Interaction of Forces

Interaction of Forces
Think about all of the electronic objects or appliances you use
every day. Computers, mobile phones, cars, televisions, coffee
makers, microwaves, light bulbs, and hair dryers are just a few
electronic devices you might use. In fact, most modern technology
relies upon electricity in some way. While it is rather easy to think of
devices that use electricity, it may not be so obvious to think of
devices that rely on magnetism. However, it turns out that electricity
is fundamentally related to magnetism. Many of the electronic
devices you use actually make use of magnetism as well. What
exactly are electricity and magnetism? How are the two related to
one another? How are electricity and magnetism applied in the
world around us?

Charged Particles and Electric Current

Electricity is not something we can see directly, so it is difficult to

understand exactly what it is. We can observe some byproducts of
electricity, such as lightning during a storm or a spark that flashes
when an electrical cord is pulled from an electrical outlet. However,
these brief flashes of light are not actually electricity. To understand
electricity, we must understand the basis of electricity, a charged
particle. A charged particle is a tiny particle that carries an electric
charge. An electric charge can be positive (+1) or negative (-1). A
proton is an example of a positively charged particle. An electron is
an example of a negatively charged particle. Electrons are the most
common charged particles that you encounter.

Sometimes electric charges accumulate in a region. For example,

they may accumulate on your body as you move across a carpet.
This is known as static electricity because the charges remain in
one place. This is shown in figure 1 with the balloon rubbed on a
person’s hair: the hair and balloon are attracted to each other.
However, sometimes the charges will move and discharge onto
another surface like when you touch a metal doorknob after walking
across a carpet—the charges that accumulated on your body will
discharge onto the knob. When this happens, you may feel a small
electric shock. The flow of charged electrons from one region to
another is called electric current. Electric current is what flows
through the wires in electrical devices.
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 Interaction of Forces
Electric Force and Electric Fields

Charged particles exert forces on one another. The most fundamental rule of electricity is that like
charges repel one another and opposite charges attract one another. For example, if an electron
were moved into a region near another electron, the electrons would repel, or push away from each
other. If the electron were moving near a proton, however, the two particles would experience a force
attracting the two. The strength of this force varies at different locations around the electron. Closer
together, the force is stronger; farther apart, the force is weaker, forming an electric field.

An electric field is a force field surrounding every charged

particle. You can think of an electric field as a region of arrows
surrounding a charge, with each arrow representing a force. The
arrows in the electric field tell you how much force another charge
would feel if it were placed at a particular location in the field. The
arrows also tell you in which direction the force would act. The
arrows representing the electric field of an electron would show
the force that a proton would experience if moved into any location
near the electron, as shown in figure 2. In general, two charged
particles’ electric fields decrease as the distance between the
particles increases.

Magnets, Magnetic Fields, and Magnetic Force

A magnet, or magnetized material, is an object with a north and south pole that produces a magnetic
field. Certain objects, particularly metals such as iron, that enter the magnetic field are attracted to the
magnet. However, magnets also have an important connection to electricity.

Magnetism results from the spin of an electron. All electrons

exhibit spin (that does not refer to rotation). The electron spin
creates a small magnetic field with a north and south pole. In
non-magnetized materials, the spin of the electron is in
different directions and their fields cancel out. However, in
magnetized materials, the spin of the electrons is aligned in
the same direction. The magnetic fields of each electron
combine to produce a magnetic material. Ferromagnetic
materials, such as iron, are materials that are not naturally
magnetized, but they can become magnetized easily in the
presence of a magnetic field. The chemical symbol for iron is Fe,
from the Latin word ferrum; the prefix ferro typically refers to iron. For example, if you hold a magnet
over a pile of iron shavings, the iron shavings will become magnetized (figure 3).

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 Interaction of Forces
Just as all charged particles are surrounded by electric fields, all magnets are surrounded by
magnetic fields. The magnetic field flows out of the north pole of a magnet and into the south pole.
Magnetic fields exert forces on other magnets. As a rule, like poles repel each other and opposite
poles attract each other. Magnetic fields also exert forces on moving charged particles.

Any magnets that are placed in a magnetic field will align with that field. The arrows of the magnetic
field lines show how the north pole of a bar magnet would become aligned if it were placed in that
field, as seen in figure 4 above.

A compass is a typical example of how a magnetic force acts in a

magnetic field. Earth is a giant magnet; recall that our planet's core
contains a lot of iron. As Earth spins, the core generates a magnetic
north pole and a magnetic south pole. A compass is made of a small
bar magnet. The compass magnet aligns with Earth's magnetic field.
Therefore, the south pole of a compass points toward Earth's
magnetic north pole (figure 5).

