300 SS vacuum, visbreaker, surface of -300 SS use a -Use tubeskin thermocouples and or
-400 SS -Begins at temperatures above 500°F (260°C) hydroprocessing units components catalyst support infrared thermography
Is the reaction -Nickel alloys -Resistance in nickel is determined by chromium -Heaters fired with oil, -The lower the screen -UT
with sulphur -Copper alloys content gas, coke chrome content -Chromium is the -Proactive retroactive PMI programs
compounds -Primarily caused by H2S or other sulphur species the more primary resistant Related Mechanism:
-A sulfide scale on a surface may offer some degree of susceptible the alloy -Known as sulfidic corrosion
protection corrosion
Carburization: -Carbon steel Three conditions must be in effect -Fired heater tubes are -Change in -Alloys with strong -Destructive sampling and magnetic
34C: 4-113 -Low alloy steel 1. Carbonaceous material or carburizing environment the most common ferromagnetism surface oxide or based techniques (Eddy Current)
(4.4.3) -300 SS 2. Carbon diffusion into metal at 1100°F (593°C) -Under coke deposits -Increase in sulfidic film formers -Determining increased levels of
-400 SS 3. Susceptible material -Catalytic reformer hardness and loss -Reduce the carbon ferromagnetism
Carbon is -Cast SS heater tubes and coker in ductility activity
absorbed in the -Copper alloys -Carbon is absorbed in the material while in contact units Related Mechanism:
material with a carbonaceous material or carburizing -Ethylene pyrolysis and -Metal Dusting 4.4.5
environment steam reformer
-Carbon and low alloy steel a hard form of carbon furnaces
creates a brittle surface

Decarburization -Carbon steel Time, temperature and carbon activity -Almost any equipment -Damage occurs -Control the gas -Field metallography and replication
: -Low alloy steel exposed to HT’s, heat on the surface phase selection to -Hardness testing
35C: 4-116 -Material must be exposed to the gas phase that has low treatment, or a fire exposed to the gas API RP 941
(4.4.4) carbon activity so the carbon will diffuse to the surface. environment -Cr and Moly have
-Loss in strength more stable carbides Related Mechanism:
Removal of -High Temperature Hydrogen Attack
carbon and -Once a layer of decarburized material has been 5.1.3.1
carbides leaving established it will be pure iron
only an iron
matrix
Metal Dusting: -Low alloy steel Process stream composition, operating temperatures and -Fired heater tubes Low alloy steels: -Sulphur in a -For heater tubes, use compression
36C: 4-118 -300 SS alloy composition -Thermowells Small pits filled carburizing wave UT
(4.4.5) -Nickel -Furnace components with a crumbly atmosphere forms a -RT for pitting and wall thinning
-Heat resisting -Metal dusting is preceded carburization -Catalytic reforming residue of metal protective coating -Use visual for internals
Form of alloys 1. Surface of the metal matrix by carburization; unit heater tubes oxides and
carburization 2. Precipitation of metal carbides -Coker heater carbides -There is no known Related Mechanism:
resulting in 3. Deposition of graphite from the atmosphere -Gas turbines that is immune to -Known as catastrophic
accelerated 4. Decomposition of the metal carbides -Methanol reforming SS and high alloy: metal dusting carburization
localized pitting 5. Deposition of graphite catalyzed by the metal unit outlet piping and Deep round pits -Carburization 4.4.3
particles thermal
hydrodealkylation
furnaces and reactors
C2. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – High Temperature Corrosion [400°F (204°C)] 4.4, Page 4-105 to 4-126
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Fuel Ash -All alloys The concentration of molten salt forming contaminants, -Any fired heater or Oil ash: -Better blending or -Visual inspections
Corrosion: -Alloys of 50Cr- metal temperature and alloy temperature gad turbine Severe metal loss changing fuel -UT
37C: 4-121 50Ni family -Fired heaters burning with slagging sources
(4.4.6) Corrosion only occurs if the metal temperature is above vanadium and sodium -When corrosion -Proper burner
the liquid species formed and they are listed below -Turbines suffer blade is removed it design and burner
Occurs when - For oil ash: the liquid species are mixtures of corrosion appears like management can
