Understanding Gas Control

UNDERSTANDING
GAS CONTROLS
ISSUE 1: 04.02
INDEX
SECTION I - BASIC PRINCIPLES Page 1 - 13
Basic physical laws & principles utilised in the operation of gas pressure regulators
Gauge & Atmospheric Pressure - P1
Boyle’s Law - P2, Charles Law - P3
Standard Conditions STP - P3
Mass/Volumetric Rate of Flow - P4
Specific Gravity of Gases - P4
Calorific Values - P4
Dew Point of Gases - P5
Refrigeration Effects - P5
Explosive Limits of Gases - P6
Noise Generation Associated with Gas Pressure Reduction - P6-7
Mechanical Leverage; Bell Crank & Toggle Arms - P8-10
Fluid Mechanics - P11
Characteristics of Gas Flow - P12
Critical Low Pressure - P12
Total Pressure; Static & Velocity Pressure - P13
SECTION II - BASIC ELEMENTS OF REGULATORS Page 14 - 23

Explanation of the basic elements used to make a regulator
Measuring Elements : Diaphragms - P14, Bourdon Tubes - P14-15, Manometers - P15, Bellows - P15-16, & Pistons - P16
Loading Elements :
Weight - P16
Springs - P17
Fluid Pressure Loading - P17-18
Restricting Elements :
Orifice & Valve - P18-19
Single & Double Beat Valves - P19-21
Designs of valves & their characteristics - P 21-23
SECTION III - CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF A BASIC REGULATOR Page 24 - 35

Discussion of the utilisation of physical principles in the design of basic regulators
The Ideal Regulator - P24
Pressure Deviations of Piston Regulator - P26-27
Effective Diaphragm Radius - P27-28
Spring Constants - P31
Diaphragm Effect, Spring Effect, Body Effect - P32
Use Of Velocity Pressure In Regulator Design - P33-35
Zero Regulator/Governor - P35
SECTION IV - PRESSURE LOADING SYSTEMS Page 36 - 42

The use of constant pressure, pressure control & pilots as loading elements in gas pressure regulators
Constant Pressure loading - P36-37
Pressure Control - P38-40
Pilot Loading - P41-42
SECTION V - REGULATOR INSTALLATIONS, AUXILIARY CONTROLS SYSTEMS Page 43 - 48

Covering typical regulator installations & the characteristics & benefits of needle valve, Inspirator & clocked auxiliary systems
Impulse line positioning - P43
Hunting & Chattering - P44
Needle Valve or Lock Up Auxiliary System - P45-46
Inspirator System Auxiliary - P46-47
Clock Control of District Outlet Pressure - P48
Electroclock - P48
INDEX
SECTION VI - PRESSURE REDUCING STATIONS, FAULT IDENTIFICATION Page 49 - 57
Description typical control systems used in pressure reductions stations
Typical Gas Distribution Network - P49
Pressure Reducing Station Sizing - P49
Pressure Reducing Station Arrangements;
Active/Slam - P50
Active/Monitor - P51
Active/Monitor/Slam - P52
Active/Monitor/Slam - Two Stage Reduction - P52, Figure 69
Stream Selection/Discrimination - P53
Underground Buried Vector Module - P54
Pressure Reducing Station Quick Reference Fault Identification Charts - P55-57
SECTION VII - TYPICAL PRESSURE REDUCING STATION COMPONENTS Page 58 - 68

Details operation & benefits of design features of filters, regulators, relief valves, safety cut-off valves (slam shuts), solenoid
valves & non-return valves (NRV)
Service Regulators with Integral Safety Cut-Off Valves (OPCO over pressure cut-off valve & UPCO under pressure cut-off valve) - P60
Single Valve Regulators - P60
Balanced Single Valve Regulators - P61-62
Twin valve Regulators - P62-63
Membrane Regulators - P63-64
Gas Filters - P64
Safety Cut-Off Valves - P65
Solenoid Operated Safety Cut-Off Valves - P66
Relief Valves - P66-67
Non-Return Valves - P67
Maintenance of Pressure Reducing Stations - P68
SECTION VIII - GAS MEASUREMENT - METERING & VOLUME CORRECTION PTZ Page 69 - 75
Benefits & limitations of the different designs of meter commonly used for gas measurement. Followed by an explanation of the
need for PTZ volume correction of meter readings.
Positive Displacement;
Diaphragm Type - P69
Roots Type - P69-70
Inferential;
Turbine - P70-71
Vortex Meter - P71-72
Ultrasonic Meter - P72-73
Typical Arrangements Of Pressure Reducing & Metering Stations;
Diaphragm - P73
Roots - P74
Turbine Meters - P74
Meter Sizing : Calculation Of Actual Volume Flow - P74
PTZ Volume Correction For Metering - P75
GLOSSARY OF TERMS Page 76 - 78
APPENDIX 1 - CUSTOMER SUPPORT SERVICES Page 79
APPENDIX 2 - CONVERSION FACTORS & TOPICAL DATA Page 80
Complied & edited by ;

Chris Leonard
Geoff Clark
19.03.02
PRICE : £25.00 PER COPY (AUGUST 2002)

BRYAN DONKIN RMG - UNDERSTANDING GAS CONTROLS SECTION I Page 1
SECTION I - THE BASIC PRINCIPLES

The design & way in which gas regulators work can only be understood with a knowledge of certain
fundamental principles of Physics. These notes have been prepared as a reminder of these principles.
First, it will be necessary to understand the definitions of certain physical characteristics of gases.
1. PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the force acting on a unit of area. It may be defined in a number of different ways,
depending on the units of force & area chosen.
Historically in the UK, the area chosen was the square inch, the force may have been in pounds, inches
water column, or inches Mercury column. Where pressure is expressed in inches of a fluid, this refers to
the pressure that will support the weight of a column of liquid regardless of cross sectional area.
Currently, however, S.I. or metric system is in use in the UK & many other countries throughout the world,
excluding the USA. Metric pressures are stated in mm wg, mbar, bar or kPa.
Typically regulator (governor) engineers deal with gauge pressures & absolute pressures. Before looking at
these in detail, we must first distinguish carefully between the definitions of atmospheric pressure, gauge
pressure & absolute pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure created by the weight of the atmosphere surrounding the Earth. A
Barometer measures it. The reading from a Barometer varies with the weather conditions. The weight of
the atmosphere above any point varies with the height of that point above sea level. If a location is above
100m (300ft) above sea level, this should be recorded; where calculations are being carried out on lighter
than air gases, particularly in respect of volume, a correction will be needed for this difference.
Gauge pressure is the pressure in excess of atmospheric pressure as observed by any measuring device.
Commonly used devices are Bourdon type gauges, fluid manometers, deadweight pressure testers &
Digital Manometers. Bourdon type gauges rely on pressure straightening a coiled tube, manometers
usually called a column or U-Tube rely on displacement of fluid, & the deadweight tester is a method of
balancing the pressure in a cylinder by loading a piston with weights. All these devices are explained in
more detail later. The standard U-Tube can also be made with one of its legs almost horizontal, thus
expanding the scale on the leg, this is called an inclined manometer. Which of these devices is best used
depends on the pressure to be measured & the accuracy required.
An approximate indication of which device to use for a given situation is shown below;
Vacuum to 140-mbar g (2 psi) - Water Column / U-Tube or Inclined Manometer or Digital Manometer
1 bar (15 psi) of higher - Bourdon Tube Gauge or Deadweight Gauge or Digital Manometer
Bourdon tube gauges are likely to be inaccurate at low pressure due to friction in the linkage which
transforms the movement of the spiral tube into the semi-rotary movement of the pointer, Columns & U-
Tubes for pressures over 1.5 bar (>25 psi) are bulky. For almost all pressures over 350 mbar (5 psi),
Bourdon tube type gauges are sufficiently accurate. A Bourdon Tube is not suitable for obtaining very
accurate gas pressures for volume measurement; this would require a deadweight pressure tester.
E.g., the Nash-Thompson type is well known in the Gas Industry. Digital manometers are manufactured for
use with low or high pressures.
Absolute pressure- is obtained by adding atmospheric pressure to gauge pressure. It is therefore, the
pressure difference between gauge pressure & a vacuum.
Relationship between Pressure & Volume

The volume of a gas has been found to vary inversely against absolute pressure providing that temperature
is kept constant. This relationship is known as Boyle’s Law after the scientist to whom its discovery is
attributed.
COPYRIGHT© - STRICTLY NO REPRODUCTION OF THIS DOCUMENT WITHOUT WRITTEN CONSENT FROM BRYAN DONKIN RMG
In simple Mathematics;
PV = Constant or P1V1 = P2V2
Where subscripts 1 & 2 refer to the pressure & volumes of a fixed amount of gas at a constant
temperature. If the pressure & volume are known at one pressure, the volume can be calculated at a
second pressure. See Figure 1
FIGURE 1. BOYLE’S LAW
PV = CT
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points. It is most conveniently measured by
means of a digital manometer or U-Tube, the two legs of which are connected to the two pressures.
Common uses of differential pressure measuring devices are at orifices, meters or restrictors in the
pipework. Double bellow units have also been developed for measuring differential pressures.
2. TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a measure of the heat level of a substance; it can be expressed in one of several
temperature scales. In the UK & in Europe the Centigrade (or Celsius) scale is used in which water freezes
at 0ºC & boils at 100ºC. In the US & in the past in the UK the Fahrenheit scale of temperature was used,
where water freezes at 32ºF & boils at 212ºF above an arbitrary zero. This zero was the lowest attainable
by researchers some 200 years ago from mixing ice & salts.
More recently it was discovered that both theoretically & practically that there is an absolute zero of
temperature. At this temperature, molecular motions cease & various other factors indicate that a
temperature less than this cannot be obtained. It has been proved that the volume of a gas at constant
pressure is directly related to its temperature above absolute zero; as temperature decreases, volume
decreases.
On the Fahrenheit scale, the absolute zero is minus 460ºF & hence the absolute, Rankine temperature is
the temperature above absolute zero on the Fahrenheit scale & hence is obtained by adding 460ºF to the ºF
thermometer reading. On the Centigrade scale, water freezes at 0ºC & boils at 100ºC with absolute zero at
minus 273ºC.
The relationship between absolute temperature & volume is known as Charles Law. This can be expressed
by a simple mathematical formula;
V / T = Cp
At constant pressure Cp, where temperature T is expressed in degrees absolute & V is volume, the value V
/ T is constant for a given pressure & the following equation may be used to calculate one value if the other
three are known.
V1 = V2
T1 T2
Subscripts 1 & 2 refer to conditions of a given amount of gas at constant pressure. See Figure 2.
FIGURE 2. CHARLES’ LAW

V / T = CP
This is a fundamental & commonsense principle that heat can only flow between objects at different
temperatures. Heat, a form of energy, flows freely from a source at a higher temperature to a receiver at a
lower temperature. The rate of transfer of this heat is proportional to the difference in temperature, i.e. to
the temperature gradient, & inversely proportional to the resistance to its flow. We do not have to talk in
terms of resistance to heat, except rather generally in respect of insulation but in respect of coefficients of
heat transfer.
3. GAS LAWS
The concept of absolute temperature & pressure is essential for the measurement & calculation of gas
volumes. Combining Boyle’s & Charles Law gives us the Perfect Gas Law, which we can state as;
PV / T = Constant
Few gases are actually prefect gases. They diverge from prefect gas behaviour at high pressure. Pressures
utilised in the Gas Industry are such that reasonably accurate calculations can be made using this law.
4. STANDARD TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE & CUBIC METRE OR FOOT
As we have seen, in order to define a quantity of gas by volume, it is necessary to define the temperature &
pressure conditions at which this volume is measured.
Pressure Standards
International Standards Atmosphere (1 atm) = 1013.25 mbar = 29.9213 inHg = 760mm Hg
Metric Atmosphere (1at) = 980.66 mbar = 1 Kg f / cm2 = 735.6 mmHg
Nomenclature; ata = absolute pressure, atu = gauge pressure
Standard Reference Conditions Pressure Temperature Molar Volume
Normal Temperature & Pressure
1013.25 mbar 0ºC 22.412 m3/Kg mol
(NTP)
These conditions are the “Standard temperature & pressure” (STP) of BS 350:1963
Metric Standard Conditions
1013.25 mbar 15ºC Dry 23.64 m3/Kg mol
(MSC)
This the standard used in the British Gas Industry
Imperial Standard Conditions
30 inHg 60ºF Dry 378.4 ft3 / lb mol
(ISC)
20ºC
I.S.O. R 554 1013 mbar
65% Relative humidity
68ºF
A.S.M.E Test Code 29.92 in Hg
50% Relative humidity
As none of these standards has been exclusively adopted, any reference to “Standard Conditions” should
be accompanied by a statement, which defines these conditions.
MASS / VOLUMETRIC RATE OF FLOW

ft3/hr = lb/h x Vm1 m3/h = kg/h x Vm2
M M
ft3/hr = lb/h m3/h = kg/h

P1 P2
ft3/hr = lb/h x SV1 m3/h = kg/h x SV2

G G
Where ;
M = molecular weight G = Specific Gravity (Air = 1) Vm1 = molecular volume (imperial)
P1 = density lb/ft3 P2 = density kg/m3 Vm2 = molecular volume (metric)
SV1 = Specific Volume (imperial) SV2 = Specific Volume (metric)
Condition NTP MSC ISC Units

Vm1 - - 378.4 ft3 / lb mol
Vm2 22.412 23.64 - m3 / kg mol
SV1 - - 13.06 ft3 / lb
SV2 0.774 0.816 - m3 / kg
5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF GASES

Specific gravity is a term used to relate the weights of equal volumes of gas & air (identical temperature &
pressures being assumed). The standard, air, is given the value of 1.00. A specific gravity less than unity
(1), indicates that a gas is lighter than air & tends to rise upon release. The opposite is true for gases &
vapours with specific gravities greater than unity.
Specific gravity is of importance in connection with governors as it affects flow rate through a fixed
opening; the flow rate increases as specific gravity decreases. This is not uniform with all gases but an
approximation. The specific gravity of Town gas is approximately 0.5 whilst that of Natural Gas is in the
range 0.6 to 0.7. Compare this with Nitrogen 0.97, Carbon Dioxide 1.53 & Propane 1.52.
6. CALORIFIC VALUES
The calorific value of a gas is the amount of energy released when a fixed amount of gas is completely
burnt. The calorific valve can be for a given volume or for a certain weight of gas. In the UK, this is usually
quoted in B.T.U’s (British Thermal Units), this being the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 pound of water by 1ºF. On the continent, the equivalent unit is 1 kilogram/calorie (Kg-Cal), which is the
quantity of heat required to raise 1 kilogram of water by 1ºC. Hence, in the UK, the calorific value of gas is
normally given as B.T.U/cu.ft.
Where a gas contains hydrogen in free or combined form, the products of combustion will contain water in
the form of water vapour (steam). In this case, it is necessary to recognise two different calorific values,
namely the gross calorific value & net calorific value.
The gross calorific value assumes that the energy from the combustion which vaporises the water
produced, is available as useful heat, i.e. it is the total energy released by the combustion process.
The net calorific value assumes that this latent energy is not available but is lost with the steam up the flue,
i.e. the water vapour is not condensed.
Therefore, the net value is the value of the useful heating power of the gas.
The calorific values of natural gas range between 850 & 1050 B.T.U’S/per cubic foot gross; that of Town’s
gas is often between 450 & 500 B.T.U’S per cubic foot gross.
7. DEW POINT
Dew point is the temperature at which water vapour in the air or in a gas will begin to condense. It is a
function both of the mass of the water vapour per unit volume of gas, i.e. specific humidity, & the pressure
of the gas. Figure 3 shows the dew point temperatures of gas at various water contents & pressures.
Icing can occur in governors & pipework when the surrounding air temperature is both below freezing point
& below the dew point for the pressure & humidity within the system.
In addition to possible problems created by condensation of water vapour, the presence of water vapour in
gas streams may cause a reaction between gaseous hydrocarbons & water vapour to form what are called
hydrates of carbon. These have an appearance similar to dry ice & are capable of causing governors to
freeze up or block. Unlike normal freezing on governors, the hydrate passes from the solid state to vapour
directly when thawing (i.e. it sublimes) & leaves no telltale puddle of water. Often hydrates have
disappeared by the time the regulator is opened up. Moisture contents of up to 1kg per 8,000m3/hr (8
pounds/million ft3) have been found under normal conditions.
FIGURE 3. RELATION OF NATURAL GAS SATURATION HUMIDITY TO TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE
8. REFRIGERATION EFFECT
When a gas is reduced in pressure, the temperature is decreased. This is called the Joule-Thomson effect.
The refrigeration effect obtained by throttling is very nearly 0.6ºC (1 ºF), per atmosphere of pressure
reduction. Thus a governor reducing natural gas from 10 to 1 bar (150 psi to 15 psi) would deliver gas
roughly 5ºC (9 ºF) lower than that entering. This temperature decrease is transmitted to the governor body
& adjacent pipework which can cause icing, as frequently observed with governors making a large
pressure reduction even though ambient temperatures are well above freezing.
Freezing Effects of Regulators

As gas passes through a regulator the reduction in pressure causes a temperature drop, if the gas carries
water, this may freeze, blocking the regulator or causing it to stick in one position. Most gases are dry, but
care must be taken to ensure the temperature remains above 0ºC. If necessary, heaters should be used to
raise the inlet temperature of the gas.
9. EXPLOSIVE LIMITS
This defines the ranges & mixtures of gasses, in our case gas & air, which will burn or explode if ignited.
This range is normally taken as 5-15% for natural gas & 5-31% for manufactured towns gas. At pressures
of 14 & 24 bar (200 & 350 psig), the upper explosive limit rises to 24% & 40% respectively for natural gas.
It is, therefore possible for an explosion of a small quantity of an explosive mixture to create pressure,
which would bring large bulks of mixture above the upper limit. This sort of snowballing action in a pipe is
called ‘pressure packing’ & usually results in the rupture of a portion of the pipe system.
10. NOISE.
Due to the many factors that cause high noise levels in connection with gas regulators, noise abatement is
an extremely complicated problem. It will be understood that noise is created at more than one source & is
radiated from the surface of the regulator body & its associated pipework at different sound pressure levels
& frequencies. The noise level will vary with the flow rate & pressure, usually increasing with an increased
through put & an increase in pressure drop until the critical velocity is reached. At critical velocity, noise
usually only increases with an increase in flow rate i.e. increasing pressure.
Noise levels of over 100 decibels are not uncommon in connection with the larger regulators. This noise
level can be very annoying & even cause ear damage if personnel are exposed for a long period.
Permanent loss of hearing can be caused at noise levels exceeding 120 decibels. The problem, however,
is confused since lower sound levels can be more “irritating” than higher figures in the decibel range, due
to the frequency. For instance, a sound having a frequency of 40 decibels at 1000 cycles per second is
comparable with a frequency of 63 decibels at 100 cycles per second. Before preceding further it would be
helpful to understand what a decibel is.
A decibel is a logarithmic function between the ratio of sound pressure being measured & the sound
pressure of 0.0002 microbar. Mathematically this becomes;
db = 20 log (existing sound pressure)
(0.0002 microbar)
Reference sound pressure
A 1000 cycles per second sound will be barely audible when 10-16 watts of electrical power is supplied to
one square foot of radiating area of 10-9ergs/cm2 sec at the source, this sound intensity can be expressed
as;
I=P2
2c
Where ; I = sound pressure, P = sound pressure at reference conditions (0.0002 microbar)
c = acoustic velocity, cm/sec
Sound level in decibels can be expressed as;
db = 10 log10 I1 = 10 log10 I .
I0 10-9
or since I1 = P2
I0 PO2
db = 10 log10 P12
P02
db = 20 log (P1) = 20 log P1 .