Magnetic fields exert forces in two different ways. First, magnetic

fields interact with other magnetic fields. Opposite magnetic poles are attracted to one another, while
similar magnetic poles are repelled from one another. Second, magnetic fields exert forces on
moving, charged particles. That is, they exert forces on electric current, not stationary charges.
Motors take advantage of this principle.

The Role of Distance in Electric and Magnetic Fields

As we discussed in an earlier unit, the role of distance is critical in the creation of both magnetic and
electric fields. As the distance between two objects increases, the force will decrease by the square
of the distance. The distance has a much bigger impact than the actual strength of the magnet or
charge.

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 Interaction of Forces
You may have noticed that magnets don’t always attract or repel. There is a distance component that
must be taken into account. Magnets only attract or repel each other when the distance between
them is such that the fields can interact.

Take a look at figure 6. You can clearly see the field lines, but as the field lines originate and head
away from each other, their interaction actually decreases. The strength of the magnet or the charges
is never changed. It is only the distance that has impact.

Magnetic Fields and Electric Currents

When an electric current is running through a wire the movement of the electrical charges creates a
magnetic field. One of the most important scientific discoveries
of the last 200 years was the realization that electricity and
magnetism are fundamentally related to one another. This
relationship is known as electromagnetism. Moving electric
charges (electric current) produce a magnetic field. This means
that an electric current produces both an electric field and a
magnetic field. For example, a magnetic field will form around a
straight wire carrying electric current, as shown in figure 7.

To determine the direction of the magnetic field around a

straight wire, use the right-hand rule. Point the thumb of your
right hand in the direction of the current (I)—if the wire is
connected to a battery, current moves from the negative (−)
terminal to the positive (+) terminal. Then, curl your fingers
around the wire. Your fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field (B).

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 Interaction of Forces
Not all electric charges create magnetic fields.

A common misconception is that all you need to create a magnetic field are electric charges. If you
attempt to create an electromagnet by wrapping a substance with static (not moving) electric charges
around a metal core, you will have only an electric field. Since these charges are static, there is no
magnetic field created. It is only through the movement of electric charges that a magnetic field can
be created.

This principle can be used to create an electromagnet. An

electromagnet is a temporary magnet created by an electric
current. An electromagnet typically has a ferromagnetic core, such
as iron. A simple electromagnet can be made by wrapping wire
around an iron nail. When the wire is connected to a voltage
source, current flows through the wire and a magnetic field is
produced. This magnetic field causes the iron nail to become a
temporary magnet. The greater the current flowing through the
wire, the stronger the magnetic field produced. You can also
increase the strength of the electromagnet by increasing the
number of windings of wire around the iron nail. Increasing the
length of the wire, however, would decrease the strength of the
magnetic field produced. Some electromagnets are so strong they
can lift entire cars—you can see these electromagnets on cranes at
a junkyard like the one seen in figure 8.

In electromagnets, electric currents produce a magnetic field.

Because an electric current can be turned on and off in
electromagnets, this allows for the magnetic fields to be turned on
and off as well. Small-scale electromagnets, such as the one in
figure 9, can be created by tightly wrapping copper wire around a
nail or screw and attaching the wire to a power source.

Electromagnets Explained

Three things are required for an electromagnet: a power source,

a wire that conducts electricity, and a metal core (such as an iron
nail). The wire is wrapped around the metal core, creating a solenoid. When the wire is connected to
the power source and electricity begins to move through the wire, a magnetic field is created and the
solenoid becomes magnetic. The strength of the magnetic field is related to the number of coils, how
close the coils are, and the amount of electricity flowing from the power source. Tighter, closer, and
more numerous coils from the wire will produce a stronger magnetic field. The more electricity flowing
through the wire, the stronger the magnetic field.

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 Interaction of Forces
So if the electricity is flowing and the magnetic field is present, how does that magnetize a metal core
that is not a permanent magnet? The atoms found in the metal core are arranged randomly and the
electrons of the atoms seemingly spin in every direction. When the current is introduced, the resulting
magnetic field aligns the atoms and their electrons in the metal core. The alignment of the atoms is
determined by the amount of electric current and the resulting magnetic field from that current. The
metal core can reach a point at which all atoms are aligned; at that point, adding more current will not
increase the magnetism of the core.