containments in vanadium pentoxide and sodium oxide or vanadium “alligator hide” reduce flame
the fuel form pentoxide and sodium sulphate that melt at 1000°F impingement
deposits and melt (538°C) Coal ash: -Injecting special Related Mechanism:
on the metal -For coal ash: superheater and reheater corrosion is -A smooth fuel additives Known as hot, hot ash, molten salt,
surfaces of fired caused by sodium and potassium iron trisulfates that interface between oil ash, coal ash corrosions
heaters, boilers melt at 1030°F and1130°F (544°C and 610°C) a glassy layer and
and gas turbines -Unburned coal particles also add carbon to the fly ash metal

Nitriding: -Carbon steels Dependant on temperature, time, partial pressure of -Any location -Dull dark grey -30% to 80% nickel -Dull dark grey surface look,
38C: 4-126 -Low alloy steel nitrogen and metal composition -Steam methane surface look, only is more resistant -Hardness test
(4.4.7) -300 SS reformers seen with -300 SS to be checked for
-400 SS -Hard, brittle, surface layer caused by high levels of -Steam gas cracking metallography magnetism
Hard, brittle -Nickel alloys nitrogen compounds such as ammonia or cyanides (olefin plants) and during the early -Metallography
surface layer -Nitriding begins above 600°F (316°C) and becomes ammonia synthesis stages -In advanced stages PT, RT, UT
severe at 900°F (482°C) plants -When advanced,
-30% to 80% nickel alloys are more resistant surface becomes Related Mechanism:
-400 to 500 BHN very hard -Carburizing 4.4.3
Metal Dusting 4.4.5
D1. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Environment-Assisted Cracking 4.5, Page 4-130 to 4-152
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Chloride Stress -300 SS Chloride content, pH, temperature, stress, presence of -All 300 SS piping -Cracks on the -When hydrotesting, -Cracking may be detected visually
Corrosion -Duplex SS oxygen and alloy composition and pressure vessel process side or use low chloride -PT or phase analysis EC
Cracking(CI SCC) -Nickel alloys components externally under content water -Eddy current
39D: 4-130 (4.5.1) -Usually occurs above 140°F (60°C) or lower -Water cooled insulation -Proper applied -UT
Caused by the -Higher stressed or cold worked components condensers -Metallography of coatings under
action of tensile -Nickels 8% to 12 are resistant, above 35% are very -Crude tower cracked samples insulation Related Mechanism:
stress, temperature, resistant and above 45% are immune overhead condensers show -Caustic SCC 4.5.3
and an aqueous -Carbon steel, low alloy steel and 400 SS are not -Drains in the transgranular -Polythionic Acid SCC 5.1.2.1
chloride susceptible to CI SCC hydroprocessing units cracks
environment -Boiler drain lines
Corrosion All metals and Material, corrosive environment, cyclic stresses and -Rotating equipment -Brittle, cracks, Rotating equipment: Rotating equipment:
Fatigue: alloys strain stresses. -Deaerators transgranular, but -Use proper coatings -UT, MT for cracks
40D: 4-135 (4.5.2) -Cycling boilers not branched -Min galvanic Deaerators:
-Corrosion promotes failure at a lower stress and -Equipment subject to -Often multiple couple effect -WFMT inspection
Form of fatigue number of cycles than the materials normal endurance cyclic stresses in a parallel cracks Deaerators: Cycling boilers:
cracking caused by limit corrosive -Little plastic -Proper BFW and -Pinhole leak starts, UT
cyclic loading and -Cracks are initiated by pits, notches, surface defects, environment deformation condensate chems
corrosion changes in sections and fillet welds -Circular cracks -Nice weld contour Related Mechanism:
on cyclic boilers Cycling boilers: -Mechanical Fatigue 4.2.16
around the weld -Start up slow -Vib. Induced Fatigue 4.2.17
-BFW chemistry
Caustic Stress -Carbon steel Depends on caustic strength levels, metal temperature, -Piping and equip. in -Cracks parallel to -PWHT to 1150°F -Visual, WFMT, EC, RT, or
Corrosion -Low alloy steel and stress levels a caustic and H2S the weld in (621°C) ACFM, UT, SWUT, AET
Cracking (Caustic -300 SS -Caustic concentrations of 50 to 100 ppm are sufficient environment adjacent to the -Proper steam -PT inspection would be the least