(PO) 0.0002
–8
In gas language, the decibel reference sound pressure of 0.0002 microbar is 8.04 x10 inches wg, since
a microbar is one millionth of a bar & a bar is 14.5 psig.
Usually the human ear is most sensitive to 3000 cps frequencies & obviously similar sound pressure level
reading in decibels will seem “quieter” when the frequency is reduced. Human ears, however, span 50 –
15,000 cps & it is significant that the human ear is more of a logarithmic detector than a linear one & to
some extent corresponds to the decibel scale.
Because apparent loudness is dependant upon both sound pressure level & frequency, there have been
other methods devised to consider these factors. Units such as sone, phon, mel etc are occasionally used
for this purpose. The most common terms for industrial work are sound pressure level (decibels),
frequency (cps) & octave band.
The following table indicates typical decibel ratings in relation to energy intensity units & everyday sounds.
Sound Pressure Relative Energy Sound Pressure
Condition General Class
Level (dB) Intensity Dyn/cm2
120 Threshold of pain 1,000,000,000,000
200
110 Thunder, Artillery 100,000,000,000
Deafening
100 Steel riveter at 15ft 10,000,000,000
20
90 Noisy factory 1,000,000,000
80 Tube train (open window)
100,000,000 2 Distracting
70 Average factory
60 Loud conversation 1,000,000
0.2 Range of
50 Average office 100,000
conversation
40 Average living room 10,000 0.02
30 Private office 1,000 Extreme quiet
0.002
20 Whisper 100
10 Soundproof room 10 Soundproof
0.002
0 Threshold of audibility 1 chambers
A gas regulator may produce noise from the following sources.
1. Back & forth vibration of the valve
2. Natural frequency vibration
3. Up & down vibration of the valve, i.e. as in “chattering”
4. Aerodynamic noise in gas flow.
The first cause manifests itself as a howl in the range 400 – 1500 cps frequency. The cure lies in
improving the effectiveness of the valve guide & spindle bushes.
The second cause, due to natural vibration is uncommon as the mass of the components (regulator body
& particularly valves) are so large that frequency is beyond the limits of human hearing, i.e.15,000 cps.
The third cause, due to vertical movement is usually overcome by the mass spring rate relationship of the
diaphragm to the valve size. In simple terms, a high rate spring is most effective in eliminating this
symptom.
The fourth cause, that of high velocity flows, is the most serious. Above critical pressure drops, this noise
increases with flow. Decibel levels up to 200 may exist in a high-pressure valve body, but the mass of the
body itself attenuates the level to a much lower figure. A perfect example here is high pressure jet booster
working at 100 psig made from robust iron castings with cast iron connections sited underground, which
would typically produce decibel levels less than 90 at 5 feet, whilst a lower pressure booster operating at a
quarter of that pressure & connected with steel mains above ground emits a 110 db level.
Obviously, the most significant reduction in noise level can be obtained by reducing the noise level from
the component or components that contribute the most. Here the obvious answer is to bury the valve unit,
which generally is the source of the sound radiation.
Further consideration should be given to the flow of gas in a bus main or header associated with a number
of regulators & their attendant connections. High velocity gas should impinge on high velocity flow, i.e. it is
better to have the high velocities passing thorough a tee rather than round a tee.
Certainly, it is desirable to avoid the “head on collision” effect, which arises when high velocity gas is
brought into the branch of a tee. It has been stated by US Gas Research Institute that flow area
“discontinuities” in the form of greater capacity on the outlet side of the regulator are very effective in
“quietening” noise due to a filtering effect. They point out that an abrupt taper piece, rather than an evase
pipe will produce vortices & a depression of the energy radiated as noise by the “shear” losses of the
viscous gas. Whilst there is a tendency of increasing noise by vortex formations, this is more than offset
by the decrease obtained by acoustic filtration & viscous shear between still & moving gas.
Incidentally, the same reason applies to regulator port design & a higher ratio of port periphery to flow area
should be the aim, e.g. narrow slits or multiple holes
Noise can be reduced by;
a. Using thicker walled pipework
b. Use of silencers after regulators
c. Insulation of pipework
d. Specially designed buildings
e. Station arrangement design
f. Use of specially designed regulators
g. Using low gas velocities
Most countries accept sound levels up to 90 dB A but in some cases requirements of 65 dB A have been
stipulated.
APPLICATION OF PHYSICS TO GOVERNORS
11. MECHANICAL LEVERAGE
Mechanical leverage is a fundamental concept of physics. It may be used to permit a smaller force to
counterbalance a larger force in a simple lever system as shown in Figure 4. A basic law of mechanics is
that for a system to be at rest, the sum of all the forces (including moments) acting on the system must be
equal to zero, i.e. they must balance out when summated along & about the X, Y & Z axes. Thus, in Figure
4, a force of 600 kg, being the total of 500 & 100kg must act upwards through the fulcrum pivot point.
Further, in such a system at rest, the sum of the turning moments about one point, in this case the pivot (Z
axis), must be equal to zero.
FIGURE 4. EXAMPLE OF A BALANCED SYSTEM AT REST
The product of a force (in units of force) & its distance from the pivot point (in units of length) is termed a
moment. From Figure 4 it can be seen that there is a clockwise moment of 100kg about 250mm, which is
equal to the counter clockwise moment 500 Kg x 50mm. If the moments are not equal & opposite, the
system will move until a balancing moment is brought in as shown in Figure 5. In a system of levers, the
ratio of the two arms is called the “mechanical advantage”. It may been seen that the longer lever arm
travels a distance equal to the mechanical advantage of the lever multiplied by the distance moved by the
shorter arm.
FIGURE 5. EXAMPLE OF AN UNBALANCED SYSTEM AT REST
Only forces or components of forces, which act perpendicularly to the lever arm, cause rotary movements.
When forces act against a lever but not at right angles to the lever, they may be resolved into components
acting at right angles to the lever & along the lever by the graphical solution shown in Figure 6. If the force
F is represented by a line the length of which is proportional to the size of the force, its vertical & horizontal
components are represented in direction & magnitude to the same scale by the projection of the force on
the vertical & horizontal axes. Component FI produces a turning moment. Whilst FII acts along the lever,
through the pivot point, & does not produce a turning moment, i.e. FII x zero distance = 0.
FIGURE 6. HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL COMPONENTS OF FORCE F
From Figure 6, it can be seen that, F1 & F11 will have magnitudes of 3/5F & 4/5F respectively. For a system
to be in balance the moments created by F1 & F11 must be equal & opposite.
Where weights & levers are used to load governors, it is normal to limit travel of the lever to only a few
degrees either way from the horizontal in order to restrict the component of the force acting along the lever
to a small value. This is done to eliminate side thrusts on the valve & diaphragm stems, thus minimising
binding in the stem guides.
Two other basic lever systems used in governors are the bell crank & toggle mechanism. Both are
commonly used in district regulators. The bell crank normally has the shorter of the two arms connected to
the valve disc & the longer arm to the diaphragm, see Figure 7. The concept of turning moments may be
used to prove that the force F1 against the valve disc creates a moment about 0, which must be equal &
opposite to the moment created by the main force F if the system is to remain at rest. Since the moment
arm of force F1 is 1/3 that of force F, this force is therefore 1/3 that of force F1.
FIGURE 7. BELL CRANK MECHANISM
The toggle mechanism is useful to generate forces with a relatively small magnitude of input. The
resolution of forces in such a system is indicated by graphical means, shown in Figure 8. The force exerted
on joint 0 of the toggle is represented by equal forces F acting along the arms of the toggle. In the arm
connected to the valve disc stem 0A an equal force F is the resultant of F1 at point A & this, in turn, may be
resolved into horizontal & vertical components Fx & Fy. Fx represents the force exerted against the valve
disc, whilst Fy is the force, which would tend to bind the stem in its guide.
FIGURE 8. RESOLUTION OF TOGGLE FORCES
F = Po x Area of Diaphragm
Net closing force on Valve = F (Po x Area of Orifice) – (Pi x Area of Orifice)
FIGURE 9. COMPONENTS OF FORCE F ALONG TOGGLE ARM
The value of the toggle is further shown in Figure 9. Here the angle of the toggle arm is small when
measured from a horizontal line. By graphical solution, we can see that the forces acting along the arms F1.
F2 are considerably greater than the applied force F. The opposing force for F11 is represented below the
toggle arm with the horizontal & vertical components Fx & Fy. The toggle mechanism will, at its extremes,
produce opposite effects on the moveable point A. When the arm 0-A is nearly parallel to the direction of
force F, a small upward movement of joint O will produce a great displacement of point A, to the right but
the force available for this displacement is small. When the direction of force F is nearly perpendicular to
the arm 0-A, the movement of point A to the right is small, but the force generated is great.
12. FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid pressure is defined as the force exerted by a liquid, gas or vapour acting upon surface of unit area. In
certain industries, it is sometimes customary to refer only to the force, i.e. 20 lbs, which is 20 psi in
correct usage. Other common units of pressure are; kg/cm2 or kPa.
An important law of fluids is that static pressure can act only at right angles to any surface. Thus, a little
consideration will show that whatever the shape of a surface, the total force acting due to pressure in any
direction, is only the total force on the surface seen in that direction. Thus, the total force trying to tear &
end cap off the end of a blanked pipe, i.e. the force along the axis of the pipe, is identical whatever the
shape of the closing plate. Figure 10 illustrates the force resulting from the equal pressure on the heads of
various pistons with equal cross sectional area. It will be noted that due to lack of symmetry, the piston on
the right will also experience a side thrust. Only those components of forces acting parallel to the walls of
the cylinder will contribute to the total force of movement of the pistons.
FIGURE 10. TOTAL VERTICAL PRESSURE AGAINST VARIOUS SHAPED PISTON HEADS
FIGURE 11. MAJOR FORCES EXPERIENCED IN A SERVICE REGULATOR
Figure 11, is a schematic of the balance of forces as found in a service type regulator, where Pi & Po are
inlet & outlet pressures.
Neglecting the weight & friction of the linkage, with a back pressure force of Po, & an orifice diameter of 1
cm, an effective diaphragm area of 65cm2, inlet pressure of 1.4 Kg/cm2 (1.37 bar), & an outlet pressure of
0.02 Kg/cm2 (19.6 mbar), the amount of weight W may be calculated as shown below;
Orifice area = D2 = 12 = 0.25cm2

4 4
Force on valve disc = 0.25cm x 1.4 Kg/cm2 = 0.35 Kg
2
Counter clockwise moment = 0.35Kg x 5cm = 1.75 Kgf cm

Total effective force producing clockwise moment = 1.75 Kgf cm = 0.12 Kg
15cm
However, the pressure on the diaphragm is given as 0.02 Kg/cm2, creating an upward force of 65cm2 x
0.02 Kg/cm2 equal to 1.3 Kg. For the system to be in balance, a weight W of 1.3 - 0.12 Kg or 1.18 Kg
must be applied.
From Figure 11, it may be seen that an increase in inlet pressure for a given value of weight W would result
in an increase in outlet pressure. An increase in outlet pressure would also result from an increase in
orifice diameter without a corresponding decrease in weight.
13. CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW

It has been pointed out that if forces are not in balance, movement will occur in the direction of the larger
force until some additional force is brought to bear. The same reasoning applies to gas flow – a pressure
differential between two points in a continuous system is an unbalanced state & will cause gas to flow
from the higher pressure to the point at a lower pressure. (The pressure differential in a gas system is
normally created by consumption of gas at one or more points of the system). In trying to achieve
equilibrium of the unbalanced state, friction between the flowing gas, the pipe wall & within the gas, form
turbulence causing a pressure drop. Of basic importance to field engineers are the following factors that
affect the drop in pressure in a piping system;
a. Pressure drop increases as flow increases
b. Pressure drop increases as the length of pipe increases
c. Pressure drop increases as the size of pipe decreases
d. Pressure drop increases as restrictions; valve bodies, orifices, pipe fittings, are added to the system
An acceptable rule of thumb is that (valid only for constant temperature & average flowing pressure) the
frictional force or pressure drop may be said to vary as the square of the flow. If the flow rate Q doubles,
the pressure drop is four times higher; if the flow rate Q is tripled, the pressure drop will be nine times
original value
Also note the effect of pipe size on capacity for a given pressure drop & given length. Doubling the pipe
diameter will provide 6 times the capacity with sufficient accuracy for rule of thumb fieldwork.
There are two ways to increase the capacity of a gas pipeline. Firstly, increase the allowable pressure drop
whilst maintaining the average pressure of the gas at a constant value; hence, for a given outlet pressure
the inlet pressure must be increased. Secondly, to increase the average pressure of the gas, i.e. by
increasing inlet & outlet pressure, so increasing the density & hence the weight of gas passing along the
pipe for almost identical volumes & pressure drops.
14. CRITICAL LOW PRESSURE

In the preceding paragraph, it has been stated that the flow rate of a given fluid is proportional to the square
root of the pressure drop driving it, where the average pressure is constant. This is true for gas pipelines; it
is also partly true for the flow of gas in an orifice. There exists, however, a critical pressure drop at which
the velocity through an orifice reaches a maximum. At critical flow, the outlet pressure is equal to 0.53 x
inlet pressure (Pi), for gas where both inlet & critical flow pressures are absolute pressure not gauge
pressures.
For any given inlet pressure P, the flow through an orifice will increase proportional to v ? P until the
discharge pressure Po is equal to the critical flow pressure 0.53 Pi. Further reduction in Po below 0.53 Pi
will result in no increase in the flow rate. The only ways to increase the flow rate through the nozzle are;
a. Increase Pi
b. Install a diverging flow nozzle
This latter method is very effective with steam. Only a few regulators are equipped with nozzle type
discharge chambers working on this principle. A point of interest is that the velocity through an orifice at
critical flow approaches that of the speed of sound in the medium flowing, i.e. 335m/s (1100 ft/sec) for
gas at STP.
The critical flow concept is the reason why tables & charts of regulator capacity show for an inlet pressure
of 3.5 bar g (50psi g) the same flow rates for discharge pressures from 1.38 bar g (20 psi g) down to
0.017 bar g, (0.25 psi g). The critical flow pressure for 3.5 bar g (50psi g) inlet is 1.3 bar g (19.0 psi g)
outlet.
15. TOTAL PRESSURE

Pressures that are normally measured in the gas industry are static pressure, i.e. the pressure exerted
against the wall of pipe, valve or meter by the gas at rest. In regulators, it may be necessary to consider
force acting per unit area, which is a pressure due to momentum effects of the velocity of the gas. This is
reasonable when it is considered that gas having weight & flowing at high velocity would exert a force on a
surface, which causes it to deflect from flowing in a straight line.
Two places where velocity head pressure would be effective are on the valve discs of regulators & Pitot
tubes. It is logical that when the opening of a Pitot tube faces upstream, velocity head pressure will be
added to static pressure; total pressure measured by a tube facing downstream would be approximately
static pressure minus velocity head pressure. See Figure 43.
Velocity head pressure may be computed from the formula V = v 2gh, where V the velocity, g the
acceleration due to gravity & h, the velocity head pressure are in the same units.
If the units are feet, the g is equal to 32ft/sec/sec.
Assuming a gas velocity of 1000 ft per sec;
V = v 2gh
Squaring both sides

V2 = 2gh
h = V2 = (1,000 ft/sec)2 = 1,000,000 ft2/sec2 = 15,528 ft

2g 2(32.2ft/sec2) 64.4ft/sec2
To get this answer into familiar units, multiply the head h by the rate of gas in lbs per cu ft & divide by 144
to give the result in psi.
P = (15,528 ft) (0.0452 lbs/cu.ft) = 702 sq.ft = 4.87 psi
144sq.in/sq.ft 144
The velocity head pressure given by the above formula is that produced by a gas striking a surface &
leaving in a direction at right angles to the incident flow, i.e. complete removal of momentum or velocity
head. For a change in direction of less than 90º, the velocity head pressure would be less; graphical
solution would give a value, while for a complete reversal of direction of flow, the pressure could be
doubled.
The pressure available due to velocity head would have most effect on governors with relatively low static
inlet pressure. This may be expected since only in the orifice of the governor will there be velocities that
even approach 300/ms (1000 ft per sec), which would cause a boost in delivery pressure. In the portion of
the governor body downstream of the orifice, velocities of 150m/s (500ft per sec) are extreme; such a
velocity would yield a pressure of only 85 mbar (1.2 psi).
BRYAN DONKIN RMG - UNDERSTANDING GAS CONTROLS SECTION II Page 14
SECTION II – BASIC ELEMENTS OF REGULATORS

Every regulator has three basic elements, a measuring element, a loading element & a restricting element.
The regulators discussed are used to control pressure; therefore, a means must be available to measure
this pressure. Once measured, the flow through the regulator must be changed to maintain pressure under
varying loads, hence the restricting element. To position the restricting element of the regulator requires an
element capable of doing work, or simply a loading element.
FIGURE 12. ILLUSTRATION OF COMPONENT ELEMENTS IN A SIMPLE REGULATOR
1. MEASURING ELEMENTS
1.1. THE DIAPHRAGM
The diaphragm is the most common measuring element used today in self-contained regulators. In the
past, a treated goatskin was used for this purpose. They were oiled to prevent drying out & cracking, &
care of the diaphragm was a major item in regulator maintenance. More recently, synthetic rubber & rubber
like compounds have been used which need little attention & have a useful life measured in years.
The diaphragm, is a flexible disc to which the outlet pressure from the regulator is applied, it does not
measure by itself, but only when acted upon by a loading element. For the diaphragm to measure by itself
would rely upon its elasticity. The elasticity of a diaphragm changes with temperature & is therefore, not
constant. It would also be stressed quite highly & hence subject to rupture or damage.
The diaphragm is opposed by loading force such that it will change position when the controlled pressure
changes. Diaphragms for use with low pressures are thin & flexible, giving sensitivity to small changes in
pressure. For higher pressures, the material may be thicker, reinforced with a woven fabric, or both, but
sensitivity is reduced.
The area of the diaphragm is determined by the pressure to be measured & the force required from it, in
conjunction with the loading element, to position the restricting element of the regulator
1.2. TUBULAR PRESSURE ELEMENTS
Normally called Bourdon type gauges. They are tubes of oval cross section, formed in a circular shape
when relaxed. They range from a length of about ¾ of the circumference of the circle to a coil of several
turns. This type of gauge has a definite shape for a given internal pressure & exhibits “memory”. When the
internal pressure is increased, the element tends to straighten out while maintaining the same centre of
curvature. This straightening action is because the largest area, which may be enclosed by a given
perimeter, is that of a circle. This action is illustrated in Figure 13. With the tube in any position, the arcs 1-
2 & 3-4 along the sides of the tube have given lengths. If the dimension D or shorter measurement of the
tube increases due to internal pressure, these arcs will move to locations indicated 5-6 & 7-8.
Assuming the arcs will remain constant in length, which is nearly the case, the length of arc 7-8 is equal to
that of 3-4, it follows that the centre of curvature is moved to 0 & the section of the tube has straightened
out to some measurable extent.
With one end of the element solidly mounted, the free end will move with a change in pressure & this
motion, if suitably linked, will indicate or record the pressure on a scale or chart.
Bourdon type elements are widely used for pressure measurements, but are not capable of developing
sufficient force to permit positioning of restricting element in a regulator. Therefore, a pneumatic relay is
often employed for this purpose.
FIGURE 13. STRAIGHTENING ACTION OF A BOURDON TUBE
1.3. THE MANOMETER

The manometer, or simple U-tube, is useful in measuring pressure upto 0.15 bar (2 psi) using water as a
medium or approximately 1.3 bar (20 psi) using mercury. It makes use of the weight of a column of liquid
to create a pressure equal to & balancing that to be measured. If one leg is left open to atmosphere, the
pressure measured is gauge pressure. By connecting the legs to two points on a main, the pressure
differential between these points is measured. If one leg were connected to an evacuated space, absolute
pressure would be measured.
The force, which may be available to do work in a manometer, is that of the buoyancy force of a float.
Here, again a pneumatic relay would be required to use this to position the restricting element of a
regulator. The primary use of the manometer is in a flow meter or flow controller where the magnitude of
the differential pressure to be measured is normally of the order of 0.25 bar (100” wg) or less.
1.4. THE BELLOWS UNIT
The bellows units consist of cylindrical chamber, or series of chambers, whose circular surfaces are
corrugated. The chamber can expand axially, i.e. in a direction at right angles to the diameter, when
pressure is applied. The bellows tend to return to an original position when the pressure is released, the
corrugated surface providing the force to do this.
In Figure 14, the left bellows is in a relaxed state, the right in an expanded state due to internal pressure.
The movement of Point A with respect to the fixed base must be limited since the force available to return
the unit to its relaxed state length is only that due to the corrugation & any stretching of the corrugation
would result in a permanent distortion & loss of “memory”. The relatively small movement of Point A may
easily be multiplied by using a longer bellows unit, i.e. by attaching several identical bellows units together.
Thus, with two units, movement for a given internal pressure would be double that available with one. The
force would depend only on the diameter of the bellows. Bellows units are normally small &, like the
manometer or Bourdon tube, make use of pneumatic relays to position any restricting element.
They are used in low-pressure ranges, from “wg (where bellows diameters are large) upto about 30 psi. It
can easily be seen that the relationship between movement & pressure is only linear over a small range.
FIGURE 14. CROSS SECTION OF BELLOWS
1.5. THE PISTON