Just as moving charges produce magnetic fields, a moving magnet produces an electric field. In other
words, a changing magnetic field will produce an electric field. This is known as electromagnetic
induction because a moving magnet can induce current in a wire, even if no battery or other voltage
source exists (figure 10). The induced voltage in a circuit can be measured in volts with a voltmeter.
The induced current, or amperage, in a circuit can be measured in amperes with an ammeter.
Electromagnetic induction plays an important role in the generation of electricity around us.

How are these forces related to energy?

We have established that objects exert forces on one

another. Some are easier to visualize than others, such as
a game of tug-of-war. You know what side is winning
based on what direction the rope is moving. The team with
the most energy exerts the most force and generally wins.
What about the forces found in fields? How can they be
visualized? Can the energy associated with those forces
be visualized?

When two objects interacting through a field change their position, the energy in that field changes as
well. In the case of field forces, we can think of two permanent magnets. If you try to place two
magnets together at the same poles, as seen in figure 11, you will feel the magnetic field force
interacting between the two objects.
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 Interaction of Forces
If you were to place one magnet on a table and slowly move another magnet’s north pole toward the
stationary magnet’s north pole, what would happen? The magnet on the table would move away from
the one you are moving toward it. The reason for this is that objects that interact through fields will
always move in a direction that reduces the energy in that field. This is seen in the repulsion of
charged objects as well. Figure 12 shows how an electroscope could be used in determining if
charges exist in an object. As the object is moved toward the metal ball or plate (metal cap) at the top
of the device, any charges in the object will transfer to that metal cap and travel down the conductor
into the foil leaves. If the object was charged, either positively or negatively, the metal leaves will
repel each other and move apart.

Generally objects that interact through fields are located such that the energy in the field is
acceptable for both objects. However, when one object has moved, changing the initial field forces,
the energy in the field is now changed. The distance between the two objects can determine the
interaction of the forces and predict how the objects will respond. This interaction we can simplify to
“like charges repel while opposites attract.” The more accurate description would be: like charges will
move to reduce forces they have to work against. You can liken this to other forces we interact with
every day. If you were told you had to move a large rock and you could decide to move the rock up a
hill or move it down a hill, which would you choose? The least amount of energy is always preferable.

These same forces are used together in many objects you interact with daily. Motors, generators, and
transformers are a vital part of the world. Without the interaction of electric and magnetic fields, these
would not exist.

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 Interaction of Forces
Motors, Generators, and Transformers

The interactions between electricity and magnetism are applied in many common devices. One
application is a motor. Motors are devices that cause objects to move when electricity is applied. For
example, a motor causes the blades of a fan to spin and the wheels of a car to rotate. Motors
transform electrical energy into kinetic energy. In fact, more electricity is used by motors than by any
other technology on Earth.

A basic motor consists of a rotating loop of wire and a magnet. The loop of wire is placed between the
poles of a magnet so that it is inside a magnetic field. Recall that the magnetic field will exert a force
on moving charged particles. So, when electric current begins to flow through the loop of wire, the
magnetic field exerts a force on the loop. This magnetic force causes the loop to rotate. In this way,
electrical energy is transformed into kinetic energy when the loop begins to rotate.

A diagram of a motor is shown in figure 13. A loop of wire is placed in between the north and south
poles of a magnet. In some motors, brushes are attached to the loop of wire. These connect the
stationary current-carrying wires to the rotating loop of wire. When current flows through the loop of
wire, the magnetic field exerts a vertical force on the loop, causing it to spin clockwise.

While a motor converts electrical energy into kinetic energy, a generator is a device that performs the
opposite task; it transforms kinetic energy into electrical energy. In other words, it generates electricity
from a moving source of energy. Similar to a motor, a basic generator consists of a loop of wire and a
magnet.

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 Interaction of Forces
However, the assembly is different for a generator. This time, the magnet is placed in the center of the
loop of wire, and it can rotate freely. As the magnet rotates, the changing magnetic field induces an
electric current in the loop of wire. Thus, the rotating kinetic energy of the magnet is transformed into
electric energy.

A number of forces can cause the magnet in a generator to rotate. In most cases, the magnet is
attached to a larger, spinning apparatus called a turbine. For example, wind turbines are large,
pinwheel-shaped devices that spin when the wind strikes them. The spinning arms of the wind turbine
spin a magnet inside of the structure. This generates electricity in the wire around the magnet.
Similarly, hydroelectric energy is produced in a dam when flowing water spins the arms of a turbine.
The turbine spins a strong magnet, and electricity is generated in electrical wire around the magnet.
At nuclear power plants, nuclear energy heats water, and the water evaporates into steam. At other
power plants, the energy for heating water into steam comes from burning fossil fuels such as coal or
oil. In each case, the pressure from the steam spins a turbine and electricity is produced. Figure 15
shows examples of these power-generating plants.