Embrittlement): -Nickel alloys to cause cracking. Corrosion rates are high above 150F -Mercaptan removal weld cleaning procedures
41D: 4-138 (4.5.3) -Residual stresses by welding and cold working units -Spider cracks -Proper design and
-Cracks can grow through a wall in hours or days -Improper heat -As-welded CS, operation of Related Mechanism:
-Care with steam tracing and steamout of non-PWHT’d tracing forms as network injection systems -Amine Cracking 5.1.2.2
Carbon steel and piping and equipment -Proper steam of very fine oxide -Carbonate Cracking 5.1.2.5
- Form of SCC initiated by surface cracks caused by cleaning procedures filled cracks
caustic
Ammonia Stress -Carbon steel For copper alloys: For copper alloys: For copper alloys: For copper alloys: For copper alloys:
Corrosion -Copper alloy -Residual stress and chemical compounds -Tubes in heat -Bluish corrosion -Decrease zinc -Monitor pH and ammonia of
Cracking: -Zinc content of brasses above 15% exchangers on surface cracks, content below 15% water, visual or EC
42D: 4-144 (4.5.4) -Weld hardness -Oxygen transangular or
should not -pH above 8.5 For carbon steel: intergranular For carbon steel: For carbon steel:
Aqueous streams exceed 225 -Occurs at any temperature -Ammonia -Use PWHT -WFMT for inside tanks
containing BHN For carbon steel: refrigeration units For carbon steel: -Weld hardness -UT for external
ammonia -Anhydrous ammonia with <2% water -Lube oil refining -Welds and HAZ should exceed -AET
-PWHT eliminates susceptibility processes 225BHN Related Mechanism: N/A
Liquid Metal -Carbon steel Occurs in a combination of metals with low melting -Equipment may be -Intergranular -Protect metal from MT, PT, RT
Embrittlement -Low alloy steel points such as zinc, mercury, cadmium, lead, copper, affected after a fire brittle cracks coming into contact
(LME): -High strength and tin where metals have detected only with low melting
43D: 4-148 (4.5.5) steel dripped onto others through metals
-300 SS -Cracking can occur simply by contacting the molten -Mercury is found in metallography -Do not weld 300 SS Related Mechanism:
Cracking when -Nickel alloys metal with a certain alloy some crude oils and -Spectrographic to galvanized - Known also as Liquid Metal
molten metals come -Copper alloys -Cracks can pass through a wall in seconds of contact can condense in the analysis may used components Cracking
into contact with -Aluminum -May crack later when the temperature rises above the atmospheric towers to determine
certain alloys alloys melting point of the low temperature alloy molten metal
-Titanium alloys species
D2. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Environment-Assisted Cracking 4.5, Page 4-130 to 4-152
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Hydrogen -Carbon steels Three condition must be satisfied: -Carbon steel piping -Brittle fracture -Use lower strength -PT, MT, WFMT, UT, RT
Embrittlement -Low alloy steel 1. Hydrogen at the critical level and vessels in a wet surface cracks steels and PWHT -Hydrogen flux can be monitored
(HE) -400 SS 2. Steel/Alloy must be susceptible to Embrittlement H2S, FCC, -Cracking is often -Use low hydrogen using special instruments
44D: 4-152 -Precipitation 3. Stresses above the threshold from residual stresses hydroprocessing, intergranular in electrodes and Related Mechanism:
(4.5.6) hardenable amine, sour water and higher strength proper preheating -Known as hydrogen flaking,
(PH) SS Hydrogen comes from all forms including: HF alkylation unit -Apply protective underbead cracking, delayed
Loss in ductility -High Strength -Welding with moist electrodes linings, SS cladding, cracking, hydrogen assisted
due to the nickel base -Cleaning and pickling -Thick walled or weld overlay cracking, hydrogen induced
penetration of alloys -Wet H2S or HF acid services in which in atomic components cracking
atomic energy hydrogen diffuses into the steel -Imperfections in steel -SSC 5.1.2.3
-235 BHN -Untempered -HSC Cracking 5.1.2.4
martensite and pearlite
E1. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Phenomena 5.1, Page 5-1 to 5-27
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Amine -Carbon steel Not caused by amine itself, but results from dissolved -Crude, coker, FCC, -Uniform thinning -Pay attention to Visual and UT checks on internal