The piston may be used to measure pressure in conjunction with a force acting against the pressure such
as a spring or weight, i.e. the dead weight tester. This is similar to a diaphragm but it has advantages &
disadvantages, which are considered below.
The ability of a piston to withstand high pressure would exceed that of a diaphragm. Therefore, the total
force exerted by a piston on the restricting element of a regulator could be much higher. It has the added
advantage of having a constant effective area, which is not true with the diaphragm.
Disadvantages to the piston would be the friction inherent to keep the piston from tipping in the cylinder in
which it acts, its weight & the difficulty & friction involved in effecting a seal to prevent leakage past the
piston of the pressure to be measured.
It would appear that a piston could be used as a regulator for high-pressures, where it would require a
relatively small diameter & the force generated by pressure would be sufficient to overcome friction.
From the descriptions of various measuring elements, the advantages of the diaphragm are self-evident. It
is expected to find them used as the measuring element in almost all self-contained regulators.
2. LOADING ELEMENTS
Of the essential elements in regulators, loading elements offer the fewest variants & are capable of being
used in combination to produce the desired effect. Consideration of the various loading methods is
discussed below. Please note that not all combinations are detailed.
2.1. WEIGHT
Weight was probably the first loading medium in use. It may be metallic weights applied to the regulator
diaphragm, or used on a lever arm to create a greater force on the regulator diaphragm than would be
feasible by direct application of weight, or it may be applied through fluid force such as water on top of the
regulator diaphragm.
Weight has the advantage of remaining constant regardless of the position of the diaphragm. The force
created by a weight & lever remains constant so long as the angle between extremes of position is not
great, normally a few degrees above or below horizontal.
Weight has the disadvantage because it does not easily cope with small pressure changes without a large
number of individual components. Weight must also be positioned to act at the centre of the diaphragm &
care must be taken to avoid tipping of the diaphragm pan when changing weights.
In addition, weight possesses inertia, i.e. tends to remain at rest even after an unbalance of forces exists &,
once in motion, tends to overshoot rather than stop at the desired point. The greater the force due to
weight, the greater tendency to overshoot in a regulator with constant effective diaphragm area &
frictionless linkage to the restricting element, resulting in constant motion of the weight.
This could cause serious problems in a distribution system. Regulators have been known to “hunt” so
violently that the weights have been thrown off the lever arm. This effect may be counteracted by
restricting the regulators sensitivity to the rate of change of pressure being measured &, thus, slowing the
movement of the weight. This is typically carried out by fitting dampers or restricting jets.
2.2. THE SPRING
The spring is perhaps the most widely used of the loading elements. Of various types available, the
compression coil spring is most widely used. Since they are available throughout wide ranges, external
leverage is seldom used to increase force.
Springs have several advantages, which include ease of adjustment, variety of ranges, interchangability &
relatively small mass. Springs may be used in more than one place on a regulator, often being used to
counter act the weight of the linkage & valve mechanisms. Their use in weight-loaded regulators can serve
to damp any “hunting”.
Springs are rated by a spring constant, the force required to compress it one inch from its free length.
Manufacturer’s, often utilise the range of outlet pressures obtainable in a given regulator to describe
springs, rather than a spring constant. Figure 15 shows a spring with a constant of 50 pounds per inch
(25Kg per inch) & a free length of 8 inches. The force exerted by a spring does not remain constant
regardless of diaphragm position, as weight would. As the diaphragm rises, the force of the spring against
the diaphragm increases, tending to eliminate overshoot. As the diaphragm drops, the reverse occurs, this
tends to make a spring-loaded regulator stable. The force required to overcome inertia is small since the
mass in motion is small, an advantage over the use of weights.
The spring has an obvious disadvantage. To keep the downward force on the diaphragm relatively
constant, a spring with a low spring constant would be best. It must be compressed a distance equal to
the diaphragm travel & provide a force to balance that created by pressure under the diaphragm. It follows
that an ideal spring would be very long to fulfil these requirements. Spring selection is then a compromise
between size & manufacturing costs.
FIGURE 15. SPRING WITH 50 LBS SPRING CONSTANT
2.3. FLUID PRESSURE

Fluid pressure is the third principal means of loading & may make use of gas, air or hydraulic fluid as a
medium. Regulators using fluid pressure for loading are normally more intricate than spring or weight
loaded regulators, but their theory & operation are not difficult to understand.
Pressurised air may be used where a source exists as in attended stations. In locations which are not
manned, or where the reliability of power air is not assured, this loading medium is not used. It is
advantageous on equipment using an atmospheric bleed but cannot be used where the bleed is a
downstream type.
Hydraulic pressures are normally exerted on pistons rather than diaphragms due to strength & elastic
considerations. The forces developed are sufficient to offset frictional losses. Equipment of this type is not
commonly used in distribution system’s at present.
Gas or air pressure loading has the advantage of eliminating the diaphragm effect in regulators since
pressure acts on both sides of the diaphragm, but this is not true in spring loaded valves. The loading force
applied can have any value between zero & the product of diaphragm area (effective) & available loading
pressure. Loading gas has insignificant mass, may be kept constant regardless of diaphragm position, has
easily changeable loading force, & is adaptable to manual or automatic remote control. It may be used to
operate more than one regulator. Pressure loading by its nature is more prone to failure than either weight
or spring loading & therefore requires suitable safeguards to be provided.
3. RESTRICTING ELEMENTS
Most distribution systems operate on pressure control, & it is upon the regulator supplying a system that
satisfactory service to the customer depends. Systems where load is essentially constant for more than
short periods are a rarity, therefore, the regulator is called upon to maintain a constant outlet pressure
while flow rate & inlet pressure vary. Consequently, the restricting element is being constantly repositioned
to compensate for varying conditions.
An important point in considering restricting elements is that two parts are required. The fixed orifice
directs the flow of gas & establishes a surface upon which the moveable part acts, thus controlling the
flow rate. The second portion or valve is moveable & is positioned with respect to the orifice by the loading
force. While the terms valve & orifice cannot be applied universally, their equivalent exists in almost every
regulator & their meaning is universally understood.
There are wide varieties of valve designs, which will be covered in this section. First, consideration should
be given to the other items of some importance in the restriction of gas flow
Figure 16, shows the effect of inlet pressure & orifice area on valve closure & delivery pressure for an initial
set pressure of 15 mbar (6” wg). A mechanical advantage of four has been assumed in the linkage. Thus,
a large permanent change of system pressure, or change in orifice size, would require resetting of the
regulator to maintain a given lock up pressure.
Sample calculation, for part A here the weight of the linkage has been neglected & the conversion 1lb/sq.in
= 27.68” wg/sp.in used.
Moments about point 0 acting clockwise;
Diaphragm area x moment arm x outlet pressure
Conversion factor
25 sq.in x 4 in. x 6” wg/sq.in = 600 = 21.68 in.lb
27.68” wg/sq.in / lb / sq.in 27.68
Orifice area x moment arm x outlet pressure
Conversion factor
0.125 sq.in x 1 in. x 6” wg/sq.in = 0.75 = 0.02 in.lb
27.68” wg/sq.in / lb / sq.in 27.68
Total = 21.70 in.lb
Moments about point 0 acting counter clockwise;
weight x moment arm
4.8 lb x 4 in. = 19.20 in.lb
orifice area x moment arm x inlet pressure
0.125 sq.in x 1 in. x 20lb /sq.in = 2.50 in.lb
Again Total = 21.70 In.lb
FIGURE 16. EFFECT OF INLET PRESSURE & ORIFICE SIZE ON DELIVERY PRESSURE
Thus, it is seen that the moments are balanced. Normally, the effect of outlet pressure against the back of
the valve may be neglected. However, this turning moment in the system shown in Figure 16 D, would
result in an outlet pressure of 46.89” wg rather than 46.4” wg. This is a primary disadvantage of the single
valve regulator. Even if properly set & using small area orifices, district type regulators have a tendency to
"chatter" or vibrate when the inlet pressure nears 100 psi. Velocity head pressure tends to cause the valve
to open too far with a resultant rapid increase in pressure, which will return the valve to the tight closed
position. With a wide range of flows, this action is so rapid it causes the valve to be in constant motion &
the regulator is said to “chatter”.
This vibration may be counteracted in a regulator by using two valves as shown below. If the areas of the
orifi are exactly equal, inlet pressure will have no effect on lock up pressure, as the same area of each
valve is subjected to both inlet & outlet pressure. This is called a balanced valve but as often is the case, it
does not quite live up to its name.
Under certain conditions, the valve may be in static balance. From Figure 16 above it can be seen that
when the orifi are of equal area, the forces created by inlet pressure are essentially equal. The forces
exerted by outlet pressure are unequal for the lower valve has the entire orifice area exposed to P2. The
upper valve has the orifice area less the stem area exposed to P2, the area of the stem being exposed to
atmospheric of loading pressure P3. In addition, the weight of the valve, valve stem, diaphragm &
diaphragm pan act downwards & may exceed the net closing force created by the outlet pressure. A spring
is installed to close the valves under these conditions.
There is often a point in the travel of a double-beat valve where the forces acting upon the assembly are
unstable for a given condition of flow. This is caused by forces on the valves, due to flow, being reversed
by additional movement of the valves. This normally occurs in regulators where the differential across the
valves is great, & where the mass of the connected components is small. It seldom occurs on weight-
loaded regulators where mass of the components tends to damp out this effect due to inertia.
In many diaphragm-operated valves, the valves are machined from solid bar & no way of separating the
upper & lower valves is provided.
In this case, the use of equal orifice areas is impossible for the seating surface of one valve must pass
through the orifice of the other, see Figure 18. Some of the difference in orifice area is held to a minimum
by holding the length of the bevelled portion of the smaller valve to its minimum.
FIGURE 17. FORCES ON INNER VALVES OF BALANCED VALVE REGULATOR
Generally, orifi or valve seats are removable from the regulator body as well as the valves to permit
replacement because of damage or to alter the capacity of the regulator.
Single valve regulators are most common in sizes 50mm (2”) or less & are of limited capacity. The ease
with which a single valve regulator can be made to lock up completely is an advantage. In addition, they
are usually less bulky & less expensive
Double beat regulators offer greater capacity & minimise the inlet pressure effect. If absolute tight closure
is required, care must be exercised in valve adjustments. Where no valve adjustment is possible, as with
on-piece double plug type, the valves are machined to close tolerances & then lapped to ensure
simultaneous contact with upper & lower seats. For this reason, the one-piece valve is not easily
interchangeable.
FIGURE 18. INSEPARABLE VALVES OF UNEQUAL SIZE
Soft seating material, usually moulded or pressed into the valve disc is used where absolute tight closure is
required. This may be one of several synthetic compounds, which do not react with any components of
gas & have varying degrees of resiliency.
Metal to metal seating is often used where erosion is present & where possible differentials across the
valves are great, stainless steel or “ Stellite” being common for this use. This type of seating surface is
subject to erosion when the valve is close to the seat, i.e. where the valve is almost closed, a condition
termed “wire drawing” occurs.
An O-ring is used to obtain the right closure characteristics of the soft seat with the abrasion resistance of
the hard seat. A typical O-ring installation is shown in Figure 19. It should be noted that the valve is made
in two parts to permit the O-ring to be securely clamped in place & that only a small portion of the O-ring is
exposed to flow. Here the O-ring gives complete sealing just before metal-to-metal contact occurs. This
prevents the O-ring from being blown out of the retainer, a tendency at high-pressure differential pressures.
FIGURE 19. REGULATOR VALVE WITH ‘O’ RING CONSTRUCTION
4. TYPES OF VALVES
4.1 SERVICE REGULATORS usually have a single valve, soft disc construction. The valve consists of a
disc holder, into which a resilient material is moulded or pressed & held in place by a retainer. This type of
valve may be referred to as “quick opening”. Figure 20, shows three variations of this type of valve (A, B &
C) whilst the last (D) makes use of an O-ring for sealing, rather than a disc.
FIGURE 20. TYPICAL SERVICE REGULATOR VALVES
FIGURE 21. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS FOR QUICK OPENING INNER VALVE
The curve shown in Figure 21 is a characteristic of any quick-opening valve, the dashed line indicating a
flow capacity that is directly proportional to valve travel.
It can be shown that for a disc or quick-opening type of regulator, the valve has primary control over the
flow rate only until the distance travelled by the valve equals ¼ of the orifice diameter. This is done by
making the orifice area equal to the circumference of the orifice extended to the valve & solving for the
distance h as illustrated in Figure 22. Once the area indicated by (2) exceeds that of the orifice, additional
valve travel has little effect on control.
FIGURE 22. TO DETERMINE VALVE TRAVEL NEEDED FOR DISC OR QUICK OPENING REGULATORS
Where a valve disc has no retainer, it may be used with any size of orifice. Where a retainer is used, it is
often necessary to change it when orifice size has changed. The valve or retainer may be shaped to deflect
the gas from a path parallel to its face. This tends to change the direction of gas leaving the valve &
increases the velocity pressure on the valve, directing the gas stream back towards the outlet opening of
the regulator & assists the venturi effect created in the body by its design.
4.2. DISTRICT REGULATORS
Most district regulators in sizes 50mm (2”) & above make use of the balanced valve principle since the
effect of inlet pressure on large sized single valves is great. There are three basic valve types in common
use, each having many possible variations. The basic types are; quick opening, V port & throttle plug or
parabolic.
Quick opening valves have been covered in our discussion of single valve regulators. Their action is the
same in the balanced valve double beat regulator. Consideration must be given to guiding of the valve stem
to ensure proper seating of the valve against the orifice. A variety of guiding methods exists; three principal
designs are shown in Figure 23. All double beat valves are guide by the valve stem where the moving force
is applied.
FIGURE 23. GUIDING METHODS FOR DOUBLE VALVE REGULATORS
From Figure 23; Type A is centre guided, B is wing guided & C is bottom guided. Centre guiding is only
used on a double beat valve where disassembly of valves is possible. The other types are applicable to
solid one-piece plugs. Bottom guiding is most often used on V port & throttle plugs. Experience has
indicated that valves, regardless of type have a tendency to turn in service. The V port & Wing guided
quick-opening valves are the worst offenders. Therefore, provision is made to lock the system in one
position. This locking device may be in the stem coupling or in the guide & must be kept in serviceable
condition to prevent turning.
The throttle plug is most commonly used in double beat valve district regulators. A typical double beat
valve & characteristic curve is illustrated in Figure 24. Gas flows through the annular areas between the
plug & the orifice. During the first portion of valve travel, these areas increase slowly, thus the rate of flow
increase is gradual. This type of balanced valve is best suited to resist abrasion since the path of the gas
tends to flow smoothly along the surface of the plug rather than against the valve.
FIGURE 24. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS FOR THROTTLE PLUG INNER VALVES
FIGURE 25. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS FOR V-PORT INNER VALVES
The V-port balanced valve has a distinct advantage where it is subject to clean gas, performing well as an
equal percentage valve, the solid line representing the characteristic curve in Figure 25. The broken line
indicates a possible curve obtainable with this type of valve. There must be at least two V ports on a valve.
When two V ports are used, the two on the lower valve are 90º from those on the top valve. This balances
side thrust on the valve stem, which would tend to cause binding. V ports shouldn’t be used where
abrasive material is present in the gas stream since the ports direct a stream of gas at the stem & body,
with subsequent failure assured.
4.3. RESTRICTING ELEMENTS

Restricting elements considered so far have a common drawback, that of a series of changes in direction
of the gas stream. While changes in direction can be used to advantage, the resulting turbulence causes
pressure loss & internal damage due to erosion is unavoidable.
Whilst the majority of regulators in use have restricting elements previously discussed, there are a number
of types that use other methods.
Finally, consider valves such as those normally used in distribution systems. With suitable positioners
attached, these valves have certain advantages. They have the advantage of needing a minimum of
maintenance so far as the restricting element is concerned, may be buried to eliminate noise & reduce
installation costs, & are capable of handling high differentials & flow rates.
Characteristic curves for the basic types are shown in Figures 26 & 27. The shaded area indicating that
valve in a partially open position. Figure 26 represents a swinging disc, gate or ball valve, whilst Figure 27
represents a plug type valve with a rectangular port.
FIGURE 26.FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF FIGURE 27. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF

GATE, SWINGING DISC OR BALL VALVE RECTANGULAR PORT PLUG VALVE
BRYAN DONKIN RMG - UNDERSTANDING GAS CONTROLS SECTION III Page 24
SECTION III - CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF BASIC REGULATORS

After studying the principles of physics & the elements found in regulators, we can apply this knowledge to
the design & operation of actual regulators. This section covers the basic operation of common regulators.
For our purposes, a basic regulator will be defined as an automatic, self-contained pressure-controlling unit
not using gas pressure as a loading medium.
The vast majority of regulators in use are a basic service type design, with the exception of large
commercial & industrial installations. Therefore, this section is devoted to their theoretical & actual
performance. Some points to be discussed are elementary, but are covered due to their influence on
advanced regulator designs as well.
Regulators are used to maintain, within given limits, the pressure in a piping system, whether it is trunk
main, district, or consumer line. This should hold true regardless of inlet pressure to the regulator & flow
through it, normally termed “load”. Figure 28 shows the ideal pressure flow curve, indicating that the ideal
regulator will maintain a constant outlet pressure for any load upto 100% of its capacity. Such a regulator
has not been built yet, but many come close.
FIGURE 28. PRESSURE FLOW CURVE OF AN IDEAL REGULATOR
The flow of gas into a pipe system is our only means of controlling the pressure of that system. Only when
the flow of gas into a system is exactly equal to the demand for gas from the system will the pressure at
any point remain constant. If input to a system is greater than usage, the pressure will increase;
conversely, if demand is greater than supply, system pressure will fall. This is not to be confused with flow
control where the throughput of a regulator is held constant regardless of pressure.
Some types of element are, by their nature, not applicable to the basic regulator. Any of the measuring
elements discussed previously will work since movement of the element is involved & this movement may
be used to position the restricting element. As a loading element, the use of gas pressure has been
eliminated by definition of a basic regulator but all others mentioned are applicable. Of the restricting
elements, only the flexible sleeve type is inappropriate since it requires pressurised gas for its operation.
Further, some of the elements available could not reasonably be used in the manufacture of a compact &
inexpensive unit. In Section I, a table showed the energy equivalents of regulator capacities. It is plain that
a regulator doing work in restricting the flow of gas requires considerable force to operate. The Bourdon
tube & Manometer, if of reasonable size, are incapable of developing such force without extensive
leverage. This leaves the bellows, piston & diaphragm as potential practical measuring elements.
Single or double beat valves; piston or butterfly valves would be reasonable restricting elements for
application to a basic regulator. Plug, gate or sliding disc types of valves are impractical in basic regulators
because of large & often variable forces required to overcome friction in their operation.
Using elements from a basic regulator, any combination should be capable of producing an operating unit.
In an attempt to design a basic regulator, we will choose a single valve type with a bellows measuring
element. No loading element is in this case as the bellows acts like a spring.
After combining these pieces into one unit, we could be in the regulator business, with a unit looking like
that shown in Figure 29. Before we take too many orders, it should be tested. During testing, we find that
we get the correct amount of gas through at the design pressure of 6” wg. The downstream pressure, as
measured at gauge A is 6” wg. The pressure within the bellows is identical, & therefore holds the valve in a
partially open position. The regulator is stable since the valve is not moving.
FIGURE 29. AN ATTEMPT TO BUILD A BASIC REGULATOR
The regulator performs well, until a valve downstream is opened increasing the flow through it. As flow
increases, Gauge A shows that the pressure has dropped. Worse than this is the fact that the regulator is
not correcting for this reduction in pressure. Why?
Since the bellows unit acts as a spring in tension, when the force exerted by internal pressure is reduced it
allows the bellows to contract. This moves the valve downward & allows more gas to pass through the
orifice & into the system. If we continue the test & make a pressure flow curve of this unit, we find that it
has a pressure vs. flow curve shown by the solid line in Figure 30.
This characteristic is known as “Positioning action” or spring effect, i.e. for any pressure measured, the
bellows has only one position & consequently only one position of the valve. This regulator will deliver
sufficient gas to maintain 6” wg pressure on the system at only one point so long as the inlet pressure
remains constant.
In order to overcome this “droop”, amplification of the valve travel can be tried. This can be achieved
through use of a lever as shown in Figure 31.
In actual operation, the diameter of the bellows would be increased to provide sufficient force for the
operation of the valve. This increase would be equal to the lever ratio L2 / L1 (lever arms are to be
considered weightless for this exercise). This revision to the regulator design helps to flatten out the curve,
making the unit almost useable.
FIGURE 30. PRESSURE / FLOW CURVE OF SPRING OR BELLOWS LOADED REGULATOR
FIGURE 31. APPLICATION OF LEVERAGE TO BELLOW LOADED REGULATOR
However, it is found that the use of a lever system has a detrimental effect, as it tends to overcorrect &
become unstable. The greater the lever ratio L2/L1 the more pronounced becomes the instability.
There are very few basic regulators on the market today that use the bellows. Several of the reasons for
this are;
1. The cost of a bellows unit of sufficient size is high
2. They are fragile & subject to damage
3. Replacement is not easily accomplished
4. The limited pressure range for which they are applicable
As the bellows are not suitable, we are limited to the diaphragm & piston. Most regulators make use of the
diaphragm, but why not the piston?
The piston has definite advantages. It may be constructed to withstand high pressures without damage &
regardless of its position in the cylinder, its area is constant. It has one disadvantage ruling out its use on
medium pressure ranges. The first of which is leakage of the measured pressure past the piston. The
second fault is more important & is considered worth further study. Figure 32 illustrates a simple regulator
using a weight, a piston & a single valve. Since it contains each of the three essential elements, it should
work. Indeed, it does although not very well.
FIGURE 32. BASIC REGULATOR WITH PISTON AS MEASURING ELEMENT
Assume the regulator to be delivering a flow of Q cubic feet per hour at a pressure P, such that the force
upward on the piston (p x area of the piston) is exactly equal to the weight W. For simplicity assume W
includes weight of piston components. If the load on the system increases, pressure P will start to fall &
our regulator should open up to adjust the flow through the regulator & return to the regulated pressure P. It
does not, i.e. the flow through the regulator does not increase & the pressure does not return to P.
Further increase in the system load causes the pressure to fall, then suddenly it holds constant as the
system load continues to increase, why?
At the reduced pressure P1, the upward force on the piston plus the frictional force between the piston &
the cylinder is less than the force exerted by weight W; hence, the valve moves downward. As long as
frictional force F remains constant, increased flow will result at nearly constant outlet pressure P1.
A point to remember is that friction always opposes motion. This means that they opposite effect will
occur as the system load falls off. A characteristic Pressure / Flow curve would be similar to that shown in
Figure 33. For a set pressure of P, the delivered pressure for any flow will be between P1 & P2.
FIGURE 33. PRESSURE DEVOTIONS OF THE BASIC PISTON REGULATOR
The frictional force F is determined by the coefficient of friction & force acting against the cylinder wall. The
coefficient of friction is merely a percentage applied to the perpendicular force to yield the frictional force.
A certain force is required to seal the piston to the cylinder per inch of piston circumference. Therefore, a
large piston required for the low-pressure ranges would have a large frictional force F, & therefore not be
suitable for pressure control. The frictional force can change as temperature varies & for other reasons,
including dusty gas.
Therefore, the diaphragm is the measuring element best suited to the basic regulator. It is capable of
withstanding substantial pressures, is leak proof & almost frictionless, as long as suitable material is used.
The effective area of a diaphragm is described by the effective radius (Re), which is the distance from the
centre of the diaphragm to the point of horizontal tangency as indicated in Figure 34.
FIGURE 34. THE EFFECTIVE RADIUS OF A DIAPHRAGM
Change in the effective radius due to movement of the diaphragm can give rise to the “Diaphragm effect”.
To understand the reasons for the diaphragm effect, we need to remember two basic principles.
1. Pressure always acts perpendicular to the surface
2. Any force may be resolved into two or more forces acting in selected directions at the point of
application
Figure 35 shows the development of the last principle needed to understand diaphragm effect. In all cases,
an applied pressure of 10 psi & a dimension perpendicular to the surface of this page equal to 1 inch are
assumed. From the diagram A, the horizontal projection of this surface is 1square inch, a total force Fy of
10lb, is the result. In diagram B, the area of inclined surface is increased to 1.414 square inches since this
is the length of a surface that will have a horizontal projection of 1 square inch. The total force has
increased but the vertical component remains 10 lb & is equalled by a horizontal component Fx.
FIGURE 35.
Where a curved surface is involved as in C, the total force is again equal to a pressure times the projected
area of the surface. Components of force act at right angles to this total force, but are equal & opposite &
produce only a tensile stress in the curved surface.
Thus pressure, acting against that portion of the diagram between the pan & the point of horizontal
tangency, results in two forces. One acts vertically & affects the position of the diaphragm pan, whilst the
other acts horizontally towards the centre & is equalled by an opposite force on the other side of the pan.
The horizontal forces affect the position of the diaphragm only indirectly in that they create tensile stress in
the diaphragm.
The outer edge of the diaphragm is securely fastened to the case & the result of pressure acting on the
area outside the point of horizontal tangency may be transmitted to the main diaphragm area only through
the diaphragm at that point. Tensile stress in the diaphragm has much less effect on diaphragm position
than does the force created by pressure beneath it.
A typical pressure-flow curve demonstrating the diaphragm effect is shown in Figure 36. With the smallest
effective area, the pressure required for shut-off would be higher than set pressure. As the diaphragm pan
is opposite the diaphragm clamping ring, the change in effective area is slowest, then increases more
rapidly. The pressure required to balance the loading force decreases.
It must be remembered that any position of the diaphragm, which is in contact with the portion of the case,
is not affected by the pressure to which it is exposed, since it can’t react.
FIGURE 36. VARIANCE IN OUTLET PRESSURE DUE TO CHANGE IN EFFECTIVE DIAPHRAGM AREA
There are three ways in which the diaphragm effect may be minimised in an operating regulator;
1. Limit diaphragm travel to minimum distance above or below the diaphragm clamping joint, making
use of only the flattest portion of the curve, refer to Figure 36.
2. Maintain minimum clearance between the diaphragm case & the diaphragm pan. This allows the
smallest percentage difference in area between extremes of travel.
3. Shape the upper portion of the diaphragm case to maintain a constant effective radius, Figure 39.
FIGURE 37. CHANGE IN EFFECTIVE DIAPHRAGM RADIUS DUE TO VALVE TRAVEL WHEN
DIAPHRAGM PAN DIAMETER IS SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN DIAPHRAGM CASE
FIGURE 38. CHANGE IN EFFECTIVE DIAPHRAGM RADIUS DUE TO VALVE TRAVEL WHEN
DIAPHRAGM PAN DIAMETER IS NEARLY EQUAL TO DIAMETER OF THE CASING
FIGURE 39. DIAPHRAGM CASE DESIGNED TO RESTRICT

