Chapter 1: Matter

1.1 Atom and molecule

1.2 Mole concept
1.3 Stoichiometry

-Anything that has mass and occupies space (volume).

-Made up from tiny unit called atoms.

1. Pure substance
- all the particles are of the same kind.
- has a fixed composition and a unique set of properties (eg. mp, bp, etc)
- cannot be separated into different components by physical means.
- classified as: Element and Compound

a) Element
-is a pure substance consists of one type of atom, cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by
chemical reaction
-atom (eg . Ne)
-molecules (eg . F2)

b) Compound
- is a pure substance that contains two or more elements that are chemically bonded together in
fixed proportions
-molecules(eg . NH3 )
-ionic (eg . NaCl )

1.1 Atom and Molecule

1.Atom
-is the smallest particle of any elements that retains the chemical nature of the element.
-In an atom, there are three subatomic particles: proton, electron and neutron.

Neutron: no charge(neutral)
Proton: Positively charge
Electron: Negatively charge surrounding the nucleus

Atom

Particle Mass(gram) Charge (Coulomb) Charge(units)

Proton(p) 1.67 x 10-24 +1.6 x 10-19 +1
Electron(e) 9.1 x 10-28 -1.6 x 10-19 -1
Neutron(n) 1.67 x 10-24 0 0

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2.Molecule
-is a group of two or more atoms if the same or different types which are chemically bonded
- Diatomic molecules, Polyatomic molecules

a) Diatomic molecules
- contain only two atoms
- eg: H2 , N2 , O2 ,Br2 , HCl , CO , Cl2

b) Polyatomic molecules
- contain more than two atoms
- eg: O3 , H2O , NH3 , CH4

~ Isotope notation
-an atom/ ion can be represented by an isotopic notation

3. Ion
- is a positively-charged or negatively-charged particles.
- Cation, Anion

a) Cation
- a positively charged ion formed when neutral atom loses electrons.

Na Na+
11 protons 11 protons
11 electrons 10 electrons

b) Anion
-a negatively charged ion formed when a neutral atom gains electrons.

Cl Cl-
17 protons 17 protons
17 electrons 17 electrons

4. Isotope
-two or more atoms of the same element that have the same proton number in their nucleus but
different in nucleon number.

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5. Relative Atomic Mass, Ar
-Ratio of the mass of one atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

-Relative atomic mass has no unit.

-Mass of one carbon-12 atom= 12.0u

6. Relative Molecular Mass, Mr

-Ratio of the mass of one molecule of the substance to 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

-Relative molecular mass has no unit.

-Relative molecular mass of a molecule is equals to the sum of the relative atomic masses of all
atoms that comprise the molecule.

7. Mass spectrum
Where does the value (RAM of the element) come from?
-the average mass of the one naturally occurring isotopes of the element.
-it depends on the abundance, m, of each isotope.

a) Mass Spectrometer
-a device used to determine the:
 Relative atomic mass of an element
 Relative molecular mass of a compound
 Types of isotopes, the abundance and its relative isotopic mass

b) Mass Spectrometry
- technique used to determine relative atomic mass and the relative abundance of isotopes
- different atoms/ isotopes/ molecules can be identified by their characteristic pattern of line (peak)
produced in the mass spectrum.

Mass spectrum
Information from a mass spectrum of an element:
 The isotopes which are present in the element
 The abundance of each isotope
 The isotopic mass of each isotope
-we can calculate the average atomic mass or relative atomic
mass of the element.

-The abundance of each isotope is shown as peak in the mass spectrum obtained from a mass
spectrometer.
 number of peaks= number of isotopes
 heights of peaks= abundance of isotopes

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  The higher the peak, the more abundance the isotope.
c) Mass Spectrum of Magnesium
-The mass spectrum of Mg shows that Mg consists of 3 isotopes:
24
Mg, 25Mg, and 26Mg
-The height of each line is proportional to the abundance of each isotope
-24Mg is the most abundant of the three isotopes.

d) Average Atomic Mass

-The average masses of the one naturally occurring isotopes of the element.
-It depends on the abundance, m, of each isotope.
-The unit of average atomic mass= u or amu

∑ Qi M i
Average Atomic Mass=
∑Qi

Qi = the relative abundance/percentage abundance of an isotope of the element

Mi = the isotopic mass of the isotope of the element

1.2 Mole Concept

- In chemistry, we measure the amount of substance in ‘mole’.
- The symbol of mole is mol (n).
1 mol of any substances = 6.02 x 1023 particles (atom/molecule/ion)