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 Interaction of Forces
A transformer is a device that transfers the electrical energy in the form of alternating current (AC)
from one circuit to another and will either raise or lower the voltage as it makes the transfer. In
contrast to DC, or direct current, which flows in one direction only, AC constantly changes direction. A
transformer consists of at least two sets of coiled wires around a ferromagnetic material, such as an
iron core. When AC flows through the first set of coiled wire, known as the primary coil, it produces a
magnetic field that magnetizes the iron core. Because AC constantly changes direction, the magnetic
field induced in the iron core constantly changes direction. The changing magnetic field in the iron
core then induces an electric current in the second coil of wire, known as the secondary coil. In figure
16 you see a transformer found at a power plant as well as a simplified diagram of the transformer.

Transformers are also used to change the amount of voltage or current in a circuit. For example, a
household electrical outlet delivers 120 volts of electricity. However, some devices, such as a mobile
phone, require only 9 volts. So, you may need to plug a 9-volt adaptor into a wall socket in order to
change the voltage delivered to your device. The small box attached to the plug of the adapter is a
transformer. Whenever a transformer increases the voltage in a circuit, it is known as a step-up
transformer. Similarly, whenever a transformer decreases the voltage in a circuit, it is a step-down
transformer. Would the diagram in figure 16 be considered a step-up or step-down transformer?
Based on the fact that there are less coils in the secondary coil, this example would be a step-down
transformer. Step-up transformers would have less coils in the primary coil.

Getting Technical: Everyday Applications of Electric and Magnetic Forces

An important application of electromagnetism is a computer hard drive. When a computer stores data
to a hard drive, it actually uses the principle of magnetic force. A simple hard drive is composed of a
plate with a thin ferromagnetic coating. To store data on the plates, a tiny magnet is moved over a
region on the plate. The magnetic force of the magnet causes all of the spinning electrons in a tiny
region on the plate to become aligned in a particular direction. For example, the electrons may align
pointing upward. Then, the tiny magnet moves to another region, causing the electrons in that region
to be aligned in another direction. For example, the electrons in the next region may align pointing
downward. An electronic signal from the computer tells the magnet how to align the electrons in
different regions.

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 Interaction of Forces
Computers store data in binary code, which is composed of zeros and ones (called bits). So, the
upward alignment of electrons in a region may correspond to a one, and the downward alignment of
electrons may correspond to a zero. In this way, the sequence in which electrons are aligned in a
region corresponds to a binary code of data that can be stored or retrieved by the computer. This
sequence is called a byte. Computers, mobile phones, and mp3 devices all contain hard drives that
store data. Engineers are constantly creating new, denser technologies that allow more data to be
stored in the same amount of space. This has allowed computers to become increasingly
smaller—and more powerful. However, no matter how small the hard drive, the basic principles are
the same: magnets are used to store information.

An audio speaker also relies on the interaction between electric and magnetic forces. In an audio
speaker, a coil of wire is attached to a cone-shaped object. This assembly is called a speaker cone.
The speaker cone is suspended from a flexible frame, allowing it to move. A permanent magnet is
suspended at the middle of the cone, next to the coil of wire. When a musical electric signal
(alternating current) is sent to the coil of wire, it produces a changing magnetic field around the coil. In
other words, the speaker cone becomes an electromagnet! Then, the permanent magnet exerts
attractive and repulsive forces on the electromagnet as the musical signal changes. This causes the
speaker cone to vibrate according to the signal from the music, producing sound.

Advanced Topics
Types of Forces beyond Motion
Forces are usually described as simple pushes and pulls in the context of contact forces. Earlier, you
learned about dynamics and examined how two objects can cause changes in motion, typically when
one object was in physical contact with another and directly applying an unbalanced push or pull that
caused an acceleration. Objects do not have to be in contact to apply a force and interact with other
objects. Traditionally, forces are grouped into categories by their sources, transmission, or effects.

Contact forces: As the name implies, contact forces are forces that are transmitted through
contact between two or more objects or systems. These are responsible for most visible
interactions between macroscopic objects.

Applied forces: An applied force is a contact force that an object exerts on another object.

Normal forces: The normal force is an upward contact force that opposes gravity. It is applied
perpendicular to the surface of contact. When you stand on the floor, gravity pulls down while the
normal force from the floor pushes up.

Tension: Tension is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable, or wire when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends. The tension is directed along the length of the
rope and pulls equally on the objects on the opposite ends of the rope.
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 Interaction of Forces
Spring force: The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring on the
object that is attached to it. An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted on by
a force that restores the object to its resting or equilibrium position.