LATERAL MOVEMENT OF POINT OF TANGENCY
By process of elimination, the diaphragm has turned out to be the most responsive element that can be
used in the basic regulator. We have experienced little difficulty with the single valve regulators with a large
orifi, however the use of double valves may be required with varying inlet pressures.
Therefore, the three basic regulators use one of the three possible loading elements. This is approximately,
what is found in practice & a basic regulator is often defined by the method of loading. The advantages &
drawbacks of each type of loading are in the following text.
A deadweight, or direct weight loaded regulator, comes closest to being the ideal regulator. This is because
the weight exerts a constant force regardless of diaphragm position. The weight or weights are placed
directly on the diaphragm stem or pan. The diaphragm may be directly or indirectly connected to the
valve(s) through a linkage, which in various commercial models available may be a simple lever, toggle or
bell crank. In all but select locations, the weight should be of internal type, protected by the upper
diaphragm case from tampering or accidental disturbance.
There are several disadvantages to the deadweight regulator. A standard unit with fixed diaphragm
diameter would not be adaptable to very wide pressure ranges. Consider a regulator with a 25” diaphragm
case. 50 pounds of weight (or force), in addition to the diaphragm pan, valves & linkage must be applied to
achieve a delivery pressure of 6” wg. An increase of 60 pounds will raise the delivery pressure to only
10.1” wg. This means that several diaphragm case sizes are required to obtain moderate pressures.
For example, a delivery pressure of 20 psi with a 10½” diaphragm case would roughly require a lead
cylinder 8” in diameter by 53” high (~1,112 lbs), which as you will appreciate is beyond reason. The
centre of gravity on a dead weight regulator should be kept low to prevent tipping of the diaphragm pan &
avoid unwieldy upper diaphragm case & stem guide designs.
The deadweight regulator is disadvantaged as it uses mass as the operating force. Mass in motion has
momentum. Momentum requires an equal force to stop it, resulting in the mass’s tendency to keep
moving. Without friction within the regulator it would never settle since the momentum of the weights
would cause it to over correct due to a deviation in set pressure. Friction is useful in this instance providing
that its magnitude is small & relatively constant, as it acts to “damp” the “hunting” action of the regulator.
The most effective method of damping a deadweight regulator is isolating the lower portion of the
diaphragm case from the body of the regulator. Typically, this is achieved by use of a stem seal or isolating
diaphragm. The measured pressure is then transferred in to the lower diaphragm case from another point
usually with a jet fitted to damp the movement of the diaphragm. This design is not suitable for rapid load
changes, but does work very well on distribution systems where changes are more gradual.
The weight & lever loading system differs from the deadweight system in two areas. First, “weight & lever”
is a term applied to units with weights external of the regulators body. Secondly, due to practicality the
range of outlet pressures they are used for differs. Deadweight regulators have relatively large diaphragms
for service upto 0.2 bar (2 – 3 psi). Weight & lever loaded regulators generally have much smaller
diaphragms & are used for outlet pressures from 0.15 bar to several hundred bar.
The weight & lever loading systems are subject to “ hunting” which can become violent enough to throw
the weights off the loading arm. Often, a pressure-loaded auxiliary is attached to the lever arm to limit the
rate of motion.
Since weights & levers are exposed, they are more subject to tampering & accident. For this reason their
use is limited to enclosed locations. This type of system is in decline & may eventually disappear.
Spring loading is recognised as the most common in use today. There are several reasons for this;
1. The weight of the loading element is small in comparison to the weight of the regulator. The
construction of the unit can therefore be lightweight & easily portable.
2. The force available from a relatively small spring may be quite large. Manufacture of springs with
constants of 2000N (500lbs/inch) is possible with relatively small spring diameters.
3. Using interchangeable springs enables a regulator to deliver a wide range of outlet pressure. They
also permit the use of a restricted head, which is covered later in this section.
4. A spring is easily adjustable & can be set anywhere within its range.
5. A spring has relatively little mass & therefore produces very little momentum due to movement.
6. The nature of a spring is self-damping & tends to eliminate “hunting”.
The spring is not a perfect loading element due to positioning action, i.e. the force exerted by a given
spring depends only on the amount it is compressed. A spring loaded regulator with constant effective
diaphragm area & no pressure drop through the body would have a straight line characteristic on a
pressure vs. flow graph, see Figure 41. By using a longer spring, this positioning action may be minimised,
as illustrated in Figure 40.
For identical forces of 10Kg (~25lb) in full travel position of a diaphragm pan, & a 25mm (1 inch) travel to
the tight sealed position, the spring on the right will create a force of 20Kg (50lb) while that on the left is
capable of only 12Kg (30 lbs).
Two things are apparent. First, the spring on the left will require a longer spring housing & the range of
delivery pressures available will be reduced. As stated previously, sizing a spring is normally a
compromise between the ideal length & reducing its length so that the spring housing is reasonably
proportioned. By using a shorter spring delivery pressures are greater for any given spring & the number of
springs required to cover a wide range is reduced.
The advantages using a spring are great enough that it is used in the majority of basic regulators, with
compensation for positioning action built in to the regulators design.
FIGURE 40. FORCES REQUIRED FOR MOVEMENTS OF VARIOUS SPRINGS
One further characteristic common to all regulators is the “Body effect”. Simply the pressure loss thorough
the regulator due to restriction of flow from inlet to outlet. In the body of a regulator, as in a section of pipe,
the pressure drop is proportional to the square of the flow rate. Compensation for this pressure drop can
be achieved through educated selection of the control point (impulse line) of the regulator.
Smooth internal contours with straight flow paths through the regulator body reduce pressure loss to a
minimum, however other factors must be considered when designing the regulator;
1. Ease of access to the restricting elements by hand hole or doors or quick removal of head.
2. Ease of orifice seat replacement
3. Ease with which it may be adapted to various types of control.
4. Compact size & minimum weight
5. Enhancement of regulator characteristics
6. Standardisation of body length for a given pipe size to permit interchangability of equipment.
7. Strength & resistance to damage due to strain caused by misaligned piping.
8. Variety of permissible installation positions.
In practice, regulator bodies tend to be as short as possible to permit increasing pipe sizes close to the
body. They may have an enlarged outlet connection if the body size cannot be shortened. This increases
cost & is therefore not common.
Also, consider the area of the orifice(s) with respect to the outlet connection of the regulator. Once the area
of restriction exceeds that of the downstream connection, the valve is less effective in controlling flow &
choking occurs.
FIGURE 41. TYPICAL DEVIATION FROM IDEAL REGULATION EXPERIENCED WITH BASIC REGULATORS
If these effects are added to the performance of an ideal regulator, we find that an actual regulator may not
be capable of what we want. The pressure delivered by an ideal regulator is shown in Figure 41 as a
straight line. If the diaphragm effect is applied, the delivered pressure tends to fall with increasing flow as
the effective diaphragm area increases. Add in the spring effect & the pressure deviates further. The body
effect causes still more droop & the total deviation of the regulator means that it is not useful up its full
capacity. The diaphragm & spring effects are close to a straight-line, whilst the body effect is a curve.
In order to provide some way of compensating for these unwanted effects & permit the use of the regulator
throughout the full range of capacity some form of compensation is required.
An early method was to measure the pressure at a remote point downstream of the regulator. This requires
isolation of the lower diaphragm case from the body by means of an O-ring seal or separating diaphragm.
The point at which the pressure is measured may be immediately downstream, or at a distance on a main
of larger diameter than the regulator. The regulator will deliver the set pressure at the point of measurement
while the pressure immediately downstream of the restriction may be considered higher to offset piping
losses. A regulator installed with a downstream impulse connection will normally provide good control on a
district regulator & often further compensate for spring &/or diaphragm effect is unnecessary.
Diaphragm effect can be eliminated by specially contouring the upper diaphragm case & minimising
diaphragm travel, & clearance between the diaphragm pan & case. Thus if weight loading is used with a
suitability restricted downstream control line on a regulator, we might expect it to approach the pressure
vs. flow curve of a prefect regulator. In practice, this is found to be an accurate theory.
An additional correction must be made when using a spring loaded regulator. This may be done by over
correcting for the diaphragm effect so the decreasing spring force may exactly equal the product of control
pressure & effective diaphragm area, regardless of valve position & diaphragm pan, as shown in Figure 42.
FIGURE 42. OVER CORRECTION OF DIAPHRAGM EFFECT TO COMPENSATE FOR SPRING EFFECT
This method would also provide an almost perfect regulator through spring loading, however, it would
prove costly, as the diaphragm requires special construction to stretch & conform to the sides of the upper
diaphragm case.
Thus, we have ways of compensating for the behaviour of some of the elements in regulators. What about
the service type of regulator where the cost of correcting by the use of a downstream control line or
special design would be prohibitive. After all, service regulators probably comprise 75% of the basic
regulators in use.
There are far less expensive means available than those discussed. Correct design can result in a boost in
pressure at high load to offset the pressure drop through a large section of the downstream piping. The
two principal methods utilise basic physics.
We have already mentioned velocity pressure as a component of total pressure. In the example given, the
velocity pressure was added to the static pressure, but the situation where it might be subtractive & yield a
total pressure less that static has not yet been discussed. From Figure 43 - three manometers are
connected to a pipe through which gas is flowing. Manometer A indicates a pressure of delta h in excess
of static, while manometer C indicates a pressure less than static by delta h. This concept could be useful
in correcting the various unwanted effects in regulators. If a pressure lower than static were reflected under
the diaphragm, the regulator could be fooled into opening to permit more flow.
FIGURE 43. CHANGES IN TOTAL PRESSURE CAUSED BY VELOCITY
If the lower diaphragm case is isolated from the body by a seal around the valve stem with a small tube
extended onto the gas stream, see Figure 44, the pressure under the diaphragm would be less than static
by the amount of the velocity pressure. The regulator reacts to the pressure beneath the diaphragm &
opens until measured pressure equals the set pressure. It should be noted that this device might actually
cause a boost in the downstream pressure until flow reaches a point where the body effect becomes
significant. This causes downstream pressure to fall off rapidly as flow continues to increase.
The other method of counteracting the basic effects discussed so far also makes use of the total pressure
concept. The venturi meter is a converging-diverging section of pipe or tubing as shown in Figure 45 & is
used to measure flow. Gas entering the venturi meter has a total pressure created by static pressure &
velocity pressure. Passing through the converging section, the velocity component of total pressure
increases to a maximum at the throat. If we assume no friction losses, the total pressure will remain
constant so that the static pressure will be at a minimum at this point.
This change is reversed at the diverging section of the meter until at the end; the original relationship
between static & velocity pressures has been restored. In practice, friction exists but due to the contours of
the meter, 95%-96% of the loss of static pressure in the converging section is regained in the diverging
section.
The interior of the regulator body can be shaped to provide a smoothly contoured restriction. The static
pressure at or near the throat of the restriction is reflected under the diaphragm, the regulator, sensing a
pressure, which is lower than that downstream, will open. This is the same effect as that obtained by the
use of a Pitot tube.
FIGURE 44. TOTAL PRESSURE CONCEPT APPLIED TO A BASIC REGULATOR
Actually, the size of the regulator body does not permit a true venturi design, but the effect may be
produced by any type of restriction. The permanent loss of total pressure will be increased by departure
from the contours of the venturi; normally this is compensated for by the boost achieved from its use.
FIGURE 45. PRESSURE CHARACTERISTICS OF VENTURI TUBE
The basic regulator has many advantages over the more advanced units available. There are also
drawbacks to the basic regulator or little demand for pressure loading systems would exist.
Major factors favouring the basic regulator are;
1. Normally compact & easy to install, with a minimum of auxiliary piping required
2. Generally inexpensive due to simplicity of design & minimum of parts.
3. Very reliable since the points of failure are minimised.
4. Readily understood regarding maintenance & adjustment.
5. Easily maintained &/or repaired.
6. In general, they are fast acting, unless this characteristic is eliminated by design or installation.
7. Characteristics of regulation meet the requirements of most installations
All service regulators are of this basic type, except where loads or special circumstances require an
advanced loading system. Their reliability, simplicity of construction & installation combined with cost
dictate their use as distribution system regulators in the majority of cases. The rate of response to fast load
changes makes them suitable for boiler loads.
However, limiting factors (listed below) mean that they are not the answer for every situation.
1. The forces available for moving the valve are directly related to diaphragm area & pressure.
2. General inability to maintain a constant pressure over a wide range of flows as required for accurate
measurement of flow.
3. Not adaptable to remote control
4. Not well suited to good pressure control when installed in parallel, unless set points are cascaded.
Whilst covering the topic of basic regulators the following points should be noted;
First is an equipment regulator known as the atmospheric pressure regulator or zero regulator. It is
intended to control the pressure of gas at or near zero gauge pressure. In order to do this there are two
special considerations.
1. Since pressure is set to zero or possibly -1 mbar (-½ “wg), the weight of the diaphragm, pan, stem &
valve must be counter balanced. This is done by either installation of a spring beneath the valve to hold
it in the normally closed position, or by using a tension spring for adjustment (Figure 46).
2. The differential pressure across the valve is important. Since at near zero pressure, the valve is closed
& the weight of the moveable parts is balanced, any sizable upward force on the valve caused by inlet
pressure would tend to prevent operation. Essentially, this type of regulator is classed as “inches to
zero”. For this reason, an appliance type regulator is required upstream if the customer is serviced with
gas at an elevated pressure.
FIGURE 46. SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF TYPICAL ZERO GOVERNORS
Another consideration in basic regulators is that of the monitoring installation. This regulator is normally
installed upstream of a district (service or line) regulator to take control in the event of failure of the active
regulator downstream. The monitor stays open until it is required to limit the downstream pressure.
Whether the primary or monitor regulator is installed upstream or downstream, this regulator must have a
control line installed to sense the pressure downstream of the second regulator in the line. If the monitor is
upstream, it must have an external control line & have isolation of the lower diaphragm casing from the
body. If such isolation does not exist, gas will pass up the stem guide, into the lower diaphragm case &
through the control line to the downstream pipe. This is a source of trouble only during periods of no flow,
at which time the system pressure will build up to the lock-up pressure of the monitor. This may cause
erratic pressure on fast-acting on-off applications since both regulators would have to open before demand
could be met.
Another consideration of the monitor regulator system is that its full capacity is less than that of a single
regulator, regardless of the position of the monitor in the layout. The use of a monitor represents an added
restriction to the flow of gas, reducing the maximum capacity by about 25% when using an identical
monitor & active regulator. This effect may be partially offset by using a larger monitor regulator (usually
one size larger) downstream of the active regulator.
BRYAN DONKIN RMG - UNDERSTANDING GAS CONTROLS SECTION IV Page 36
SECTION IV – PRESSURE LOADING SYSTEMS

In the Section covering basic regulators, the use of gas pressure as a loading medium was ignored to limit
the scope. This section covers the three basic loading systems, which are considered as integral parts of
the regulator, these are;
A. Constant pressure
B. Pressure control
C. Pilot loading
There are many reasons for this advanced type of regulator, some of which are given below;
i. Since the diaphragm is subjected to pressure on both sides, any change in effective area does not
influence the delivery pressure of the regulator as occurs in the basic type.
ii. Provided the loading pressure is not dependant upon the valve or diaphragm position, no
positioning action will exist.
iii. The problem created by the momentum of the mass in motion does not exist.
iv. In one system, the pressure available for positioning of the valve(s) is equal to or slightly less than
the inlet pressure to the regulator
A. Constant Pressure Loading
The requirement for this loading system is to substitute a constant loading force created by gas pressure
for one of the other systems previously covered. This appears a simple exercise; all that is required is
some pipe & a small basic regulator. A supply line is installed from upstream of the pressure-loaded
regulator, through the loading regulator to the upper diaphragm case, which has been made gas-tight.
Figure 47 illustrates this design. Although it may appear that this system would work adequately, in
practice it will not.
If the loading regulator is set to 0.3 bar (5psi), it’s found that the main regulator will deliver a slightly higher
pressure due to the weight of the diaphragm, stem & valve. It would work rather well on a steady load.
FIGURE 47. PRESSURE LOADED REGULATOR WITHOUT BLEED
If the load increases the diaphragm will move down & the loading regulator will bring the pressure in the
upper diaphragm case up to the 0.3 bar (5psi) set point again.
However, if the load decreases, the downstream pressure starts to rise & the diaphragm moves up. The
gauge shows that the pressure in the upper diaphragm case is more than 5 psi because the loading gas
has nowhere to go. It is possible that this regulator will not lock up until the delivery pressure reaches 0.4
bar (6 psi) or 0.6 bar (10 psi) or even 1.6 bar (25 psi), depending upon the volume of the upper diaphragm
case & the diaphragm travel.
From this it would appear that the regulator could work well with large volume loading gas tank connected
to the upper diaphragm case, in fact it could. However, this gives rise to positioning action, which we are
trying to avoid.
The first attempt to obtain pressure loading failed because the equipment did not maintain a constant
loading pressure under all conditions. As any leakage past the valve of the loading regulator would
eventually drive the main valve wide open & hold it.
To achieve our goal, a method disposing of the loading gas is required to prevent compression in the top
casing as flow decreases. A way of accomplishing this would be to use a bleed to atmosphere, i.e. an
“atmospheric” bleed as shown in Figure 48.
FIGURE 48. PRESSURE LOADED REGULATOR WITH ATMOSPHERIC BLEED
Since the amount of bleed is unknown at this point, the bleed valve D is just cracked open. At constant
flow rate, loading regulator A will supply gas to the upper diaphragm case at exactly the same rate of the
bleed to atmosphere through D. Should the load on the main regulator increase A will open & maintain the
loading pressure at the set value.
If the load decreases, the pressure under the diaphragm will start to rise, causing slight compression of the
loading gas, The loading regulator locks up once loading pressure exceeds the set point, while the amount
of bleed gas rises slightly due to the increased differential across D. This continues until the loading
pressure is reduced to the point where A will open & the loading system returns to a state of equilibrium.
No change has occurred in the relationship between gauges B & C, the pressure at C is slightly higher
because of the weight of the moving parts.
If the bleed valve is barely open, it is found that the regulator will respond quickly to an increase in flow, the
limiting factor being the capacity of the loading regulator, but it will not react quickly to a flow reduction, as
the bleed is limited in capacity. The opposite would occur if the atmospheric bleed flow were large with
respect to the capacity of the loading regulator. The response to a reduction in flow would be rapid whilst
an increase would be slow, as the loading regulator can pass the flow necessary to increase the pressure
due to the bleed.
An ideal situation would be a bleed rate that is ½ the capacity of the loading regulator. This should allow
the main valve to move in either direction at about the same speed. Since the loading regulator may have
considerable capacity, it may be necessary to limit its maximum flow rate. This can be easily achieved by
installing an orifice in the loading line. This would limit the amount of bleed gas to a reasonable value,
without which could prove expensive, dangerous & objectionable in populated areas.
The response characteristics are shown in Figure 49, the solid pressure line indicating a regulator with a
small bleed, the broken line for a large bleed.
FIGURE 49. PRESSURE & FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESSURE

LOADED REGULATORS WITH VARIOUS BLEEDS
In view of these disadvantages of an atmospheric bleed, we will now discuss the possibility of returning
the bleed to flow to the mains downstream. The first requirement is to ensure that the loading pressure is
higher than the downstream pressure. If this were not the case, the upper diaphragm case would receive
gas from downstream & go wide open. This is easily accomplished by installing a spring, which will hold
the valves closed when the loading pressure & outlet pressure are zero.
This arrangement is illustrated in Figure 50, with the spring installed at E such that a loading pressure of 70
mbar (1psi) must be shown on gauge B before the main valve starts to move. For simplicity the positioning
action of spring E, is not considered. If the pressure at C were 0.3 bar (5psi), gauge B would show 0.37
bar (6psi) & loading regulator A would supply gas equal to the flow through restriction D.
If the load decreases, the pressure at C will rise. In this case, the flow through the restriction D will
decrease due to the decreased differential. Upward travel of the diaphragm will compress the gas in the
upper diaphragm case, tending to increase the differential across D & lock up the loading regulator A.
FIGURE 50. PRESSURE LOADED REGULATOR WITH DOWNSTREAM BLEED
If the downstream bleed is small, a considerable surge in the outlet pressure will occur before the regulator
locks up. If orifice D is large, the regulator may lock up rather fast, but gas will continue to flow through the
loading system & into the downstream line until its pressure also reaches 0.37 bar (6 psi). This is an
undesirable characteristic for a regulator.
An important point to be considered in regulators is their action in the event of failure of the loading gas
supply. The system shown in Figure 48 will act as a weight-loaded regulator at a pressure equal to the
difference between gauges B & C. If loading pressure exceeds downstream pressure, as may occur with
the installation of a spring to close the valve, the control pilot would be theoretically less than atmospheric.
B. PRESSURE CONTROL
A pressure control system differs from the basic constant pressure loading system in two significant
respects. Firstly, the bleed gas is sent into the downstream piping & hence the loading pressure must
exceed the downstream pressure. Secondly, the rate of bleed from the upper diaphragm case is variable
rather than relatively constant. This action is achieved by installation of a relief regulator in the line from the
upper diaphragm case to the downstream piping of the main regulator. This is shown in Figure 51.
Again, a spring is used to counteract the weight of the moving parts. Its use ensures that the loading
pressure exceeds the downstream pressure. The loading regulator is set to deliver a constant pressure, as
measured by gauge B, while relief regulator C is set to open slightly above the set pressure of the main
regulator as measured at D
FIGURE 51. PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM WITH RELIEF REGULATOR BLEEDING DOWNSTREAM
In normal operation, the loading & relief regulators supply a minimum flow. An increase in the delivery
pressure results in a movement of the diaphragm tending to close the main valve. The gas in the upper
diaphragm case is compressed, locking up the loading regulator A & causing the relief regulator C to open
more. Downstream pressure will build up to the set pressure of regulator A & completely lock up the main
regulator.
With a decrease in downstream pressure, the loading regulator A feeds while the relief C closes; this tends
to drive the main valve open. The regulator pictured would fail closed upon losing loading gas. This would
not be commonly used as the only regulator supplying a distribution system or consumer, since failure
would result in an interruption of supply. It would be preferable to have the regulator fail to the open
position, relying on relief devices, a monitor regulator, or customers regulators to protect appliances until
repairs to the main regulator can be completed.
Figure 52, shows a pressure control system, which would fail open upon losing power gas. It is similar to
the previous design except that loading gas is required to close the main valve rather than open it.
FIGURE 52. PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM WITH NEEDLE VALVE & BLEED REGULATOR
From Figure 52, the loading regulator A is set perhaps 0.3 bar (5 psi) higher than the downstream pressure
but the rate of loading gas supply is restricted by needle valve E. The bleed regulator C is direct acting in
this case & is set to deliver the same pressure as the main regulator.
The operation of this unit is as follows. Under normal conditions, the loading & bleed regulators supply &
bleed the same amount of gas. If the downstream pressure rises, regulator C locks up, allowing the loading
regulator A to build up pressure in the upper diaphragm case, moving the main valve closed. If the
downstream pressure falls, regulator C opens & bleeds loading gas into the downstream piping faster than
restriction E will supply loading gas, the spring will cause the main valve to open.
It should be noted, that the lower diaphragm case is sealed off at the stem guide & vented to atmosphere
so that the main diaphragm of the regulator does not serve as a measuring element. The responsive
element in this case is the diaphragm of auxiliary regulator C.
Advantages of this loading system over the basic pressure loading are the elimination of atmospheric bleed
& the increased rate of response to a changing load. However, there are three adjustments required for a
sizable change in the set point of the main regulator, i.e. loading & bleed regulator as well as restriction E.
Note that the bleed regulator C would operate in a reverse mode to that of a typical service regulator.
Reversal of action is most easily accomplished with a regulator using a toggle-type linkage, since reversing
the toggle is all that is required. Referring to Figure 53, the normal position of the linkage is shown by
broken lines the revered position shown in solid lines. As the diagram moves against the spring, the valve
is drawn away from the orifice, exactly the reverse of the action of a normal regulator.
FIGURE 53. REVERSE ACTING TOGGLE REGULATOR
Figure 54 illustrates the conversion of a bell-crank regulator. The orifice is replaced with a special one with
the seating surface on the upstream side & the valve stem is extended through the orifice. Again, as the
diaphragm moves against the spring as it would on increasing downstream pressure, the valve is moved
away from the orifice, allowing gas to pass.
FIGURE 54. REVERSE ACTING BELL-CRANK REGULATOR
C. Pilot Loading
Often called the “power pilot” system, this is by far the best means of using pressure to control the action
of the main regulator valve. In this system, the function of loading gas supply & bleed are combined in the
pilot regulator rather than in separate external auxiliaries, only a single adjustment is required to change the
set pressure of the main regulator. Normally, pilot systems are the downstream bleed type, although some
may be converted to atmospheric bleed.
In previous systems, the loading regulator has been set to respond to a change in loading pressure while
the bleed regulator responds to delivery pressure. In the pilot loading system, both loading & unloading
portions of the pilot regulator respond to delivery pressure simultaneously. Since there is only one
adjustment, the sometimes difficult balancing of load & bleed regulators is eliminated. Most pilot loaded
regulators are of the fail-closed type where loading pressure is required to oppose a spring to open the
main valve or valves.
Most power pilot regulators in use to day are similar in appearance & construction, making use of the
double diaphragm & yoke to balance out the effect of variations of loading pressure on the unit. Referring
to Figure 55, power loading gas from upstream of the main regulator enters the pilot on the right, a loading
connection is on the left & the downstream pressure acts at the bottom of the pilot on to one side of the
lower diaphragm. Loading pressure acts with equal force on both diaphragms, which are equal in size, so
in effect, since the upper & lower diaphragms are rigidly connected by the yoke, the spring acts against a
single diaphragm opposed by the measured outlet pressure. The nozzle assembly in the centre has control
over the rate of loading gas supply & bleed.
To complete our understanding of the pilot regulator, the function of the nozzle assembly must be studied.
To achieve rapid response to changes in delivery pressure, it is reasonable to assume that when the
loading pressure is too high, the supply of loading pressure must be shut off & the bleed fully open.
Similarly, when loading pressure is low, it can be increased quickest if the bleed is shut off & the supply
line opened.
The bleed is downstream so a design of valve arrangement involving the lower diaphragm of the pilot is
required. Following logically through the chain of events it can been seen that when the double diaphragm
unit is moving in the same direction as the force exerted by the spring, it is due to low delivery pressure.
Therefore, the bleed should be closed & supply line open. The reverse is true when the unit moves upward
against the force of the spring.
FIGURE 55. A TYPICAL PILOT REGULATOR WITH NOZZLE & BLEED ASSEMBLY
A unit as illustrated in Figure 55 should work. A gas supply separate from the upstream gas is brought into
the chamber through a nozzle. A valve attached to the lower diaphragm acts against this nozzle, controlling
the rate of supply to the loading chamber & the pilot regulator. An orifice is installed in the lower diaphragm
& a fixed valve is placed in the delivery pressure chamber of the pilot. Thus, the movement of the lower
diaphragm will control both loading & unloading of the main regulator. This is the theory of the power pilot
regulator.
Each manufacturer has refined the supply & bleed function to their own design, avoiding patented features
of others, but the operation is similar to that shown.
FIGURE 56. A TYPICAL PILOT REGULATOR LOADING SYSTEM
A typical pilot loaded regulator is shown in Figure 56. Alternatively, the pilot regulator may be built into the
main regulator so that a minimum of external piping is required.
One last point regarding pilot loaded regulators is “proportional band” or “throttling range”. With pilot
control, the proportional band is not adjustable independent of set point & may be defined as the deviation
from the set point, which is required for extreme action by the pilot. It is the change in delivery pressure
required to make either loading or unloading restriction go from full open to full closed.
For example assume a pilot loaded regulator set to deliver 20 psi has a proportional band of 8” wg, should
the delivery pressure Po rise during operation, the supply of loading gas will be reduced & the bleed
increased until at 20 psi + 4” wg, the bleed will be fully open & the supply nozzle completely closed.
Conversely, at 20 psi - 4” wg, the supply nozzle will be full open & the bleed closed as the pilot builds up
loading pressure to drive the valve open. This proportional band effect is the result of the positioning action
inherent in springs, specifically, the main & pilot springs. On some pilots, it is possible to adjust the
proportional band between fast opening & slow closing & visa versa, as site conditions dictate.
From this study, it may be seen that the use of gas pressure as a loading medium in a regulator will, if
properly used, in many cases furnish a constant (or essentially constant) delivery pressure over a wide
range of flows. Such a regulator is not as fast acting as a spring-loaded regulator, but for most purposes,
the rate of response is adequate. Of the three types discussed; pilot loading, pressure control loading &
constant pressure loading, the pilot loaded is fastest acting, easiest to adjust & the simplest design.
Normally, regulators of these three types are used where pressure control within narrow limits is required
for accurate metering or processes.
It is recognised that other loading systems exist; however, it is not possible in this document to study
every combination, rather relying upon an understanding of three basic concepts in common use to permit
the understanding of other designs.
BRYAN DONKIN RMG - UNDERSTANDING GAS CONTROLS SECTION V Page 43
SECTION V – REGULATORS
REGULATOR IMPULSE LINE POSITIONING
In this section, we cover the positioning of the external impulse connection or pressure sensing line to
the regulator. This connection communicates the outlet pressure from a point downstream to the
regulator.
1. The impulse connection should ideally be placed downstream of the regulator in straight pipework a
minimum of 5 x the pipe diameter. If the pipe work increases downstream of the regulator, then the
tapping should be on the larger diameter pipe work (Figure 57). When gas is reduced in pressure &
flows through a regulator body, turbulence is created & if not given the opportunity to smooth out
would be passed to through the impulse line to the underside of the regulator diaphragm, causing
erratic control of the outlet pressure. Larger internal pipework volumes absorb turbulence & rapid
pressure changes better than smaller pipework volumes & thus gives a more stable control.
FIGURE 57. REGULATOR IMPULSE LINE POSITION
2. Size of impulse line should be generally:

Up to 200 mm (8 inch) nominal bore regulator - 15 mm (1/2")
Over 250 mm (10 inch) nominal bore regulator - 20 mm (3/4")
3. When valves, bends or other equipment likely to cause turbulence are located immediately after the
regulator, it is often found to be beneficial to connect the regulator impulse line further downstream.
The regulator can then automatically compensate for changes in pressure drop across these items
of equipment & maintain accurate outlet pressure control.
FIGURE 58. REGULATOR IMPULSE LINE POSITION FOR ACCURATE OUTLET PRESSURE CONTROL
From Figure 58, the pressure drop from regulator outlet to point 'Y' is:
a. 25 mbar (10" wg) at Full flow - 1,000 m3/hr (35,000 scfh)
b. 5 mbar (2" wg) at Low flow - 100 m3/hr (3,500 scfh)
With the regulator impulsed on its immediate outlet at location 'X', even with satisfactory control, the
pressure at this point would be 20 mbar (8" wg) more than at position ‘Y’ due to pressure losses across
the piping & equipment. By impulsing at 'Y', the frictional pressure losses through valves, bends, etc, will
automatically be accounted for; the regulator will deliver its set pressure at the location of the impulse
point. An additional benefit is that by positioning at 'Y', the regulator will be able to respond more quickly
to load changes, as it is nearer to the actual demand.
4. Impulsing should be on the top or side of pipe NOT on bottom as this may become blocked due to
dust/scale movement along the bottom of the pipe work.
"HUNTING" & "CHATTERING"

"Hunting" is a swinging of the outlet pressure either side of the required set point. The term "Hunting" is
derived from the resemblance of a horse going up & down over hedges when hunting through fields.
Generally, it can be overcome by damping the pressure effect on the control governor so that the main
valves move slowly. It will be seen in Figure 60 how this "swing" is reduced or eliminated by "damping".
Figure 59 shows the methods of Regulator dampening & relative size of the restrictions used. The effects
of these restrictions are illustrated in Figure 60
FIGURE 59. EXAMPLE OF ATMOSPHERIC OR CONTROL LINE RESTRICTION ON A REGULATOR
Reference: to Figure 60.
In the simplest of low-pressure governors, the top cover over the main diaphragm is fitted with a small
hole that impedes the diaphragm movement by the "Cushion" effect. An alternative is to damp the
impulse tube to the main diaphragm by means of a jet/restrictor or even a piece of felt/gauze etc.
Hunting usually occurs on burner type transient loads where the internal volume of pipework is small,
resulting in sudden pressure changes which are transferred to measuring diaphragm which is connected
to the valves making them move up & down, thus completing the Hunting cycle. By designing larger
internal volumes in the system, Hunting is less likely to occur, as the pressure changes are more readily
absorbed into the larger volume, allowing stable control.
During normal load, if the main valve(s) of a regulator is near to its seat, a phenomenon called
"Chattering” may occur, In this case, the valve(s) is actually hitting the seat at each stroke of its
movement. Usually this is due to the regulator being oversized for the duty, this can resolved by reducing
the inlet pressure or the regulator valve(s) size to force the regulator to work harder.
FIGURE 60. PERFORMANCE OF REGULATORS WITH VARYING DEGREES OF STABILITY
From Figure 60;

Curve "A” a stable slow response, damped, so that pressure is restored without overshoot or "hunting".
Curve "B” the damping shown is excessive & the return to the required pressure is very slow.
Curve "C" under damped, overshoots & "hunts", but with decreasing amplitude.
Curve "D” the regulator is not stable & the result is sustained "hunting" of constant amplitude.
Curve "E” shows unstable control with increased "hunting", the worst condition.
Curve "F” the optimum damping giving a quick return to the required pressure with minimum "hunting".
It would appear that critical damping is the ideal, but is found in practice that the return to the required
pressure is prolonged. A better solution is to under damp the governor slightly, resulting in an initial brief
“hunt”, as illustrated in Curve "F ".
NEEDLE VALVE CONTROL OR LOCK UP SYSTEM
This type of control system is used generally for two applications.
(a) To enable a direct acting regulator to be auxiliary ‘K’ governor controlled.
The 'K' governor is set lower than the main regulator & controls the required outlet pressure by
varying the flow through the auxiliary rail via the needle valve & ‘K’ governor & thus, the control
pressure to the diaphragm of the main regulator. Auxiliary ‘K’ governor control systems mainly use
the inspirator, see Inspirator section. The needle valve is mainly used as described in part (b).
(b) To improve the "lock up" of a direct acting regulator.
The 'K' governor is set slightly higher than the outlet pressure thus remains open during demand,
allowing direct acting control of the main regulator, which is set to the desired outlet pressure.
“Lock up” is the term used to describe the increase in outlet pressure above set point that is required
to fully seal the internal valve(s) of the regulator 100% closed/bubble tight during zero flow
conditions. “Lock up” or the SG classification varies according to regulator design & operating
pressures, usually 2.5 to 50 % of the set outlet pressure, i.e. SG 2.5 to SG 50.
Often, when fitted to a boiler or burner train, it is undesirable to have high outlet pressure peaks as
this may trip high-pressure limit switches, triggering alarms & possibly, automatically shutting down
the system completely.
FIGURE 61. WITHOUT LOCK UP SYSTEM FITTED FIGURE 62. WITH LOCK UP SYSTEM FITTED
HOW THE SYSTEM WORKS

First, assume the following:
Required outlet pressure is: 10
The 'K' governor is set to: 11
The main governor is set to the required outlet pressure: 10
The 'J' governor is set to a figure sufficiently high to ensure 100% bubble tight shut off, say 16. This
figure is kept constant even though the inlet pressure may vary.
Under normal operating conditions, the 'K' governor senses outlet pressure at 10 & since it is set to 11, it
will remain open. This allows the main regulator to be directly impulsed. The small flow of gas from the
'J' governor at 16 has no effect on the main governor as it bleeds easily downstream, mixing with
impulse line gas. If the outlet pressure starts to rise due to falling demand, the pressure reaches the
setting of the 'K' governor at 11, & then closes at a pressure slightly above this, thus stopping the
auxiliary flow to downstream. Thus the pressure from the 'J' governor will increase to 16 in the
diaphragm chamber of the main regulator ensuring 100% shut off.
As demand restarts & the downstream mains pressure falls below the setting of the 'K' governor, it then
opens, allowing the gas to bleed downstream, thus reducing the pressure in the diaphragm chamber of
the main regulator. The main regulator then takes over direct control at 10. The needle valve is used to
restrict the rate of flow through the system. It can also be used to tune or dedicate the system to the
specific application. The more needle valve is opened, the quicker system will respond to close.
FIGURE 63. TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF NEEDLE VALVE OR LOCK UP SYSTEM
FIGURE 64. TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSPIRATOR AUXILIARY SYSTEM
FIGURE 65. PERFORMANCE OF ¾ X ¾ X ¾ LP PATENT INSPIRATOR
Example calculation ref: Figure 65

Inlet Press. to Inspirator: 40”wg
Inspirator Outlet Pressure: 25“wg
DP Inlet/Outlet: 15”wg@340scfh
DP Throat/Outlet (graph):37”wg
Throat Pr. (25-37”wg): -12”wg
INSPIRATOR CONTROLLED REGULATOR

A typical arrangement of a regulator & an Inspirator auxiliary system is shown in Figure 64. The
arrangement is the same as the needle valve or lock up system previously discussed, except an
inspirator replaces the needle valve.
As gas flows through the inspirator, it creates a vacuum at the injector outlet & thus the throat. This
negative pressure reduces as the flow decreases, automatically varying according to the prevailing
conditions, & eventually may become a positive pressure. At zero flow the pressure across the inspirator
will equalise to the J governor pressure, shutting the main regulator 100% closed.
The combined effect of an Inspirator system is to magnify the control effect on the main regulator due to
variations in the auxiliary system throughput due to varying demand. A change in the DP across the
inspirator is amplified at an approx ratio of 2.3 to 1 at the injector outlet. This variation of pressure is
seen by the main regulator diaphragm, which changes its position accordingly, ensuring the regulator
gives very accurate outlet pressure control & provides an immediate response to demand changes.
The main regulator spring setting is usually lower than the K governor(s) setting(s).
CLOCK CONTROL OF REGULATORS