Corrosion: acid gases (CO2 and H2S), amine degradation products, hydrogen reforming, in low stream acid gas loading equipment
45E: 5-1 (5.1.1) Heat Stable Amine Salts (HSAS) and other hydroprocessing and velocities levels -UT scans or profile radiography for
contaminants. tail gas units -Localized -Storage tanks and external inspection
Occurs on carbon -Amine -Depends on design and operation practices, type of -Regenerator reboiler thinning for high surge vessels should -Corrosion coupons and/or corrosion
steel in amine cracking is amine, amine concentration, contaminants, temperature and the regenerator velocities be blanketed with probes
treating processes, mostly from and velocity -Lean/rich exchangers, associated with inert gas
amine is used to the lean side -For CS velocity 3-6 fps for rich, 20 fps for lean hot lean and rich amine turbulence -Solids and Related Mechanism:
remove H2S, CO2 -Rich amine -Most to least: MEA, DGA, DIPA, DEA, MDEA piping, amine solution hydrocarbons should Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
and mercaptan is associated -220 F can result in acid gas flashing corrosion pumps and reclaimers be removed from the 5.1.2.2
with Wet H2S inhibitors to control amine amine solution
Ammonium -Carbon steel Depends on NH4HS concentration, velocity, localized -Hydroprocessing units -Loss in thickness -Balanced flow in -UT, RT high velocity areas
Bisulphide is less turbulence, pH, temperature, alloy composition and -FCC units in carbon steel and out of air -IRIS, RFEC, and flux leakage for
Corrosion resistant flow distribution -Sour water strippers -Plugging and exchangers steel air cooler tubes
(Alkaline Sour -300 SS, (SWS) fouling in the heat -Maintain velocities EC non-magnetic air cooler tubes
Water): duplex, -Nitrogen in the feed is converted to ammonia and -Amine units exchangers at 10 to 20 fps for -Monitor water injector and flow
46E: 5-4 (5.1.1.2) aluminum reacts with the H2S to form NH4HS, this precipitates -Delayed coker carbon steel meters
alloy, nickel out of the gas at a temp below 150°F (66°C) and may -Use resistant
Occurs in units alloy, are cause fouling and plugging unless washed away materials for Related Mechanism:
handling alkaline more resistant -Oxygen and iron in the wash water can cause corrosion velocities above 20 -Erosion/Erosion Corrosion 4.2.14
sour waters -Cyanides increase the severity fps (Alloy 825,
Duplex)
Ammonium -Carbon steel Depends on the concentration of (NH3, HCI, H2O, -Crude tower overheads -Salts appear to -Limit salts by -Difficult to detect
Chloride -Low alloy amine salts), temperature, present water -Hydroprocessing have a whitish, limiting chlorides -RT, UT for wall thickness
Corrosion: steel -Catalytic reforming greenish, or -Water wash may be -Corrosion probes or coupons
47E: 5-8 (5.1.1.3) -300 SS -Aluminum chlorides salts are hygroscopic, and readily -FCCU and coker brownish required
-400 SS absorb water overheads -Very localized -Reactor effluent can
Occurs under -800 & 825 -An addition of a small amount of water can be very -Top pumparounds and result in be treated
ammonium -625 alloy corrosive pitting -Use neutralizing or
chloride or amine -C276 -Water wash injection may be required to dissolve the -Corrosion rates filming amines Related Mechanism:
salt causing pits -Titanium salts are extremely HCI Corrosion 5.1.1.4
high

Hydrochloric -All common Depends on HCI concentration, temperature, and alloy -Crude unit -Uniform thinning -Use 20 ppm or less -General thinning
Acid (HCI) materials composition -Hydroprocessing units of carbon steel -Water washing -Monitor mixing points
Corrosion: -Catalytic reforming -300 and 400 SS -Neutralizing and -Use automatic UT or RT
48E: 5-10 -Very corrosive where water is available and forms units suffer pitting filming amines -Periodic sampling of water
(5.1.1.4) hydrochloric acid. attack Special absorbents -Corrosion probes or coupons
-Oxidizing agents (oxygen, ferric and cupric ions) will -Chloride treaters Related Mechanism:
Vapours increase the corrosion rate -Ammonium Chloride Corrosion
containing water -Chloride SCC
and hydrogen and - HF may be accompanied by hydrogen cracking, -Localized Corrosion 4.5.1
then condense blistering, HIC and SOHIC
