Chemistry

Functional groups
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Functional groups

A- Prerequisites.

Organic compound:
2-
A substance containing one or more carbon atom except for CO , CO 2 , carbonates CO3 ……..
Hydrocarbon compound:
A compound containing only hydrogen (H) and carbon (C) atoms in its molecule.
Saturated Organic compound:
Saturated compound: an organic molecule in which all the covalent bonds between carbon
atoms are single bonds (C−C) .

Unsaturated Organic compound:

Unsaturated compound: an organic molecule in which at least one of the covalent bonds
between carbon atoms is either a double bond (C=C) or a triple bond (C≡C).

Molecular formula: It shows the number of atoms of each element present in a molecule.

Empirical formula: It represents the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.

Structural formula: it shows how the atoms in a molecule are bonded to each other.

Condensed structural formula: It shows only the bonds between carbon atoms and between
carbon atom and specific group of atoms.
It shows some characteristic groups.

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I. Lewis dot symbol of some elements.

; ; ; ; ;

II. Qualitative analysis.

 It gives an idea about the elements constituting the organic compound.

 Carbon and hydrogen are identified by combustion reaction.
 Nitrogen, sulfur and halogens are identified by sodium fusion test.

III. Quantitative analysis.

It allows us to determine the percentage by mass of each element in the organic
compound to find its molecular formula.

1. Carbon.
 Increase in mass of KOH or NaOH gives the mass of CO2.
 C + O2 → CO2
n(C) n(CO2 ) m(C) m(CO2 ) m(CO2 )×M(C)
Acc to S.R : = ⇒ = ⇒ m(C) =
1 1 M(C) M(CO2 ) M(CO2 )
m(C)×100
%C=
m(organic compound)

2. Hydrogen.
 Increase in mass of H2SO4 gives the mass of H2O.
 H2 + ½ O2 → H2O ( 2H →H2 then m(H) = m(H2) since M(H2) = 2 M(H) )
n(H2 ) n(H2 O) m(H2 ) m(H2 O) m(H2 O)×M(H2 )
acc to S.R : = ⇒ = ⇒ m(H) =
1 1 M(H2 ) M(H2 O) M(H2 O)
m(H)×100
%H=
m(organic compound)

3. Nitrogen.
2 N →N2 then m(N) = m(N2) since M(N2) = 2 M(N).
m(N2 ) V(N2 ) M(N2 )×V(N2 )
n(N2) = = ⇒ m(N) = ⇒
M(N2 ) Vm V𝑚

m(N)×100
%N=
m(organic compound)

4. Halogens.
Halogens are chlorine (Cl) , bromine (Br) , and iodine (I)
 Silver nitrate is added to identify the halogen :
 Ag+ + Cl- →AgCl(s) silver chloride, white precipitate which turns
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black when exposed to sunlight.

 Ag + Br →AgBr(s) silver bromide, cream precipitate
+ -

 Ag+ + I - →AgI(s) silver iodide, yellow precipitate

 Ag+ + X- →AgX(s) (X → X - ⇒ m(X) = m(X -)

Where X could be Cl , Br or I
m(X) m(AgX) m(AgX)×M(X)
acc to S.R : n(X) = n(AgX) ⇒ = ⇒ m(X) =
M(X) M(AgX) M(AgX)

m(X)×100
%X=
m(organic compound)
5. Sulfur (S).
 If S is converted to S2- ⇒ m(S) = m(S2- )
Pb2+ + S2- → PbS(s) (lead sulfide , black precipitate)
m(S) m(PbS) m(PbS)×M(S)
acc to S.R : n(S) = n(PbS) ⇒ = ⇒ m(S) =
M(S) M(PbS) M(PbS)
m(S)×100
%S=
m(organic compound)

 If S is converted into SO4 2- ⇒ m(S) = m(SO4 2-)

Ba2+ + SO4 2- → BaSO4 (s) (barium sulfate , white precipitate)
n(S) n(BaSO4 ) m(S) m(BaSO4 ) m(BaSO4 )×M(S)
acc to S.R : = ⇒ = ⇒ m(S) =
1 1 M(S) M(BaSO4 ) M(BaSO4 )
m(S)×100
%S=
m(organic compound)
6. Oxygen.
 If Σ(% of all atoms in the compound) = 100%
then there is no oxygen in the organic compound.
 If Σ(% of all atoms in the compound) ≠ 100%
then there is oxygen in the organic compound.
% O = 100 – Σ (% of all atoms in the compound).

IV. Determination of empirical formula

 Calculate the % by mass of each element in the organic compound.
 Calculate the number of mol of each element in 100 g sample .
%element
number of mol = .
M(element)
 Divide by the smallest number.
Element
%element
Number of mol of element in 100 g sample =
M(element)
Divide by the smallest number

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V. Determination of molecular formula

1. First method.
If we want to directly determine the molecular formula.
Suppose that the molecular formula is in the form of CxHyOzNt
By applying the law of definite proportions:
12x y 16 z 14 t M(organic compound)
= = = =
%C %H %O %N 100

2. Second method.
 First we find the empirical formula.
 Then molecular formula = ( empirical formula)n
M(organic compound)
With n=
M(emperical formula)

B- Families of Organic Compounds.

Each family possesses a characteristic functional group.

Functional group identifies a family and determines the chemical reactivity of organic compounds.

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C- Isomerism.

Isomers: they are compounds having same molecular formula but different structural formulas.

To identify the type of isomerism, we proceed by the following sequence of questions and answers.

Do the two molecules have the same functional group?

yes

They are skeletal isomers or positional isomers. They are functional isomers.

Do the two molecules have the same main chain Different functional group
and the same branches? then different family

yes

7They are skeletal isomers.

They are positional isomers.
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Same main chain. Different main chain.

Same functional group. Same functional group.
Different position of the same position of the
functional group. functional group.

Same name but Different name but

different position of same position of
functional group. functional group.