Clock control is a term often used to describe the automatic changing of regulator outlet pressure at
specific times of the day to supply the varying demands.
The main purpose of a clock control system is to reduce the outlet pressure from a District or City Gate
station to a minimum (but still sufficient to meet demand), thus reducing leakage in mainly older cast iron
mains with poor joints. This reduction in leakage obviously cuts the cost of ‘lost’ revenue & decreases the
chance of leakage becoming a major public & safety issue.
FIGURE 66. TYPICAL PRESSURE PROFILE OF CLOCK CONTROLLED REGULATOR
From Figure 66 it can be seen that during the night period of low demand the regulator is clocked to give
a low pressure (reducing leakage) but during the day time when demand is high, the regulator gives a
higher outlet pressure.
For many years, mechanical clocks we used, however, due to the need to rewind them on a weekly
basis, electronically powered clocks have mainly replaced them.
ELECTROCLOCK 2 & AUTO K PILOT

The Auto K, combines two pilots with the clock in one body, reducing space & cost, resulting in a
compact self contained unit.
The Auto K Pilot

incorporating
The Electroclock the Electroclock
The Electroclock is a direct replacement for older mechanical clocks & can utilise the existing pilots.
FIGURE 67. A TYPICAL SCHEMATIC OF A CLOCK CONTROLLED REGULATOR
BRYAN DONKIN RMG - UNDERSTANDING GAS CONTROLS SECTION VI Page 49
SECTION VI – PRESSURE REDUCING STATIONS

WHY DOES GAS DISTRIBUTION NEED REGULATOR STATIONS?
Pressure reduction stations (PRS) are required to give safe, reliable accurate control of gas pressure to
areas of domestic, commercial & industrial utilisation.
A PRS can be viewed as an automatic throttle valve, controlling the flow of gas into a network. Without this
control, flames on cookers/burners would vary tremendously as customers switch their appliances on &
off, constantly changing the demand for flow & hence prevailing pressure.
FIGURE 68. SCHEMATIC OF A TYPICAL GAS NETWORK FROM WELL HEAD TO CUSTOMER
PRESSURE REDUCTION STATION SIZING - When requesting a quotation for a PRS as much information
as possible should be provided. Minimum requirements as follows;
Maximum Flow Sm3/h
Minimum Flow Sm3/h
Maximum Inlet Pressure Bar g
Minimum Inlet Pressure Bar g
Maximum Outlet Pressure Bar g / mbar g
Minimum Outlet Pressure Bar g / mbar g
Maximum Inlet Velocity If not stated we would assume 20m/sec
Maximum Outlet Velocity If not stated we would assume 40m/sec
Arrangement required Single or Twin stream
(see notes to follow) Active/Slam shut
Type & S.G. of Gas Stream discrimination
Metering
Manual Bypass
With this information, we are then able to calculate;
a. the size of inlet & outlet pipework required
b. regulator size using max. flow, min. inlet pressure & max. outlet pressure (i.e. worst case for regulator)
SIZING REGULATOR STATION PIPEWORK

Gas Utilities around the world use different maximum gas velocities but tend to follow;
Maximum inlet gas velocity (unfiltered gas) 20 to 25 m/sec (60 to 80 ft/sec)
Maximum outlet gas velocity (filtered gas) 20 to 50 m/sec (90 to 160 ft/sec)
To calculate pipe diameter the following calculation is used;
Metric
D= 353 x Q
V x P
Where;
D = pipe diameter in mm. Q = flow in m3/h
V = pipe velocity in m/sec P = pressure in bar a (i.e. add one bar to gauge pressure)
Imperial
D= 0.7486 x Q
V x P
Where;
D = pipe diameter in inches. Q = flow in ft3/h
V = pipe velocity in ft/sec P = pressure in psi a (i.e. add 14.7 psi to gauge pressure)
REGULATOR SYSTEMS ARRANGMENTS

"Standard" arrangements of regulators &/or slam shut valves used in pressure control stations which are
most widely used by Gas Utilities worldwide are listed below;
1. ACTIVE REGULATOR
2. ACTIVE / SLAM SHUT
3. ACTIVE / MONITOR
4. ACTIVE / MONITOR / SLAM SHUT
5. ACTIVE / MONITOR / SLAM SHUT – TWO (OR MORE) STAGE REDUCTION
6. STREAM SELECTION / DISCRIMINATION
1. ACTIVE REGULATOR
In this arrangement, only one regulator is used to control the outlet pressure. Often a full relief valve is
situated downstream of the regulator to provide a safeguard in the unlikely event of regulator failure.
2. ACTIVE / SLAM SHUT
This is the most widely used system, particularly for pressures of up to 10-bar/150 psig. Typically, an
overpressure cut off valve (slam shut) is situated upstream of the regulator or integrated into the body of
smaller service regulators.
If the regulator fails, the downstream pressure will rise until it reaches the pre-set position of the spring in
the slam shut valve. As this is exceeded, the slam shut valve will trip closed, shutting off the gas flow.
Often, a limited capacity (approximately one to five percent of full flow) relief valve will be used in
conjunction with this system. This is only operates if, for instance, a small piece of dirt/dust stops the
regulator from closing completely & giving a bubble tight seal. The small amount passing the regulator
seat will slowly build up & may eventually reach the relief valve setting & then be safely vented to
atmosphere. In the event of a total regulator failure, this relief valve would be incapable of passing the full
amount & thus the pressure would continue rising until the pressure "tripped" the slam shut valve.
Example A. Configuration : Active Slam-Shut with limited relief valve.

Fault : small leak past regulator seat, i.e. damaged orifice, dirt on valve seat
The limited capacity relief valve can cope with the small leak through the regulator, limiting the outlet pressure
to the relief valve setting.
Example B. Configuration : Active Slam-Shut with Limited Relief Valve.
Fault : large leak past regulator seat, i.e. regulator failure
With a major failure of the regulator, the relief valve is unable to cope with the full flow. Thus the outlet pressure
rises to the set point of the slam-shut, cutting off the gas supply.
3. ACTIVE / MONITOR
A monitor regulator is positioned upstream of the active regulator. This configuration is sometimes called
"in series". The monitor is set to a slightly higher outlet pressure than the active regulator. The monitor
regulator is usually open, only operating if the active regulator fails & the outlet pressure rises to the
setting of the monitor.
The monitor regulator gives additional safety to the system, in the event of active regulator failure, the
system continues to operate, albeit at a slightly higher outlet pressure.
Note; A factor of say 0.7 must be used on the regulator flows, to allow for losses through the monitor.
One regulator passes 1,000 Sm3/h ∴ Active / monitor passes 700 Sm3/h
Example C. Configuration : Active / Monitor.
Fault : failure of active/working regulator
This can often mean regulators, when working in an active / monitor arrangement; have to be larger &
thus more expensive.
This system can be used in conjunction with a limited or full capacity relief valve where the setting of this
is above that of the monitor regulator.
4. ACTIVE / MONITOR / SLAM SHUT
This is a more advanced system, offering a higher degree of safety. It is a combination of the two
previous systems. The active regulator normally controls the outlet pressure but in the event of regulator
failure, the monitor regulator takes over control. In the very unlikely event that this regulator also fails, the
pressure would rise until the slam shut valve closes, stopping gas flow.
This system is often used in conjunction with a limited capacity relief valve.
Example D. Configuration : Active / Monitor / Slam.
Fault : failure of active/working & monitor regulators
5. ACTIVE / MONITOR / SLAM SHUT / TWO STAGE REDUCTION

This arrangement gives a high degree of safety comprising of an Active (2nd Stage) regulator, 1st
Stage/Monitor regulator, limited capacity relief valve & slam shut valve. Initially the inlet pressure is
reduced by the 1st Stage regulator (which becomes the Monitor regulator in the event of the Active failing)
& further reduced to the required outlet pressure by the Active regulator. Two-stage pressure reduction is
mainly used on large flow high pressure pilot controlled systems, typically class 300 & above, usually
giving better control than one large pressure cut across one regulator.
FIGURE 69. PRESSURE PROFILE THROUGH TWO STAGE ACTIVE/MONITOR/SLAM PRS
6. STREAM SELECTION / DISCRIMINATION – NON RETURN TYPE

What does it comprise? - The system usually consists of a differential pressure operated flap type
non-return valve (waferchek or streamchek), & a diaphragm operated pressure relief valve.
Where is it fitted? - The system is primarily intended for use in conjunction with an over pressure
safety cut off device in a twin stream or multi-stream gas pressure regulating system, feeding a common
district network or industrial consumer. Its purpose is to automatically identify & initiate the isolation of a
faulty (excess pressure) regulator whilst protecting a healthy regulator(s) against inadvertent shut off.
How does it operate? - With the pressure-regulating stream operating normally, the forward flow of
gas keeps the non-return valve in the open position & the relief valve, due to the outlet pressure being
within the required pressure level, will be closed.
If a fault should occur, due to any other feed into the system causing the outlet pressure to rise above the
required level, then the healthy pressure regulator would close & stop the forward flow of gas. With no
forward flow, the non-return valve will close & prevent the higher outlet pressure from reaching the over
pressure cut off device impulse point. Any small leakage back through the non-return valve is discharged
to atmosphere by the relief valve, thus limiting the pressure at the slam shut sensing point to no more
than the relief valve setting.
In the event that the level of the outlet pressure now falls below the required level, i.e. the external fault
has been isolated; the regulator will open & allow the supply to continue.
If a fault should occur on the regulator, causing an increased outlet pressure, the relief valve will open in
an attempt to contain the rise in the outlet pressure. If the relief valve cannot contain the rise, the
pressure at the sensing point of the slam shut will rise. When it reaches the set point of the slam shut will
be activated, isolating the supply.
Since the stream discrimination system protects a healthy pressure regulating stream, it is possible to
have all the over pressure cut off devices on any associated streams set at the same trip pressure.
Where a stream discrimination system is not fitted, it would be necessary to stagger the trip pressures of
the slam shuts &, if the stream having the highest trip setting were to develop a fault, then all the streams
would be shut down as their over pressure cut-off valves operate, thus cutting off the supply completely.
FIGURE 70. ACTIVE/MONITOR/SLAM PRS WITH STREAM DISCRIMINATION
UNDERGROUND PRESSURE REDUCING STATIONS

So far this document has concentrated on PRS installations above ground. In recent years the use of below
ground PRS has increased. The reasons for this are discussed below;
As noted in Section I, pressure reduction of a flowing gas can generate substantial noise. As infrastructure
develops & vacant land becomes limited, Pressure Reducing Stations are often located in proximity to
residential property. This along with legislation governing maximum noise levels is increasing the need to
consider noise reduction from the inception of a PRS installation.
Typical methods for reducing noise levels generated by a PRS include, but are not limited to; special low
noise regulator designs, acoustic wrapping of pipework, acoustic damping housings. All these methods
greatly add to the cost of the PRS & may only reduce noise levels by a small degree.
A more cost effective solution is to bury the unit, which can be extremely successful in reducing the sound
emitted. This is advantageous as the ‘free’ surrounding ground is used as the insulator. This ethos can
prove much cheaper than using a standard PRS with noise abatement measures.
Another consideration when deciding whether to use an above or belowground PRS is the cost of land. In
major cities the acquisition of land to install a PRS can prove very costly. By burying the unit the ‘foot print’
of the PRS can be decreased & hence the amount of land required is smaller. Indeed it is possible to bury
units under roadways thus removing the need for acquisition of dedicated land.
Further benefits include reducing the susceptibility of the unit to damage from vehicular accidents or
deliberate vandalism.
Bryan Donkin RMG have recently expanded our range of underground modules to satisfy this growing
market, as more people realise the benefits of the buried PRS. The Vector range of buried modules utilise
industry proven components from our regulator range combined with integral filter, safety cut-off valve,
limited capacity relief valve, stream selection & auxiliary system in a compact unit.
FIGURE 71. 280 VECTOR UNDERGROUND PRESSURE REDUCING MODULE
Regulator Relief Valve

Slam shut
Stream
selection
FAULT FINDING - REGULATORS DIRECT ACTING - SPRING LOADED
Fault Location Possible Cause Remarks

Check that control impulse of is connected:
ICL: Internal Control Line. If ECL type, connect impulse line downstream.
ECL: External Control Line.
Packing bungs not removed from ports. Remove all packing bungs.
No outlet Pressure Control Regulator
Installed in pipeline with flow in the wrong direction. Install regulator with body in direction of flow.
Regulator internals damaged due to over

Check & replace regulator internals – if necessary
pressurisation from pipe work leakage test
Defective Diaphragm Fit new Diaphragm - consider Spares Kit
Closing Pressure is too high Debris between valve and orifice seat. Remove debris and repair/replace as necessary.
Regulator Main Valve
Valve does not Close Valve and/or orifice seat Damaged or Worn Check for damage, repair or replace where necessary.
Worn or damaged seal(s) Fit new seals
Regulator Main Valve Valve operating in near closed position e.g. Chattering Check for correct size of Regulator, probably too large
Pulsating Outlet Pressure
Rapid outlet pressure fluctuations acting on Consider fitting a restrictor/jet in the atmospheric vent
Diaphragm Assembly
diaphragm, possible small volume of outlet pipework. or External Impulse Line, to dampen down
Check for correct positioning of External Control Line,
Pressure Sensing Point Incorrect Impulse location in outlet pipe work away from turbulence. Min5xDia of straight equal pipe
size. ECL must be fitted into the larger sized pipe.
Excessive Control Deviations Clean Valve Stem & seals replace damaged or worn
Valve Travel impaired, impaired by dirt or damage
parts.
Regulator
Check diaphragm for damage
Defective Diaphragm(s)
– replace where necessary
Erratic Outlet Pressure, slow Regulator damping too high Adjust Restrictor/Jet in the Atmospheric Vent or ECL.
Regulator
response. Check Vent hole or line for blockage.
Check Filter & Clean or replace element
Inlet Filter blocking with debris, insufficient Inlet
Outlet Pressure falling away. Inlet Gauge, Filter & Regulator Check Inlet Pressure.
Pressure for required flow. Incorrectly Sized Regulator
Check for correct regulator/orifice size, too small?

FAULT FINDING - REGULATORS PILOT OPERATED
Closing Pressure is too high Pilot Damaged or dirt in Internal Valve/Baffle plate system Clean System – Replace damaged or worn parts
Pilot Damaged or dirt in Internal Valve/Baffle plate system Clean System – Replace damaged or worn parts
Valve not closing tight
Control Unit Damaged or dirt in Main Regulator Clean & replace any damaged or worn parts
Main Valve does not open on start-up
or load changeover. Pilot Pilot reacting too slow Increase Load-Limiting pressure, reduce Bleed
Regulator outlet pressure does not

Damaged or Worn Diaphragm Replace Diaphragm
change
Main Regulator
Incorrectly sized Regulator Check for correct unit size
Outlet Pressure falls suddenly or
slowly
Filter Inlet Filter dirty Check Filter & Clean or replace element
Pilot Damaged or Worn Diaphragm Replace Diaphragm

Rapid Changes in Outlet Pressure
Clean Valve Stem & seals, replace damaged or worn
Main Regulator Valve Travel impaired by dirt or damage
parts
Reduce load limiting pressure, increase bleed
Rapid pressure fluctuations acting on diaphragm.
Note: Over adjustment will reduce control reaction time
Pilot Possible small volume of outlet pipework allowing
Consider fitting Restrictor
rapid pressure.
Install a higher rated spring to reduce “bounce”.
Pulsating Outlet Pressure Regulator Main Valve Valve operating in near closed position e.g. Chattering Check for correct sizing of Regulator
Check for correct positioning of impulse lines, minimum
5x dia. of straight equal pipe size. Lines must be fitted
Regulator/Pilot Impulse Point Incorrect installation of Impulse pipe work
into the larger sized pipe. Away from turbulence. Check
for correctly sized impulse lines.
Increase Load-Limiting, reduce bleed. Increase
Control Deviations too high Pilot/Regulator Pilot reaction too slow
Restrictor Size

FAULT FINDING - SAFETY CUT-OFF VALVE / SLAMSHUT VALVES
Impulse Line. Not connected or Blocked Check impulse line is connected &/or is not blocked.
Slamshut not Operating.
Installed incorrectly. Check unit is installed in correct orientation.
Slamshut Valve.
Atmospheric Vent Blocked Remove Blockage.
Check Valve/Orifice & Valve Seat. Clean & replace
Slamshut Valve. Damaged or worn Valve Seat/Orifice.
damaged or worn parts
Slamshut door not Sealing.
By-Pass Valve. By-pass Valve Open or not Closing 100%. Close by-pass valve, replace if necessary.
Slamshut Valve. Damaged or dirt in Impulse Line. Clean System – Replace damaged or worn parts
Closing Pressure too high.
Set-Point Spring. Spring set too High. Reduce Spring Setting
Ensure Main Inlet Valve is Closed. Operate By-pass
Valve Door not Opening. Main Inlet Valve & By-pass Valve Pressure balance not established.
Valve to equalise pressure across door
Differential pressure between under & over pressure Check Under & Over pressure Set-Points, refer to
too Low. manufacturers recommended minimum differentials
Slamshut Valve.
Slamshut Door opens but cannot be Outlet Pressure too high, higher than or too close to Reduce outlet pressure to normal operating pressure.
Re-Latched. the slamshut setting. Increase slamshut setting.
Trip Mechanism. Damaged or Worn Trip Mechanism. Check & Replace any damaged or worn parts
Slamshut Valve. Damaged or Worn Diaphragm. Check & replace
Slamshut not Tripping. Damaged or Worn Trip Mechanism. Check & replace damaged or worn parts
Trip Mechanism.
Dirt in Trip Mechanism. Clean tripping device, replace as necessary.
Pressure differential too Close between Slamshut Increase pressure differential to accommodate load
Slamshut Continuously Tripping. Slamshut Valve. setting & operating outlet pressure of regulator. variation & regulator lock-up pressure.
Excessive or erratic Test pressure being applied Slowly increase or decrease test pressure
Gas leakage via Vent Line. Diaphragm housing. Damaged diaphragm or leak past diaphragm clamping Check & Replace or tighten assembly.

BRYAN DONKIN RMG - UNDERSTANDING GAS CONTROLS SECTION VII Page 58
SECTION VII - TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF A PRESSURE REDUCING STATION
REGULATORS
Regulators are the principle component of a Pressure Reducing Station (PRS).
A regulator has three basic components; measuring, restricting & loading elements. Regulators are used to
control pressure, therefore, must be able to measure pressure, & then have the ability to change the flow
rate to maintain pressure under varying loads through the restricting element. To position the restricting
element, the regulator requires an element capable of doing work, or simply a loading element (typically a
spring).
Regulator Designs
All manufacturers' regulator products fall in to five main categories;
A. Service/lever regulators
B. Single Valve
C. Twin Valve
D. Membrane Valve
E. Piston type (not used often, and thus not detailed here).
A. SERVICE/LEVER REGULATORS
These types of regulators are most common up to 50mm inlet/outlet sizes & often combine various
functions in one unit.
FIGURE 72. SERIES 270 REGULATOR C/W INTEGRAL RELIEF & 309LP SAFETY CUT-OFF VALVE
1. Main
2. Integral
Regulator Unit
Relief Valve
3. Integral Safety
Cut-Off Valve
The regulator shown in Figure 72 includes;

1. Main Regulating Unit
2. Integral Relief Valve
3. Safety Cut-Off Valve
Combining these components into one unit reduces cost & space.
1. Main Regulating Unit

This unit incorporates a linkage system that uses mechanical advantage to transfer movement from
diaphragm to valve head thus reducing 'lock up' & outlet pressure variation. Choices of valve orifice size
are available for varying operating conditions. The cartridge design of the regulator allows easy exchange
of the orifice without removing the regulator body from the pipeline.
Typically this type of unit is used on small distribution systems, commercial / industrial / domestic
applications with operational parameters as follows;
Inlet pressure upto : 10 bar g (145 psi g)
Outlet pressure upto : 3 bar g (44 psi g) - Pilot loaded regulator
: 0.5 bar g (7.25 psi g) - Spring loaded regulator
Most medium pressure domestic regulators are of the lever type design, i.e. the diaphragm assembly is
connected to the valve head through some form of lever arrangement. The forces acting of the diaphragm
are magnified several times when transmitted through the lever assembly to the valve head. This
arrangement gives a stable control at high differential pressures. However, the lever design is known as an
unbalanced regulator as changes in the inlet supply pressure will give a corresponding small change in the
outlet pressure of the regulator.
The inlet pressure passes through the regulator orifice & acts on the front face of the valve head, thus
trying to force the valve open, this force is known as the 'out of balance force'. The effect of the out of
balance force is reduced as it passes through the lever assembly to the diaphragm assembly, i.e. the
mechanical advantage of the lever ratio is working against it.
With constant inlet pressure, this out of balance force has no effect as it is automatically compensated
when setting the main regulator spring to the required outlet pressure. However, if the inlet pressure varies,
then the out of balance force will also vary. Therefore, the outlet pressure will fluctuate very slightly as the
out of balance force varies with inlet pressure variations. This effect is reduced with increasing diaphragm
size & lever ratio
2. Internal Relief Valve