High Temp -Carbon steel Depends on temperature, presence of hydrogen, -Piping and equipment -Loss of thickness -Use a higher UT, VT and RT
H2/H2S -Low alloy concentration of H2S and alloy composition in units where high accompanied by chromium content -Process simulations to be verified
Corrosion: steel temperature H2/H2S iron sulphide -SS is also resistant
49E: 5-13 -400 SS - Presence of hydrogen in H2S increases this corrosion streams are found scale Related Mechanism:
(5.1.1.5) -300 SS at temps above 500°F (260 °C) -Hydrogen injection -Shiny grey scale High Temperature Sulphide 4.4.2
Presence of -Found more in gas and oil desulfurizers and points -Scale is 5 times
hydrogen in H2S hydrocrackers than in naphtha desulfurizers the metal loss
increases this -Increasing chromium content to 7 or 9 Cr
 E2. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Phenomena 5.1, Page 5-1 to 5-27
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Hydrofluoric -Carbon steel Depends on water content, temperature, alloy -Piping and equipment -Severe thinning -Upgrade to alloy -UT, RT
(HF) Acid -Copper alloy composition, and the presence of contaminants such as in the HF alkylation of carbon steel 400 -Use special emphasis programs
Corrosion: -Nickel alloy oxygen, and sulphur contents unit, flare piping, units -Alloy 400 shows -Minimize water, recommended in API RP 751
50E: 5-16 -C276 alloy exposed to carry over uniform loss in oxygen, sulphur and
(5.1.1.6) -The presence of water can destabilize the fluoride scale -Deadlegs, vents, drains thickness other contaminants
-Low alloy steel and convert it into a voluminous nonprotective scale -Isostripper -Fouling due to in the feed
High rates of 300 and 400 SS, -Limit the total Residual Element (RE) content to .20% -Depropanizer iron fluoride -PWHT
general or local these metals are max., where RE= %Cu + %Ni + %Cr -HF stripper/propane scales -Replace alloy 400 Related Mechanism:
corrosion not suitable for -HF may be accompanied by hydrogen cracking, stripper with alloy C276 -Environmental Cracking 5.1.2.4
accompanied by HF service blistering, HIC or SOHIC -Flange faces -Hydrogen Cracking 5.1.2.3
hydrogen
cracking and
blistering

Naphthenic -Carbon steel NAC is a function of naphthenic acid content, -Crude and vacuum -Pitting, flow -Change or blend -UT, RT
Acid Corrosion -Low alloy steel temperature, sulphur content, velocity and alloy heater tubes, crude and induced grooving crudes -Monitor TAN and sulphur content
(NAC): -300 SS composition vacuum transfer lines, in high velocity -Upgrade metallurgy of the crude
51E: 5-19 -400 SS vacuum bottoms piping area -Utilize chemical -Use hydrogen probes also
(5.1.1.7) -Nickel alloys -Neutralize Number or Total Acid Number (TAN) is a -AGO, HVGO, LVGO -Loss in thickness inhibitors -RT first and then followed by UT,
measure of the acidity (organic acid content) and is test circuits -Use a higher very hard to detect
A form of high to ASTM D-664 -LCGO, HCGO molybdenum
temperature -Sulphur promotes iron sulphide formation and has a streams content
corrosion inhibiting or decreasing affect on NAC -High velocity, - Alloy 625 and
Occurs -NAC occurs above 425°F (218°C) or as low as 350°F turbulent or change of Alloy 276 is the Related Mechanism:
primarily in the (177°C) flow direction areas most resistant Sulfidation is comparable
crude and -Minimum of 2% to 2.5% molybdenum is needed to
vacuum units resist NAC
Phenol -Carbon steel Depends on temperature, water content, alloy -Phenol extraction -General/localized -Max. velocity of -UT, RT for thickness
(Carbonic -304L, 316L SS chemistry, and velocity facilities in lube plants corrosion of 30 fps in overhead -ER corrosion probes or corrosion
Acid) -C276 alloy carbon steel circuits coupons
Corrosion: -Carbon steel and 304/304L SS corrode rapidly at -Localized loss in >30°F (17°C) above
52E: 5-23 temperatures above 450°F (232°C) thickness due to the dew point for
(5.1.1.8) -Corrosion is minimal at temps below 250°F (121°C) erosion-corrosion recovery tower
overhead temps
Occurs in plants -316L SS for
using phenol as furnace tubes Related Mechanism:
solvent to -Replace 316L with N/A
remove aromatic alloy C276
compounds from
lubricating oil
feedstocks