Frictional force: Frictional forces, or friction, are contact forces that oppose motion. Friction is
caused by the microwelds and intermolecular attraction on the surface of objects.
● Static friction is the friction between two objects before the object is sliding or moving.
Static friction is greater than kinetic friction.
● Kinetic friction, or sliding friction, is the contact force between two objects sliding past
one another.
● Air resistance is a special case of friction when an object is traveling through the air.
In most cases, it will be so small that it is negligible. However, when an object has a
large surface area or is traveling at a high velocity, air resistance will oppose the
motion of the object.

Field forces: Field forces are forces that act on objects that occupy nearby spaces. The objects do
not have to be in contact with one another to cause an acceleration.

Gravitational force: The force of gravity is an attractive field force between all objects. The force
of gravity experienced between Earth and objects on Earth is weight. Just like all forces, weight is
calculated using the equation F = ma, where a = 9.81 m/s2. Using this equation, one can calculate
the strength of the field.

Magnetic force: Magnets are dipoles, having a north and south pole, causing their strength to
decrease very quickly as they are separated. When two magnets interact, because there are four
poles, it is a dipole interaction where the like poles repel and opposite poles attract. The force
interacting between magnets is dependent on the relative orientation of the poles and the distance
between them.

Electric force: There are attractive and repulsive forces between charged particles. These
interactions are called an electric field. Similar to other forces, the effects are described by
Newton’s laws and can be applied to analyze and describe the motion of matter under the
influence of electrical forces.

In some situations the purpose of the analysis is not to determine the acceleration but instead the
spatial separation or charge of the objects in static equilibrium.

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 Interaction of Forces
Beyond the Classroom
Electricity is a modern-day convenience we rely upon
heavily. From lights in the house to charging electronics
and now the cars we drive, electric currents are
everywhere. Even though this energy is vital to much of
our lives, it has a designated place in our world. If there
is too much electricity, people can be hurt. It can also
destroy our modern day machines and electronics. Too
much energy can result in electromagnetic noise that
can impact the functionality of the electronics we have
come to depend on.

This issue was actually addressed in 1836 by Michael

Faraday, an English scientist. He created the Faraday
cage. This device is an enclosure that can block
electromagnetic fields from reaching objects inside it.
Faraday noticed that a charged conductor which had charges on the outside had no impact on
objects inside it. With that, he built a room coated with metal foil. Using an electrostatic generator, he
created high voltage discharges outside of the metal room. Inside he tested for the presence of any
charges on the walls using an electroscope. He found there were none. He concluded that building a
cage with an electric charge outside would prevent charges from building up inside the cage. Thus
was born the Faraday cage. The image above shows an actual Faraday cage from 1925 used by the
Bureau of Standards in the US government.

You will research the Faraday cage and create an interactive presentation to highlight the interesting
science of this device.
1. Was Michael Faraday the first scientist to discover this concept? If not, what other scientists
contributed to the Faraday cage?
2. How does a Faraday cage protect objects inside it?
3. What are three common examples of Faraday cages?

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 Interaction of Forces
Interaction of Forces Review

Reviewing Key Terms 3. Electromagnets show the interaction of

Create a Frayer model graphic organizer for
each term below. Your organizer should include
a definition, illustration and characteristics,
synonyms/examples, and nonexamples.
1. Field forces
2. Electric field
3. Magnetic field
4. Ferromagnetic
5. Electromagnet
Use the correct key term to complete each of
the following sentences.
1. The region in which a magnetic force
can be detected is called a(n)
________.
2. A device that transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another and changes
the voltage in the process is called a(n)
________.
Reviewing Main Ideas
a. electric current and electric
charges
b. electric charges and magnetic
dipoles
c. magnetic fields and iron filings
d. magnetic fields and electric
currents
Making Connections
1. Describe how the direction of a
magnetic field from an electric current
can be determined.
2. Describe how a magnetic field can
produce a change in energy.
Open-Ended Response
1. How does an electromagnet utilize the
interaction of electric and magnetic
fields?

1. An electric current is characterized by 2. Explain the difference between a motor

which of the following? and generator in terms of the interaction
a. Charges that are stationary of forces found in each device.
b. Charges that move
c. Potential energy in a battery
d. Mechanical energy in a system

2. A magnetic field is formed when

a. the spin of the electrons is
aligned.
b. protons in a material all spin in
the opposite direction.
c. the north and south poles align.
d. a permanent magnet is dropped.

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