Dependant upon model, BD-RMG offers three different types of diaphragm assembly;
a. P Type No internal relief valve. This type is usually used with some other form of protection, either a
separate relief valve or, more likely a safety cut-off valve (OPCO).
b. LR Type Limited capacity internal relief valves, are normally sized at approx 2% of the regulators full
fault capacity, which passes through the vent to atmosphere.
c. R Type Higher capacity internal relief valve. The fault capacity passes through the vent to atmosphere.
3. Safety Cut-Off Valve (Slam Shut)
Safety cut-off valves can be divided in to three categories;
i Over Pressure Cut-Off Valves
ii Under Pressure Cut-Off Valves
iii Under & Over Pressure Cut-Off Valves
i. Over Pressure Cut-Off Valve (OPCO) has independent operation from the regulator. It is fitted to the
back of the regulator body. A double-edged orifice is fitted to the regulator to ensure that the OPCO gives
100% tight closure after tripping.
The OPCO has a mechanical trigger device operated by a rubber diaphragm that is spring loaded to give
the required trigger pressure. If the outlet pressure rises to this set point, the device will fire cutting off the
gas flow. The OPCO must then be manually re-set; it will not automatically re-open should the pressure
return to normal limits.
An OPCO can be used in conjunction with the 'LR' or 'R' type of internal relief valve to give double
protection.
FIGURE 73. EXAMPLE OF INTEGRATED OVER PRESSURE CUT-OFF VALVE - BD-RMG SERIES241-MK2
Spring Loaded Ball & Cage
Double Edged Orifice Trigger Mechanism
Manual Re-set lever
ii. Under Pressure Cut-Off Valve (UPCO) - if the inlet pressure to the regulator falls to a dangerously low
level, such that it can no longer handle the gas flow requirements; the outlet pressure will fall until the
flames in appliances downstream go out.
If this situation is likely to occur, an Under Pressure Cut-Off Valve (UPCO) can be fitted with a trip pressure
set to say 10 mbar g (4"wg). As with the OPCO, manual re-setting of the device is required.
The simplest design of UPCO consists of an independent valve fitted inside the back of the regulator body.
The regulator is then fitted with a double-edged orifice to ensure tight closure. This independent valve is
spring-loaded & is connected to the main regulator valve by a short pin that ensures that the two valves are
always held a fixed distance apart.
If the outlet pressure starts to fall, the regulator valve will move to its full open position. If the pressure
continues to fall, the UPCO valve will trip closed and contact the back of the regulator orifice & cut-off the
gas supply.
iii. Combined Under & Over Pressure Cut-Off Valve (UPCO/OPCO) operates independently of the
regulator assembly. It is usually fitted to the back of the regulator body. A double-edged orifice is utilised to
ensure tight shut off. Once again, operation is through a mechanical trigger that has two separate springs,
one for high pressure & the other for low pressure. Again manual re-setting is required
Whilst the outlet pressure is maintained at the correct operating level the diaphragm of the UPCO/OPCO is
maintained in equilibrium in its middle position. However, if the outlet pressure rises or falls, above or
below the position which tripping operates, the valve will close.
The combined UPCO / OPCO can be used in conjunction with the 'LR' or 'R' Type of integral relief valve to
give further protection of the outlet pressure system.
B. SINGLE VALVE REGULATORS
This type of regulator has a single valve or disc in-line with the diaphragm. The valve moves in direct
sympathy with diaphragm movement caused by pressure changes.
Often a balancing diaphragm is used that has the same area as the orifice. The effects of pressure/force
changes on the regulator valve are therefore balanced by this diaphragm, giving better control & Lock-up.
An impulse tube senses the downstream pressure either internally or externally from the regulator outlet
under the regulator diaphragm. A force applied to the top of the diaphragm usually by a spring gives the
required pressure. As outlet pressure increases, pressure under the diaphragm rises, forcing the
diaphragm assembly upwards. As this is connected to the valve, it too rises, shutting off gas flow & thus
lowering or maintaining pressure. This cycle automatically continues monitoring & correcting the valve
position to give accurate control of outlet pressure under varying demands.
The terms Internal & External Impulsing refer to how the outlet pressure is sensed by the regulator. Internal
Impulsing is where the controlled pressure is sensed inside the regulator outlet (see Figure 74)
FIGURE 74. EXAMPLE OF INTERNALLY IMPULSED SINGLE VALVE REGULATOR - BD-RMG SERIES 226
Main Diaphragm Spring Adjustor
Balancing
Diaphragm
Internal Impulse
Valve Head
Tube
INLET
The outlet pressure in the regulator body outlet is connected under the regulator diaphragm by an internal
passageway. This type of impulsing is generally found in low pressure, low flow regulators.
FIGURE 75. EXAMPLE OF EXTERNALLY IMPULSED SINGLE VALVE REGULATOR BD-RMG SERIES 280
Valve Travel Indicator

Two-way Vent Valve
External Impulse
Roll-out Balancing
Diaphragm
Balance Tube
Valve Seat
In this type of regulator, the sensing line is taken from beneath the regulator diaphragm casing downstream
to the regulator outlet pipework where the flow is less turbulent than in the regulator body outlet. See Figure
76 for further detail.
FIGURE 76. BALANCING OF SINGLE VALVE REGULATOR
Pressure at these
points is equal
Most single ported regulators are balanced under ‘lock up’ conditions only. As flow occurs, a fundamental
imbalance is created by the pressure differential between the underside of the balancing diaphragm & the
top of the valve. The pressure above the valve decreases whilst the pressure below the balancing
diaphragm is substantially the same as the inlet pressure.
The net result of this pressure differential is an upwards force inducing the valve to close, however, by
incorporating a balancing tube connecting the underside of the balancing diaphragm with the top of the
valve, the pressure remains equal during flow conditions. As the valve mechanism is fully balanced at all
flow rates, a much greater potential of in-control flow capacities of this series of regulators is realised.
C. TWIN VALVE REGULATORS
FIGURE 77. EXAMPLE OF A TWIN VALVE REGULATOR - BD-RMG SERIES 680 EVA REGULATOR
External Control Line
Twin Valves
Twin valve regulators are basically the same as a single valve regulator but with two valves on the main
spindle and without the need for a balancing diaphragm. This gives an increased volume over the same
nominal bore size of single valve regulator for identical inlet & outlet pressures.
The two valves give a balanced design with equal areas exposed to the inlet & outlet pressure, therefore
eliminating any out of balance forces.
As with all other types of regulator, twin valve regulators can be controlled by various pilot systems. This
type of regulator is particularly useful when working on low-pressure differentials, as volume flow is large
by comparison to regulator size. In the vast majority of cases they are externally impulsed.
The 680 Series has modular construction enabling a common body to accept different internal valve
arrangements & diaphragm heads of different pressure ratings. Thus, the internal valves, which are stem
guided, may be arranged to fall open or fall closed as well as operating with full or reduced bore valves.
This also allows maintenance & modifications for new duties, to be undertaken whilst in the field.
To set the valves a side inspection cover is removed to allow adjustment of the valves by undoing a lock
nut on the spindle & adjusting the valves so that they touch the seats simultaneously.
On the MK2 EVA (External Valve Adjustment) version, valve setting is much easier and can be undertaken
whilst the regulator is still gassed up. By removing the cap from the bottom cover and slowly rotating the
adjusting nut, until optimum valve closure operation is achieved.
D. MEMBRANE REGULATORS
Membrane regulators utilise a diaphragm (membrane) valve placed across a fixed restricting element
usually a slotted or drilled holed plated. This type of regulator must be pilot controlled.
Further development of this concept by Bryan Donkin RMG has provided designs with modular
construction allowing the membrane to be inspected & maintained without removing the valve body from
the pipe work. Modular construction has also allowed the integration of a Safety Cut-Off Valve below the
regulator body, thus reducing the space required when compared to other manufacturer’s designs.
FIGURE 78. EXAMPLE OF A MEMBRANE REGULATOR BD-RMG SERIES 800 REGULATOR
The internal valve of the pilot is closed on zero flow thus the main regulator will also be closed under this
condition. The restrictor upstream of the pilot allows the inlet pressure to bleed through into the loading /
unloading pressure chamber, thus equalising the pressure across the main diaphragm valve. The effective
area above the diaphragm valve is greater than below it, which ensures a tight shut-off on zero flow.
During demand, if the outlet pressure should fall below the desired pre-set level, the reduced load on the
underside of the pilot diaphragm causes its valve to open. Allowing pressure above diaphragm valve to
unload to the outlet via the pilot exhaust line. Due to the throttling action of the restrictor, a upward
differential is created across the diaphragm valve, i.e. inlet pressure versus loading pressure, causing the
diaphragm valve to move upwards off the orifice plate, opening the regulator, exposing as much of the
slotted (or drilled holes) of the plate as necessary for the varying demands.
As demand reduces, outlet pressure starts to rise above the required set point, the pilot diaphragm will
move upwards thus tending to close the pilot valve and thus increases the pressure in the loading chamber
above the main diaphragm valve. As the pressure differential across the main diaphragm valve reduces, it
moves downwards aided by the stabilizing loading springs, progressively covering the slotted (or holed)
part of the plate, which reduces the amount of gas flowing through the regulator.
In practice, the pilot is constantly sensing of the prevailing outlet pressure, continually modulating with
varying demands giving a smooth constant control of the outlet pressure.
FILTERS are required to remove dust or debris being carried by the gas. Usually most of the dust within
Natural Gas is Iron oxide (Rust). Without filtration, this dust could adversely affect the operation of the
following components in a Pressure Regulation Module;
- Slam shut valves may be prevented from operating.
- Regulators could start to stick in various positions effecting pressure / flow control or from closing fully.
- Meter accuracy may be affected, or the meter could cease up completely.
- Isolation valve seals may be damaged thus pass gas when closed, or be prevented from fully closing.
Note: As a filter removes debris from the gas it will progressively block, removing finer & finer particles.
BD-RMG filters benefit from several design features;
•Quick release covers ensures minimum down time for maintenance.
•Self-pressure relief as the covers are removed any pressure trapped in the filter body is
safely released to atmosphere, preventing injury to maintenance personnel.
•Stainless Steel elements robust construction reducing replacement costs, cleaning is possible.
•Special body designs angle type bodies & reduced bore outlets with inbuilt taper allows compact
& cost effective Pressure Reducing Station (PRS or Module) designs.
•Differential pressure gauges can be fitted to indicate when filter elements require cleaning.
FIGURE 81. SERIES 121 IN-LINE FILTER & SERIES 122 ANGLE TYPE FILTER
SAFETY CUT-OFF VALVES - Often called Slam Shut Valves (SSV), Over Pressure Cut-Off Valves (OPCO)
or Under Pressure Cut-Off Valves (UPCO) These valves are normally held open ready to cut-off the gas
supply should a regulator fail, or pipe rupture causing rising or failing outlet pressure.
The gas pressure is sensed under a diaphragm (sensing membrane). As pressure rises, it reaches a point
at which trigger mechanism releases the valve door, closing of the gas supply almost instantaneously. In a
twin stream module, the second regulator stream would then control the outlet pressure. BD-RMG Slam
Shut Valves can be supplied with a visual indicator of valve position, i.e. open or closed. Valve position can
also be remotely monitored with additional telemetry.
To re-set the closed OPCO valve the pressure on both sides of the valve door must be equalised. This is
accomplished by closing of the main inlet valve & then opening the integral by-pass valve to allow pressure
equalisation either side of the slam shut door. The pressure under the diaphragm must be reduced to the
normal outlet pressure or below. The door may then manually reset ready for re-commissioning of the
station.
On smaller Service Regulators, the Safety Cut-Off Valve is combined with the regulator body, but preserves
independent operation. The cut-off mechanism is usually a plunger spindle/rollers/latch block design that
closes in emergency conditions shutting of the gas through the regulator orifice. Reopening the Safety Cut-
Off Valve is accomplished by removing the top cap & pulling the valve spindle until it re-latches open
See Section VII Part A. SERVICE/LEVER REGULATORS, for further details.
FIGURE 82. SERIES 241 REGULATOR WITH INTEGRAL MK2 SAFETY CUT-OFF VALVE
Integral Safety Cut-Off Valve fits on opposite

side of body using double-edged orifice
FIGURE 83. SERIES 305 SAFETY CUT-OFF VALVE CROSS SECTIONAL DIAGRAM
Atmospheric Pressure
Sense Pressure
Line Pressure
Ball & Cage

Release
Latch
Mechanism
INLET
FIGURE 84. SERIES 304 FIRE SHUT-OFF VALVE
Solenoid used to operate

Latch Mechanism
EMERGENCY / FIRE SHUT-OFF VALVES - Used to shut off the gas supply in the event of an interruption of
the electrical power supply. Based on the Series 305 Safety Cut-Off Valve (SCOV) for 50 to 200mm NB
sizes and the Series 303 SCOV for 250 to 300mm NB, however, it is not pressure operated, instead it
utilises a 24 Volt D.C. solenoid.
When energised the solenoid keeps the door in the open position & gas flowing. Interruption to the power
supply de-energises the solenoid, thus releasing the door & cutting off the gas supply. This mode of
operation allows the valve to be used as a Fail Safe Shut-Off Valve, which can be controlled by connection
of the power supply through a thermal link or by integration into a fire alarm system. Thus, in the event of a
fire or fire alarm, the gas supply would be cut-off.
The Series 304 has a manual re-set similar to the Series 305 (50 to 200mm 304, same reset as 305).
RELIEF VALVES
Most relief valves (see Figure 85) are spring loaded closed, opening (usually to atmosphere) when a
predetermined pressure level is reached, and then automatically reseal when the normal pressure levels
return.
Relief valves are typically used for two purposes:
1. Industrial Applications - Where burners are fitted with electronically actuated valves that close
extremely quickly, a momentary build up of pressure between the regulator & actuated valve can occur.
This peak may cause the over pressure sensors of the burner to trip, preventing start up. Therefore, a relief
valve is fitted to vent the pressure build up to atmosphere.
2. Distribution Applications - If a regulator valve seating was damaged or worn, the regulator would be
unable to close off 100% (bubble tight) & would continue to pass a very small amount of gas even though
there is no demand. This would cause the system pressure to slowly rise and may eventually reach the set
point of the Safety Cut-Off Valve closing the system down. Fitting a limited capacity relief valve prevents
this slow pressure rise reaching the SCOV setting, thus tripping of the Safety Cut-Off Valve is prevented.
See Section VI: Regulator Systems Arrangements, for further details.
FIGURE 85. CROSS SECTION OF SERIES 226VR & HVR RELIEF VALVES
Valve
Orifice
NON-RETURN VALVES (NRV)

Typically these fall into two categories;
1. Stream Discrimination
As discussed, wafer type NRV’s can be used within a Pressure Reducing Station to select between healthy
& faulty streams. This type of valve is designed to fit inside the bolt circle diameter between the flanges &
provide a seal against reverse flow, protecting the healthy stream(s) from the higher fault pressure The seal
on the Waferchek design is not 100% bubble tight (Streamchek design with O ring seal is 100% tight used
mainly on HP systems) & thus a small amount of gas leaks upstream, which the creep relief valve will
pass should the pressure rise to its setting.
See Section VI Clause 6 : STREAM SELECTION / DISCRIMINATION for further details.
2. Tight Seal Non-Return Valves
Provides a tight seal to prevent reverse flow, with low pressure drops for forward moving gas. This tight
seal is typically required where air & fuel gas are mixed prior to combustion. The NRV safeguards against
explosive gas air mixtures being driven into the gas main if the gas pressure should temporarily fall below
that of the compressed air feed. They may also be used where the gas mains pressure could fall below
atmospheric pressure & thus draw atmospheric air into the pipework. The Series 590 shown in Figure 86,
uses a balanced door in a completely enclosed mechanism that offers a positive seal to reverse flow,
whilst producing a very small pressure drop for forward flowing gas.
FIGURE 86. CROSS SECTION OF SERIES 590 NON RETURN VALVE
Weighted
Door
Tight seal of door ensures

no reverse flow
Maintenance of Pressure Reducing Stations

After installation & commissioning a station will normally operate for many years in clean sweet gas, with
periodical checks & minimum maintenance.
A station can be designed to ensure that if a fault should occur, there a several safety features that
automatically take control, e.g. Active regulator failing open & the Monitor regulator taking control, or
closing a faulty stream & transferring control to a standby stream. In addition, Bryan Donkin RMG have
designed a range of products to give a long trouble free life, whilst incorporating features such as modular
cartridge type construction to reduce down time to a minimum.
Typical examples of this follow;
a. Regulator & Slamshut Valve Cartridge Design
Use of cartridge type design allows the body of the regulator/slamshut to remain in line, while the
assembly cartridge can easily removed. The unit can then be;
i immediately replaced by a spare pre-set cartridge so that the maintenance of the used cartridge
can be carried out in greater comfort at a workshop.
ii the cartridge can be inspected & maintained on site.
FIGURE 79. TYPICAL CARTRIDGE CONSTRUCTION OF BRYAN DONKIN RMG REGULATORS
Removable Modular Cartridge
Construction (shown in Blue)
allows easy maintenance
b. Filters
FIGURE 80. IN-LINE SERIES 121 FILTER FITTED WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE GAUGE
Both Series 121 & 122 are approved to British Gas

Specification GBE/32 Incorporating quick release covers &
basket elements to reduce down time to a minimum. The
covers are manufactured with a built in pressure relief
systems & safety lugs are incorporated to give additional
security to maintenance personnel.
Differential pressure gauges are usually fitted on the larger
prefabricated pressure reducing stations to record the
maximum pressure differential & to give an indication of
when to clean the filter, this can be sensed via telemetry
for remote monitoring if desired.
The standard elements supplied are 50 or 200 micron of
stainless steel construction and if not damaged may be
cleaned if necessary.
BRYAN DONKIN RMG - UNDERSTANDING GAS CONTROLS SECTION VIII Page 69
SECTION VIII – METERING

All Installations where pressure reduction is required to meet equipment pressure regimes, into factories,
housing complex, etc, require the amount of gas consumed to be accurately measured to allow the cost &
hence the charge to the customer to be established. This called PRIMARY or FISCAL or CUSTODY
TRANSFER metering.
The requirement for metering can be easily incorporated into the Pressure Reduction Station’s (PRS)
covered in earlier Sections or supplied as a separate metering package.
Billing of Natural Gas is based on energy sold, but gas meters measure only the gas volume at the
temperature & pressure prevalent in the gas pipe. Due to the compressibility of gas, volume alone does not
indicate the quantity of gas which has flowed through the meter or its energy content. For this reason a
meter reading requires correction to convert the volume that flowed through the meter at a certain pressure
& temperature back to standard conditions, e.g. metric MSC. 15ºC, 1.01325 bar (a). This is commonly
called Volume Correction & is discussed later in this Section.
Typically, there are five common designs of gas meter, which are discussed below;
1. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT – DIAPHRAGM TYPE
The standard construction consists of two sections. An upper section that contains the inlet pipe & a lower
section consisting of two containers or pans. The outlet pipework is connected into the lower section, as
gas passes from inlet to outlet, the two pans are moved through a cycle that fills one while the other
empties. This movement is connected to a gearbox & counter that converts the number of cycles to
volume passed.
The majority of domestic, commercial & smaller industrial customers often use this type of meter to
measure their gas supplies.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Accuracy, typically +/-5% Usually only available up to 160Sm3/h
Rangeability very good, typically 1:160 Large size / Heavy
Service life, typically 20 years Requires filtration
Measures all of the gas flowing Expensive for larger sizes
Suitable for measuring flow to boilers Low working pressure,
where rapid changes in flow occur typically 0.3 to 1.0 bar g max
Relative low pressure loss
(can work on low pressure)
No straight lengths of piping required
2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT – ROOTS TYPE METER
The origin of the ROOTS meter may be traced back to 1854, to a small town named Connersville in Indiana
USA. Two brothers, P.H. & F.M. Roots designed a figure 8 lobed waterwheel, intended as a replacement
for the normal overshot type, for powering their woollen mill.
Unfortunately, this new design was useless as a waterwheel. However, this device was developed into a
blower, & subsequently into a meter in 1920.
The basic principle of operation devised by the Roots brothers has remained unchanged since inception.
The principle relies upon the free rotation of two figure 8 impellers within a chamber trapping a volume of
gas, which is subsequently discharged. This volume of gas is known as the cyclic volume, with four such
displaced amounts being trapped for each complete revolution of the impellers.
The volume of gas is determined by the dimensions of the measuring chamber, which is converted by
reduction gearing to a totalising volume counter. The meter impellers are designed & manufactured to
produce a continuous seal, without contact. At all positions during rotation. Similar line seals exist between
the tips of the impellers & the meter casing. Minimum clearances are provided between the ends of the
impellers & head plates.
The impellers are supported by low friction ball bearings, while precision grade timing gears maintain the
correct relative impeller position.
A Roots meter is a positive displacement meter. The gas volume measured is the product of the cyclic
volume & the revolutions per minute of the impellers. The torque necessary to drive the meter is generated
by the pressure difference across the meter. The torque developed by the pressure differential is much
greater than the torque required to overcome the mechanical friction, thus driving round the impellers.
FIGURE 87. GAS FLOW THROUGH A ROOTS METER
1. As the impeller rotates in a counter clockwise direction towards horizontal position, gas enters the
space between the impeller & the cylinder.
2. At horizontal position, definite volume of gas is contained in bottom compartment A.
3. As the impeller continues to turn, the volume of gas is discharged.
4. Concurrently, the top impeller rotates to the vertical with the bottom impeller closing to its horizontal
position, confining another known & equal volume of gas B.
5. This process is repeated four times for each complete revolution of the impeller shafts. The flow of gas
creates the rotation of the impellers.
Accuracy, +/-2% upto 20% max flow
Large size & heavy
+/-1% max flow
Suitable for Pressure up to 16 bar g or more,
Expensive
depends on manufacturer.
Rangeability very good, typically 1:50 Max flow typically 3,000 Sm3/h
Service life, typically 20 years Requires filtration
Measures all of the gas flowing If meter fails gas flow will be cut off
Low pressure loss Requires a meter by-pass if gas supply is to
Can work on very low pressures be uninterrupted whilst meter is maintained
Suitable for measuring flow to boiler loads
where rapid changes in flow occur
No straight lengths of piping required
3. TURBINE METER
An inferential type, i.e. it does not operate using positive displacement. It is an integrating flow meter where
the rate of flow is indicated by an index in units of volume with prevailing pressure & temperature.
Operation of is based on direct velocity metering. The path of gas flow through the meter is narrowed to a
defined cross section with an impeller mounted co-axially. The angular velocity of the impeller is
proportional with the mean velocity of the gas flow within the ranges indicated (Q min – Qmax). The rotary
movement of the impeller is transmitted to a roller index through a magnetic coupling over gearing.
The three main components of the meter are the casing, the impeller & the head (with flow index). An
aerodynamic straightening blade installed into the casing (1) narrows the free cross section to an angular
section thus largely eliminating turbulence. The integral impeller (2) is dynamically balanced in two planes
& supported on dust proof ball bearings (3). The rotary movement of the impeller is transmitted over worm
gear (4), a pair of gear wheels (5), a flexible shaft (6) & a magnetic coupling (7) over the adjustment gear
wheels (8) to the un-pressurised meter head & further, through the gearing (9) to the vertically arranged
output couplings. The index (10) can be optionally mounted on one of two output couplings (11)
FIGURE 88. CROSS SECTION THROUGH RMG TRZ 03 TURBINE METER