Phosphoric -Carbon steel Depends on acid concentration, temperature and -Piping and equipment -General/localized -Eliminate water -UT, RT for thickness
Acid -304L SS contaminants in the polymerization corrosion of -304L SS for temps -ER corrosion probes or corrosion
Corrosion: -316L SS unit where water mixes carbon steel 120°F (49°C) coupons
53E: 5-24 -Alloy 20 -In the presence of free standing water severe corrosion with catalyst -316L SS for
(5.1.1.9) of carbon steel may occur -Where there is little or 120°F to 225°F
-Corrosion can penetrate through ¼” thick steel tube in no circulation (49°C to 107°C)
Used as a 8 hours -Partial penetration -Alloy 20 or 316L Related Mechanism:
catalyst in -Mostly occurs during water washing at shut downs welds SS for concentration N/A
polymerization -Alloy 20 forms a protective iron sulfate coating film on up to 85%
units the surface
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

-Carbon steel Depends on H2S content, pH, temperature, velocity and -Overhead systems of -General thinning -Use 300 SS at -UT for thickness checks
Sour Water oxygen FCC and coker gas -Localized or temps below 140°F -Corrosion probes or corrosion
Corrosion -SS, copper and fractionation plants that underdeposit (60°C) coupons
(Acidic): nickel alloys are -A thin layer of iron sulphide will help protect to a pH have a high H2S levels attack corrosion -Copper and nickel -Measure pH
54E: 5-25 usually resistant above 4.5 and low NH3 levels -In some cases are usually not
(5.1.1.10) -Presence of air oxidants may increase pitting or 300 SS may see susceptible(attacked) Related Mechanism:
Occurs with underdeposit attacks pitting attack -Wet H2S 5.1.2.3
H2S at a pH -Carbonate SCC 5.1.2.5
between 4.5 and
7.0

Sulphuric Acid -Carbon steel Depends on acid concentration, temperature, alloy -Sulphuric acid -HAZ on carbon -Alloys such as alloy -UT or RT for turbulent zones or hot
Corrosion: -316L SS content, velocity, contamination, presence of oxidizers alkylation units steel 20, alloy 904L and areas
55E: 5-27 -Alloy 20 -Waste water treatment -Hydrogen alloy C276 resist -ER corrosion probes or corrosion
(5.1.1.11) -High silicon -In carbon steels, the corrosion rate increases when flow plants grooving in low dilute form a coupons
and nickel cast velocity exceeds 2 to 3 fps (0.6 to 0.9 m/s) or at acid -Bottom of flow or stagnant protective iron
Carbon steel iron concentrations below 65% fractionating towers areas sulphide film on the
HAZ may -Alloy B-2 -High corrosion rates occur where the acid becomes and reboilers -Attacks slag left surface Related Mechanism:
experience -Alloy C276 diluted with water at mixing points from welding N/A
severe corrosion -When the rate is
high, no scale will
appear
F1. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Environment-Assisted Cracking 5.1.2, Page 5-31 to 5-52
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Polythionic -300 SS Combination of environment, material, and stress are -Heat exchanger tubes -In the HAZ or -Preventative -PT, cracks are filled with tight
Acid Stress -Alloy required -Furnace tubes base metal, may measures to be taken deposit. Cracks may occur well
Corrosion 600/600H -Fired heaters or boilers appear as a leak if equipment will be into the shut down and may need
Cracking -Alloy -Crack, beside the weld (HAZ) or in high stress areas burning oil, gas, coke, during start up or open or exposed to to be sanded with a flapper disc
(PASCC) 800/800H -Cracking is due to sulphur acids forming from sulphur and most other sources in operation air -Inspection is a challenge
56F: 5-31 scale and can occur in minutes or hours with high sulphur -Cracking -L grades will -Not practical or present during
(5.1.2.1) -Affected material become sensitized in elevated temps contents intergranularly sensitize if temps operation
Occurs during during manufacture, in service, welding -FCC, hydroprocessing, -Corrosion or loss above 1000°F
shut downs, -Sensitization refers to the composition/time/temp/ that crude, coke units in thickness (538°C) Related Mechanism:
start ups, creates the formation of chromium carbides and is -Heat treatment Known as Intergranular Corrosion
operation when created at temps of 750°F to 1500°F (400°C to 815°C) and Intergranular Attack
the presence of
air and moisture