1.Mole
-A mole is an amount of substance that contains the same number of particles in exactly of 12g of
carbon-12, which is 6.02 x 1023 particles. [Avogadro constant/ Avogadro’s number (N A)]
-1 mole of carbon = 12.0g = 6.02 x 10 23 carbon atoms

Example:
i) 1 mol of magnesium, Mg = 6.02 x 10 23 atoms
ii) 1 mol of fluorine, F2 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
= 2 x 6.02 x 10 23 atoms
iii) 1 mol of ammonium ion, NH4+ = 6.02 x 1023 NH4+ ions
= 5 x 6.02 x 10 23 atoms (5 mol of atoms)
= 1 x 6.02 x 10 23 atoms (1 mol of N atom)
= 4 x 6.02 x 10 23 atoms (4 mol of H atoms)

Mass(g) = no. of mole x molar mass (g mol-1)

No. of particles = no. of mole x NA
Volume of gas at RTP(L) = no. of mole x 24(L mol -1)
Volume of gas at STP(L) = no. of mole x 22.4(L mol -1)
No. of mole =MV/1000

a) Interconvert between mole and mass

- monoatomic element (eg: 0.1mol of copper, Cu= 0.1mol x 63.5g mol -1 = 6.35g)

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- polyatomic element (eg: 0.1 mol of carbonate ion, CO 32- = 0.1mol x [12+(3 x 16)] g mol-1 = 6g)

b) Interconvert between mole and volume of gas

-Room temperature and pressure (RTP)
 Temperature and pressure: 25° C and 1 atm
 Molar volume of gas: 24 L mol-1
-Standard temperature and pressure (STP)
 Temperature and pressure: 0°C and 1 atm
 Molar volume of gas: 22.4 L mol-1
-Avogadro’s Law states the equal volumes of any ideal gases contain the same number of particles or
mole under the same temperature and pressure.

2. Empirical formula and Molecular formula

a) Empirical formula is a chemical formula that shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of
each element present in a compound.
b) Molecular formula is a chemical formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each element
present in a compound.

-The relationship between empirical formula and molecular formula is :

(empirical formula) n = molecular formula

*Remember: Never round off values close to whole number in order to get a simple ratio, but multiply the value
by factor until we get a whole number.

3. Concentration measurement
i. Molarity, M
ii. Molality, m
iii. Mole fraction, X
iv. Percentage by mass, % w/w
v. Percentage by volume, % v/v

-Solution is a homogenous mixture between a dissolve a solute and solvent.

Dissolved solute + solvent → solution

a) Molarity
- the number of moles of dissolved solute in 1 litre (or dm 3) of the solution.
n solute
M= Note:
Volume of solution ( L) 1 dm3 = 1000cm3
-symbol: c or M 1 L = 1000 mL
-unit: mol L-1 or mol dm-3 or M or molar

b) Molality
- the number of moles dissolved solute in 1kg solvent.
nsolute
m= Note:
Mass of solvent ( kg) Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
-symbol: m Volume of solvent ≠ volume of solvent
-unit: mol kg-1 or molal or m

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 c) Mole Fraction
-the ratio of the number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of all component
present.
nA
X A=
ntotal
-nA = number of moles of one component in a mixture, A
-nT = the total number of moles of all substances present in the mixture
-symbol: X
-unit: no unit

d) Percentage by mass (% w/w)

- the ratio of mass of solute to the mass of solution multiplied by 100%
w mass of solute
% = x 100
w mass of solution
-symbol: %w/w

10% w/w NaOH means 10g NaOH dissolve in 90g water

(or 10gNaOH in 100g of solution).

e) Percentage by volume(%v/v)
-the ratio of volume of solute to the volume of solution multiplied by 100%
v volume of solute
% = x 100
v volume of solution
-symbol: %v/v

5% v/v of KCl means 5ml of KCl dissolved in 100ml of solution.