9
10 & 11
8
12
7
6
5
2
3
1 4
KEY
1. Flow
3. Dust proof
straightener
ball bearings 7. Pair
5. Magnetic
of gear
clutch
wheels 11.Gears
9. Output couplings
2. Turbine
4. Worm gear
wheel 6. Adjustment
8. Flexible shaftgear wheels 10. Index Headthermometer
12.Resistance
Typically needs straight pipe of several pipe
Accuracy, +/-2% up to 20% max flow
diameter lengths up & down stream to ensure
+/-1% max flow
non-turbulent flow for accurate metering
Suitable for Pressure upto 100 bar g Expensive
Rangability, typically 1:20 Pressure drop across meter can be high
Large range of sizes 50 to 600mm Requires filtration
Long Service life - with minimal Meter by-pass required if gas supply is to be
maintenance for 5 to 10 years. uninterrupted whilst meter is maintained
Will not stop gas is event of meter failure Unsuitable for rapid transient loads i.e. boiler trains
4. VORTEX METER
Where a partial obstruction (bluff body) is placed in a flowing medium, vortices are formed on the down
streamside. Kàrmàn discovered the basic physical law of such so-called vortex paths in 1878. The
frequency of such vortex detachments is proportional to the flow rate. By careful design of the obstructing
body & the section of pipe in which the meter is installed, it is possible to obtain very accurate volume flow
metering.
Vortex meters can be employed for volume metering of gas & liquids. In the case of gas, they can be used
to measure the mass flow with pressure & temperature correction by means of accessory equipment or in
conjunction with a density meter. The Vortex meter is equipped with an electronic pulse output. This
enables it to be used with electronic computers, regulators & data processing equipment.
Vortex metering consists of the casing, metering body with thermistor & amplifier. The Vortex meter
requires straight upstream & down stream pipe section with straightening vanes installed upstream.
This method of removing disturbances caused by turbulence is vitally important to accurate operation of
the equipment.
The metering body is fixed in the meter casing with sealing by means of ‘O’ rings. The thermistor sensors
are in the metering duct of the counter head & therefore not directly exposed to the fluid stream. This
method of vortex scanning, results in an optimum formation of signals enabling servicing & inspection of
the thermistors without interruption of the pipeline flow.
In the amplifier, which is located downstream, the output signals of the thermistors, which are supplied
with direct current, are formed & amplified.
Where fluid / gas is flowing round an object, periodical vortex detachments occur. The number of
detaching vortices per unit of time is proportional to the rate of flow. With correct dimensioning of the
obstructing body & precise arrangement with the casing, high accuracy metering with wide ranges free
from disturbance is possible.
The vortex frequency depends on the velocity of the flow, the geometric shape of the obstructive body &
the ratio between the metering body size & the pipeline diameter. It is possible, therefore, to calculate the
value of meter factor (pulses per unit volume) from geometric measurements. The metering factor is
independent of pressure, temperature, density & viscosity.
The vortices caused by the body produce variations of velocity & pressure as they pass a thermistor
sensor in the metering duct. The resistance of the thermistor sensor varies in the same frequency of vortex
formation & the necessary signal monitoring is guaranteed by two thermistor is parallel.
FIGURE 89. EXAMPLE CROSS SECTION OF A TYPICAL VORTEX METER
Calculation of Vortex frequency; f = St.V/A

Where; f = Vortex formation V = Flow velocity
St = Strouhal number A = Width of bluff body
5. ULTRASONIC FLOW METER

The ultrasonic flow meter utilises a sender of an ultrasonic pulse in an oblique direction to the gas flow,
this is recorded by a receiver, after being reflected by the opposite pipe wall. The propagation time of the
ultrasonic pulse from the sender to the receiver is required for volume measurement. The propagation time
of the pulse is shorter with the gas flow than against the gas flow, an analogy would be a ship, which is
faster travelling downstream than upstream. The propagation time depends on the velocity of sound & the
gas velocity. Due to the fact that the velocity of sound depends on the gas composition, the measured
value includes a systematic error. This can be avoided if a reverse measurement is taken, i.e. the sender
becomes the receiver & vice versa. In this way, the velocity of sound is not included in the equation used
to calculate the volumetric flow rate.
FIGURE 90. CROSS SECTION OF AN ULTRASONIC METER
V= L 1 - 1
2 cos ß tS12 tS21
tS12 = Propagation S1-S2
tS21 = Propagation S2-S1
In the case of the ultrasonic flow meter, no components are located in the gas flow; therefore the pressure
loss is not greater than for an equivalent length of pipe. Furthermore, the ultrasonic flow meter can be used
for measurements in both directions, which qualifies it for storage metering in particular.
FIGURE 91. RMG ULTRASONIC METER
Examples of typical Combined Pressure Reducing & Metering Stations follow;

FIGURE 92. TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF AN INDUSTRIAL DIAPHRAGM METER MODULE
Ref Description
1 Regulator Inlet By-Pass Valve
2 Regulator Inlet Isolation Valve
3 Filter
4 Active Lever Type Regulator
5 Integral Safety Cut-Off Valve
6 Regulator Outlet/Meter Inlet Isolation Valve
7 Regulator Outlet By-Pass Valve
8 Diaphragm Meter
9 Meter Outlet Isolation Valve
FIGURE 93. TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF AN INDUSTRIAL ROOTS METER MODULE

Ref Description
2 Filter
3 Safety Cut-Off Valve
4 Active Direct Acting Regulator
5 Limited Capacity Relief Valve
6 Meter Inlet Isolation Valve
7 Roots Meter
FIGURE 94. TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF AN INDUSTRIAL TURBINE METER MODULE

Ref Description
2 Filter
3 Safety Cut-Off Valve
4 Active Direct Acting Regulator
5 Limited Capacity Relief Valve
6 Meter Inlet Isolation Valve
7 Turbine Meter
METER SIZING
Meter sizes such as U160, G100 refer to flows at atmospheric pressure, in this instance 160 Sm3/h. In
order to correctly size a meter nominal flow rates at specific pressures will need to be converted back to
reference conditions.
Quick Calculation of Actual Volume Flow
Actual flow @ Outlet Pressure Pa Am3/h= Flow (Sm3/h) / (1.01325+ Actual Line Pressure- Barg)
What size meter would be required for the following duty?
Inlet Pressure : 2 bar g
Outlet Pressure : 21 mbar g
Flow Rate : 200 Sm3/h
EXAMPLE 1 – DOWNSTREAM METERING;
Actual flow @ Outlet Pressure Pa Am3/h= 200 Sm3/h / (1.01325+0.021 Bar g)
Flow at outlet pressure 21 mbar g= 194 Am3/h
Therefore, a G160 meter, which has a measuring range from 13-250 Am3/h, would be required.
Although most installations utilise downstream metering it is also possible to install the meter upstream of
the PRS.
EXAMPLE 2 – UPSTREAM METERING;
Actual flow @ Outlet Pressure Pa Am3/h = 200 Sm3h / (1.01325+2.0 Bar g)
Flow at inlet pressure 2 bar g= 67 Am3/h
With upstream metering a G65 meter, which has a measuring range from 10-100 Am3/h, could be used.
Note that for the same duty upstream metering may be achievable with a smaller & hence much cheaper
meter, however, the pressure rating of the meter for inlet metering must be considered, as higher-pressure
models would entail extra cost. Also as upstream metering stations tend to be of a more complex & hence
more costly design.
VOLUME CORRECTION
As mentioned earlier in this section the reading of a meter may be very inaccurate without a correction of
the gas volume to standard conditions. This correction is often referred to as PTZ correction is based on
the Ideal Gas law;
p(pressure) V(volume)= n(amount of substance) R(universal gas constant) T (temperature)

An ideal gas is a theoretical model based on the assumption that there is no interaction between gas atoms
& that they only push each other away similarly to snooker balls, for example. However, real gases show
more complicated behaviour due to slight attractions & repulsions of the gas atoms to one another. To
correct for these effects a constant Z is applied to the equation, giving;
p V = n R T Z (correction factor)
R is constant & n can also be regarded as constant, since we consider the same quantity of gas both at
actual & standard conditions. To obtain the standard volume, the equation for gas at actual conditions
(without indexes) by the equation for the gas at standard conditions (index “N”) & replace;
Z := K (gas law deviation coefficient)
ZN
Now resolve this equation for the standard volume VN;
VN = V p TN 1 = VCF
pN T K
VCF = volume correction factor, TN = 273.15K & pN = 1.01325 bar.
However, it is also necessary to measure the pressure & the temperature in order to obtain the standard
volume. All real gas characteristics are included in the K coefficient (K = 1 for ideal gas). It is also due to
attractive forces of the atoms that a gas can be made liquid. Therefore the closer a gas is to liquid state i.e.
low temperature & under high pressure the less it acts like an ideal gas. The K coefficient is different with
different gases.
Typically most countries have a standard procedure for computing the K coefficient of Natural Gas to take
into account its composition.
VOLUME CORRECTOR
Devices for calculating the standard volume & the energy content of the gas are called volume correctors.
In the case of the PTZ Corrector, a resistance thermometer & a pressure transmitter form part of the
corrector, as illustrated in Figure 95.
FIGURE 95. TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF RMG CORRECTOR
Glossary of Terms (A)
Capacity
The capacity of a Regulator is generally regarded as the volume of gas, which can be passed in the fully
open position of the regulating mechanism. This is dependent on the inlet pressure, outlet pressure,
specific gravity & temperature of the gas.
Compound or Rise
Usually found in boosting type Regulators, the compound is the pressure increase from set point when the
flow is increased from set flow to maximum flow.
Diaphragm effect
Takes place when the valve opens, the effective cross-sectional area of the diaphragm increases, hence
force per unit area decreases.
Droop
Droop is a term usually used to describe ‘Spring Effect’. As a spring-loaded regulators diaphragm moves
from minimum flow to maximum flow, the spring is directly expanded to correspond with this movement.
This, in effect, is equal to unwinding the spring manually & has the same effect, i.e. a fall outlet or control
pressure. Therefore, Droop can be described as the decrease from set pressure, from set flow to
maximum flow.
Governor
Term used for regulator, & vice versa
Internal relief valve
A small spring loaded pressure relief valve contained within the regulator at the centre of the diaphragm or
attached to the external part of the regulator, usually at the outlet side of the valve body or lower casing to
prevent outlet pressure of the Regulator from exceeding a pre-determined pressure.
Lock-up
The condition of the regulator at which no gas flows
Lock-up pressure
The outlet pressure that must be applied to the diaphragm or controlling mechanism to stop all flow
through the Regulator. Inlet pressure, set flow & spring rate all have an effect on lock-up pressure.
Loading spring
A spring placed on the diaphragm or diaphragm plate, & contained in the upper diaphragm chamber, which
opposes the gas pressure exerted against the opposite side of the diaphragm. The outlet of the regulator is
determined by adjustments of this spring.
Negative shock
Negative shock is the momentary minimum outlet pressure caused by a sudden increase in downstream
flow.
Over-pressure, under-pressure shut-offs or Safety Cut-Off Valves (OPCO / UPCO)
A device designed to shut-off the flow of gas when the outlet pressure drops or increases to a pre-
determined point. The shut-off must be re-set manually.
Positive shock
Positive shock is the momentary maximum increase in outlet pressure caused by a sudden decrease in
downstream flow.
Glossary of Terms (B)
Pressure evaluation
Pressure evaluation is the proportionate change in outlet pressure from set pressure while inlet pressure
varies, the flow remaining the same. This is due to the varying forces acting on the seat in the Regulator or
controlling pilot.
PSIG or psig
Pounds per square inch gauge pressure.
Valve disc or valve seat
A composite disc which when positioned with respect to the regulator valve orifice controls the flow of gas
through the regulator, & which when pressed against the valve orifice by the valve linkage shuts off the
flow of gas through the regulator.
Valve orifice
That part of the regulator where the flow of gas is controlled. A seating surface is machined on one or both
sides. It is the position of the valve disc with respect to this seating surface that determines the amount of
gas flowing through the regulator.
Set flow
The flow rate used for the initial setting of the regulator at a specified outlet set pressure.
Set pressure
The pressure used for the initial setting of the regulator at a specified set flow.
Spring effect
Occurs when valve opens, the length of the spring increases, therefore the force exerted by the spring
decreases.
DIRECT GOVERNING
Governor requirements
The performance of the governor is measured in terms of steady-state accuracy in keeping downstream
pressure to a set point, & speed of response to a change in demand flow rate.
The simple pressure governor
The simple pressure governor (Figure 1) consists of three basic elements: a measuring element, loading,
restricting. Downstream pressure is sensed by a diaphragm, which produces an upward force. The upward
force is compared with a reference force (which is a spring in this example). If the downstream pressure
multiplied by the diaphragm area is equal to the reference force, the valve is in equilibrium & downstream
pressure equals the governors set point’. If the downstream pressure falls, due to demand flow rate
exceeding supply flow rate; there is a nett downward force on the moving parts of the governor.
The valve then opens until the supply flow rate is sufficient to restore the downstream pressure to the
governor set point.
Springs can be set to give large reference forces without adding inertia. Compressing or relaxing the spring
easily alters the governor set point but care should be taken that the spring does not become coil-bound as
this may prevent the valve closing fully.
APPENDIX 1
CUSTOMER SUPPORT SERVICES
Our sales teams undergo extensive product training & are able to give expert technical advice & assistance.
We would welcome the opportunity to discuss your particular requirements.
You can extend the quality & integrity of your product investment with our Customer Support Service that’s
right for your specific needs.
Maintenance:
Regular maintenance is essential to ensure safe & accurate operation of equipment. Where continuity of
supply must be guaranteed we would recommend a frequent maintenance policy to be considered. Our
sales team will be pleased to assist with your requirements.
Spares:
Bryan Donkin RMG is able to offer a comprehensive range of spare parts supply. Availability of
replacement parts is a key element in providing product support to our customers who perform their own
maintenance.
By providing quality parts & responsive support will help to return your Bryan Donkin RMG product to peak
performance.
Discontinued Products:
Spares are provided for longer than normal periods for discontinued product, this service is handled on a
case-by-case basis due to the ongoing availability of certain components.
Repair/Refurbishment:
Whenever your product needs repair / refurbishment, simply contact us, you will be provided with an
estimated cost to provide this service. Our factory trained personnel will undertake to repair / refurbish to
an ‘operationally as new condition’ as a minimum. This will comprise of an initial inspection of the unit,
replacement of any worn or damaged parts & a re-test. This service operates on the basis that the unit is
received in a repairable condition & at the discretion of Bryan Donkin RMG.
Standard repairs / refurbishment’s carry a 180 day warranty against defect.
Training:
If you repair / service your own equipment, our Product Appreciation Courses give you the opportunity to
learn the technology behind the features & functions & help you to effectively troubleshoot & maintain our
product. We would be pleased to consider Tailor-made courses by request.
APPENDIX 2
CONVERSION FACTORS & DATA
PRESSURE
Bar PSI Kg/cm2 Kpa “ WG mm WG
1 14.50 1.02 100 401.46 10197.13
0.068 1 0.070 6.89 27.68 703.07
0.981 14.22 1 98.67 396.12 10061.51
0.01 0.145 0.01 1 4.01 101.97
2.49 x 10-3 0.036 0.0025 0.249 1 25.39
FLOW RATE
SCFH Sm3/h
35.32 1
1 0.028
TEMPERATURE
°C °F K
-15 5 258.15
0 32 273.15
15 59 288.15
25 77 298.15

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UNDERSTANDING

SECTION II - BASIC ELEMENTS OF REGULATORS Page 14 - 23

SECTION III - CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF A BASIC REGULATOR Page 24 - 35

SECTION IV - PRESSURE LOADING SYSTEMS Page 36 - 42

SECTION V - REGULATOR INSTALLATIONS, AUXILIARY CONTROLS SYSTEMS Page 43 - 48

SECTION VII - TYPICAL PRESSURE REDUCING STATION COMPONENTS Page 58 - 68

GLOSSARY OF TERMS Page 76 - 78

APPENDIX 1 - CUSTOMER SUPPORT SERVICES Page 79

APPENDIX 2 - CONVERSION FACTORS & TOPICAL DATA Page 80

Complied & edited by ;

PRICE : £25.00 PER COPY (AUGUST 2002)

SECTION I - THE BASIC PRINCIPLES

Relationship between Pressure & Volume

FIGURE 2. CHARLES’ LAW

MASS / VOLUMETRIC RATE OF FLOW

ft3/hr = lb/h m3/h = kg/h

ft3/hr = lb/h x SV1 m3/h = kg/h x SV2

Condition NTP MSC ISC Units

5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF GASES

FIGURE 3. RELATION OF NATURAL GAS SATURATION HUMIDITY TO TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE

Freezing Effects of Regulators

db = 20 log (P1) = 20 log P1 .

FIGURE 5. EXAMPLE OF AN UNBALANCED SYSTEM AT REST

FIGURE 7. BELL CRANK MECHANISM

FIGURE 11. MAJOR FORCES EXPERIENCED IN A SERVICE REGULATOR

Orifice area = D2 = 12 = 0.25cm2

Counter clockwise moment = 0.35Kg x 5cm = 1.75 Kgf cm

13. CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW

14. CRITICAL LOW PRESSURE

15. TOTAL PRESSURE

Squaring both sides

h = V2 = (1,000 ft/sec)2 = 1,000,000 ft2/sec2 = 15,528 ft

SECTION II – BASIC ELEMENTS OF REGULATORS

1.3. THE MANOMETER

FIGURE 14. CROSS SECTION OF BELLOWS

1.5. THE PISTON

2.3. FLUID PRESSURE

FIGURE 19. REGULATOR VALVE WITH ‘O’ RING CONSTRUCTION

FIGURE 21. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS FOR QUICK OPENING INNER VALVE

FIGURE 25. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS FOR V-PORT INNER VALVES

4.3. RESTRICTING ELEMENTS

FIGURE 26.FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF FIGURE 27. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF

SECTION III - CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF BASIC REGULATORS

FIGURE 31. APPLICATION OF LEVERAGE TO BELLOW LOADED REGULATOR

FIGURE 39. DIAPHRAGM CASE DESIGNED TO RESTRICT

SECTION IV – PRESSURE LOADING SYSTEMS

FIGURE 49. PRESSURE & FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESSURE

FIGURE 56. A TYPICAL PILOT REGULATOR LOADING SYSTEM

2. Size of impulse line should be generally:

"HUNTING" & "CHATTERING"

Reference: to Figure 60.

From Figure 60;

HOW THE SYSTEM WORKS

FIGURE 63. TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF NEEDLE VALVE OR LOCK UP SYSTEM

FIGURE 64. TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSPIRATOR AUXILIARY SYSTEM

FIGURE 65. PERFORMANCE OF ¾ X ¾ X ¾ LP PATENT INSPIRATOR

Example calculation ref: Figure 65

INSPIRATOR CONTROLLED REGULATOR

CLOCK CONTROL OF REGULATORS

FIGURE 66. TYPICAL PRESSURE PROFILE OF CLOCK CONTROLLED REGULATOR

ELECTROCLOCK 2 & AUTO K PILOT

The Auto K Pilot

SECTION VI – PRESSURE REDUCING STATIONS

SIZING REGULATOR STATION PIPEWORK