Amine Stress -Carbon steel Caused by the combined action tensile stress and -Non-PWHT -Cracks, parallel -PWHT all carbon -Visual, WFMT, ACFM, UT,
Corrosion -Low alloy steel corrosion in a aqueous alkanolamine system used to -Found in weld metal to the weld steel in accordance AET
Cracking remove/absorb H2S and/or CO2 and HAZ with high -Weld metal the to API RP 945
57F: 5-37 stresses cracks are either -Use solid or clad Related Mechanism:
(5.1.2.2) -Cracking is caused by residual stress from welding -Contactors, absorbers. transverse or SS, alloy 400 in lieu -Amine Stress Corrosion
cold working or non-PWHT components strippers, regenerators longitudinal with of carbon steel Cracking 4.3.10
Combined -Exposure to steam out and short term carry amine carry and heat exchangers the weld -Water wash non- -Carbonate Stress Corrosion
action of tensile over -Similar to wet PWHT carbon steels Cracking 5.1.2.5
stress and -Cracks are filled with oxide with some branching H2S cracking prior to welding
corrosion in an
aqueous
alkanolamine
system

Wet H2S -Carbon steel 1. Hydrogen Blistering: -Wherever there is -Hydrogen -Use alloy and -Field sampling of the free water
Damage -Low alloy steel May form as surface bulges on the ID, OD, or within Wet H2S present blisters appear as coating phase
(Blistering/ the wall thickness. Found in the material. Occurs at bulges -Follow NACE RP0296
HIC/ SOHIC / ambient to 300F. PWHT has no effect -Vapour recovery -Attracted to -Limiting the -Visual, WFMT, WC, RT,
SCC) sections of the fluid surface hardness of welds ACFM, UT, SWUT, AET
58F: 5-41 2. Hydrogen Induced Cracking: catalytic cracking, laminations and HAZ to 200 HB
(5.1.2.3) Interconnecting cracks between the blisters that have a delayed coking units -Found in the
stair step appearance. Found in the material. PWHT has weld and HAZ -Use preheat, PWHT
Four types of no effect -Fractionator overhead -Proper weld Related Mechanism:
damage that drums, fractionation procedures -Amine Cracking 5.1.2.2
result in 3. Stress Orientated Hydrogen Induced Cracking towers, absorber and -Carbonate Cracking 5.1.2.5
blistering and/or (SOHIC): Driven by high levels of stress. Found in the stripper towers, -Control of carbon
cracking HAZ. PWHT is somewhat effective of reducing compressor interstage equivalents -Hydrogen Stress Cracking HF
separators and Acid is the same mechanism
There are 4 4. Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking (SSC): knockout drums, and -Was water injection responsible for SCC
types that are Combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in the various heat to dilute the HCN
promoted by presence of water and H2S. It attacks hard spots in the exchangers, concentration
free water in the weld and HAZ. PWHT is very effective. Occurs at 180F condensers, and coolers
liquid phase CS in a SSC environment should be below 200 BHN -PH 7 has the least
-Sour water stripper amount of hydrogen
Depends on environment conditions (pH, H2S levels, and amine regenerator diffused into the
contaminants, temperature), material properties overhead systems metal
(hardness, microstructure, strength) and tensile stress
level (applied or residual)
F2. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Environment-Assisted Cracking 5.1.2, Page 5-31 to 5-52
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

Hydrogen -Carbon steel Depends on steel hardness, strength and stress -High strength low -Cracking on the -PWHT -WFMT
Stress -Low alloy steel alloy steel such as surface -<200 HB hardness -Hardness Testing
Cracking – HF ASTM A193-B7 bolts -Carbon Equivalent
59F: 5-50 -Form of environmental cracking in high hardness in -Compressor (CE) of less than Related Mechanism:
(5.1.2.4) the weld metal and HAZ as a result of exposure to components 0.43 -Sulphide Stress Corrosion
aqueous acid environments -ASTM A193-B7M ASTM A193 B7M Cracking
Form of -Caused by low heat input in welds bolts if overtorqued are softer than a B7
environmental -Inadequate heat treatments -Use multiple weld
cracking in high passes to heat treat
hardness in the CE = C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V) /5 + (Cu+Ni) /15
weld metal and -237 BHN hardness level are highly susceptible and
HAZ time to failure increases as hardness increases