~ Relating density of solution to concentration measurement

m solution
density of solution=
V solution
-symbol: ρ
-unit: g L-1 or g dm-3 or g mL-1

1.3 Stoichiometry
- the study of the relative proportion in which substance react.
- The chemical equations in which the number of moles of reactants (molecules or atoms) are in
simple whole number ratios are called stoichiometric equations.
- To present a chemical equation correctly, the equation must be balanced and have the following
features:
LEFT SIDE RIGHT SIDE
aP + bQ cR + dS
Reactants Products
(chemicals that are (chemicals that are formed
reacting) in reaction)

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 Indicates the direction of reaction

-a, b, c and d are the stoichiometric coefficients.

-In order to balance the equation, the number atoms for each element must be the same on both
side of equation.
Remember: When balancing chemical equations,
only can adjust the coefficients in front of formulae, never try to change the subscript numbers.

2 NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 4 H2O

1. Reaction stoichiometry
- describe the quantitative relationships among substances as they participate in chemical reactions.
- eg: N2 + 3H2 2NH3
-Based on balanced equation, 1: 3: 2 ratio of moles of N 2, H2 and NH3.
~meaning: I mol N2 needs 3 mol H2 to react completely and produce 2 mol NH 3.

moles N 2 1 moles NH 3 2 moles H 2 3

= = =
moles H 2 3 moles N 2 1 moles NH 3 2

2. Balancing a Chemical Equation

Method 1: By inspection method
Method 2: By ion-electron method (redox reaction)

a) Inspection method
- write down the unbalanced equation, Write the correct formulae for the reactants and products.
-Balance the metallic element, followed by non-metallic atoms.
-Balance the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
-Check to ensure that the total number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of
equation.

b) Ion electron method

-Redox reaction may occur in acidic and basic solutions.
-Redox reactions are chemical reactions in which both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.

Oxidation Reduction
-gain oxygen, O2 -loss of oxygen, O2
-increase in oxidation number -decrease in oxidation number
-loss of hydrogen, H2 -gain of hydrogen, H2
-Loss of election -gain of electron

-For redox reaction:

i)In acidic medium
ii)In basic medium

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i) In acidic medium
Steps:
1. Separate into 2 half equations. (oxidation and reduction)
2. Balance the atoms of elements. (except for H & O)
3. Balance O by using H2O. (add H2O at the side which has less number of O)
4. Balance H by using H+. (add H+ at the side which has less number of H)
5. Balance the charge by using electrons. (add electrons at the side which has less negative charge)
6. Balance the electrons for both equations. (By multiplying with suitable factor)
7. Sum up the final two half-equations. Simplify if necessary.

ii) In basic medium:

Steps:
1. 1. Separate into 2 half equations. (oxidation and reduction)
2. Balance the atoms of elements. (except for H & O)
3. Balance O by using H2O. (add H2O at the side which has less number of O)
4. Balance H by using H+. (add H+ at the side which has less number of H)
5. Balance the charge by using electrons. (add electrons at the side which has less negative charge)
6. Balance the electrons for both equations. (By multiplying with suitable factor)
7. Sum up the final two half-equations. Simplify if necessary.
8. Add OH- to both sides of the equation to eliminate H+.
9. Convert H+ + OH- to H2O.
10. Simplify the equation.

3. Limiting reactant and Excess Reactant

-Limiting reactant is the reactant which is completely used up and limits the amount of products
formed in a reaction. It will determine the amount of products form.
-Excess reactant is the reactant present in quantities more than required to react with the quantity
of limiting reactant.

-If exact moles are NOT used,

identify which reactant is the limiting reactant.
calculate the amount of product formed based on the amount of the limiting reactant available.

*When mole of reactant given > mole of reactant reacted (the reactant is an excess)
*Limiting reactant determines the amount of product formed.

4. Percentage Yield
-In a chemical reaction, we find that sometimes we DON’T GET what we are SUPPOSED TO GET.

a) Theoretical yield

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-is the maximum amount of product obtained stoichiometrically based on balanced
equation when all the limiting reactant have reacted.

b) Actual yield
-is the amount of product actually obtained from a reaction.
Theoretical yield > Actual yield

Factors:
 Experimental conditions
 Experimental technique
 Experimental instruments

Actual yield
Percentage yield= x 100
Theoretical yield

5. Stoichiometry calculations- Solution

a) Dilution
-is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated solution .

*There are no addition or removal of any solute.

b) Titration
- is used to determine the volume of one solution required to react exactly with a known volume of
another solution.

H2SO4 + 2 NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

MAV A a
=
M BV B b
1
¿
2

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