Carbonate -Carbon steel Depends on stress level and water chemistry -Fluid catalytic -Cracking parallel -PWHT to about -Monitoring the pH and CO3-2
Stress -Low alloy steel cracking unit main to the weld and 1150°F (621°C) -WFMT, ACFM, UT, SWUT
Corrosion -Occurs at welds or cold worked areas that have not fractionator overhead adjacent to the -Use effective -Electrical resistance type
Cracking been stress relieved condensing and reflux weld coatings instruments that measure crack
60F: 5-52 -Cracks are found with increasing pH and carbonate system -Initiate at or -Clad 300 SS or depth or not effective because of
(5.1.2.5) (CO3-2) concentrations -Wet gas compression interconnect with alloy 400 in lieu of the presence of magnetic iron
-Water phase with 50 wppm or greater H2S at a pH of system weld-related flaws carbon steel oxide in the crack
Combined 7.6 or greater -Sour water systems -Water wash non-
action of tensile -Cyanides increase this corrosion -Potassium carbonate, PWHT
stress and -In scrubbing units when the CO2 content is above 2% catacarb, CO2 removal -A metavanadate Related Mechanism:
corrosion in and temps exceed 200°F (93°C) facilities of hydrogen inhibitor can be -Stress Corrosion Cracking
carbonate- manufacturing units added in hot -Amine Cracking 5.1.2.2
containing carbonate systems in -Caustic Stress Corrosion
systems the CO2 removal -Cracking 4.5.3
units
G1. API-571 Damaged Mechanisms – Other Mechanisms 5.1.3, Page 5-56 to 5-61
DAMAGED AFFECTED CRITICAL AFFECTED APPEARANCE PREVENTION/ INSPECTION/
MECHANISM MATERIAL FACTORS EQUIPMENT OF DAMAGE MITIGATION MONITORING

High Carbon steel Depends on temperature, hydrogen partial pressure, -Hydroprocessing units, -Cannot be -Use steels with high -Extremely difficult to detect
Temperature C-0.5Mo time and stress hydroheaters, confirmed until in chromium and -In-situ metallography can only
Hydrogen Mn-0.5Mo hydrocrackers, catalytic the early stages, molybdenum detect microfissuring, fissuring
Attack (HTTA) 1Cr-o.5Mo -Figure 5-35 shows the curves that show a reformers bubbles, cavities content to increase and carburization
61G: 5-56 1.25Cr-0.5Mo temperature/hydrogen partial pressure safe operating -Hydrogen producing, can be detected by carbide stability -WFMT and RT can only detect
(5.1.3.1) 2.25Cr-1Mo envelope hydrogen clean up, a microscope -Use a 25°F to 50°F in the advanced stages
2.25Cr-1M0-V -300 SS, 5Cr, 9Cr and 12Cr alloys are not susceptible to pressure swing -HTHA cavities (14°C to 28°C) as a -AET is not proven
Hydrogen reacts 3Cr-1Mo HTTA absorption units are sometimes safety factor when
with carbides in 5Cr-0.5Mo -Additional information can be found in API RP 941 mistaken for creep using the curve chart Related Mechanism:
steel to form and similar -Inspection is very difficult because the problems cavities API RP 941 Known as hydrogen damage
methane (CH4) steels with sometime lay in the heat affected zone or the base metal -Some blistering
which cannot variation away from the welds may be visible to
diffuse through chemistry the naked eye
the steel

Titanium -Titanium alloys Depends on metal temperature, solution chemistry and -Sour water strippers -Not readily -Do not use in -Eddy current
Hydriding alloy composition -Amine units apparent hydriding services -No techniques to monitor or
62G: 5-61 -Overhead condensers -Metallurgical such as amine or inspect
(5.1.3.2) -Occurs at temperatures above 164°F (74°C) and at a -Heat exchanger tubes techniques sour water
pH below 3, pH above 8 or neutral pH with a high H2S -Any titanium above -Mechanical -Use all titanium
Hydrogen content -165°F (74°C) temps testing construction
diffuses into the -Galvanic contact between the titanium and more active -Electrically isolate Related Mechanism:
titanium and materials such as carbon steel and 300 SS promote -Bend or crush the titanium from Titanium Hydriding is very
reacts to form an damage test and will crack non-titanium unique to few titanium alloys
embrittling -Hydriding is absorbed by the component and reacts to or shatter if components and zirconium.
hydrogen phase form embrittling hydride phase embrittled
-Hydriding continues to increase until complete loss of
ductility results
-400 to 500 BHN is an indication that hydrating has
taken place