MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

BACHELORS OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

FINAL YEAR PROJECT PROPOSAL

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A REMOTE MONITORING
SYSTEM FOR DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

SUBMITTED BY;
MUBANGIZI FELEX 17/U/574
NUWAGIRABYONA STUART 17/U/954

UNDER SUPERVISION OF:

MAIN SUPERVISOR: MR. OKETCH INNOCENT
CO-SUPERVISOR: MR. MUGWANYA PATRICK

SUBMITTED IN AS A PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

OUR AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING ON 14TH MAY 2021.
ABSTRACT
Our proposed idea presents design and implementation of a remote monitoring system to
monitor load currents, over voltage, transformer oil level and oil temperature as well as the
health of protection devices like fuses and surge arresters. The remote monitoring system
integrates Global Service Mobile (GSM) Modem and GPS, with single chip microcontroller
and sensors. It is installed at the distribution transformer site.

The output values of sensors are to be processed and recorded in the system memory. System
programmed with some predefined instructions to check abnormal conditions. If there is any
abnormality on the system, the GSM module will send SMS (Short Message Service)
messages to designated mobile telephones containing information about the abnormality
according to the aforesaid predefined instructions.

This system will be an advanced step to the automation by diminishing human dependency.
As it is a wireless communicating system, there is no need of large cables which are of high
cost. Thus TPMS offers a more improved transformer monitoring.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
DTs- Distribution transformers

TSU – Temperature Sensing Unit

LCD- Liquid Crystal Display

GSM – Global Service Mobile

IDE- Integrated Development Environment

TOV- Transient Over Voltages

ONAN- Oil Natural Air Natural

UBS –Uganda Bureau of Statistics

SCADA- Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: layout for hardware implementation...........................................................................3
Figure 2: Project work plan........................................................................................................4
Figure 3: Simple power system showing primary and secondary distribution transformer......6
Figure 4: Core-type and Shell-type construction designs for a transformer.............................7
Figure 5:Cross-sectional and Exterior view of a distribution transformer...............................7
Figure 6: Pole-mounted distribution transformer with its fittings.............................................9
Figure 7: Underground and pad-mounted distribution transformers.......................................10
Figure 8: Single-phase and three-phase bank pole-mounted distribution transformers 12

Figure 9: The Core Type Construction and exterior view of a tree-phase distribution
transformer...............................................................................................................................12
Figure 10: Name plate rating of a distribution transformer.....................................................14
Figure 11: Basic parts of a surge arrestor.................................................................................15
Figure 12: A distribution transformer fitted with surge arrestor..............................................15
Figure 13: Current limiting fuses and Expulsion fuses............................................................16
Figure 14: Idea of R-L choke placed prior to protected device...............................................21

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: The implementation budget.....................................................................................................5

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................................i
LIST OF ACRONYMS.......................................................................................................................ii
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................iv
1.0 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................1
1.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND...............................................................................................1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT.................................................................................................1
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE..................................................................................................................2
1.4 PROJECT OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................2
1.4.1 Main Objective.............................................................................................................2
1.4.2 Specific Objectives.......................................................................................................2
1.5 METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................................2
1.5.1 Identification of distribution transformer failures....................................................2
1.5.2 Designing and simulating the system..........................................................................2
1.5.3 Programming and implementing the prototype of the system..................................3
1.5.4 Testing a fully implemented system............................................................................3
1.6 PROJECT SCOPE..............................................................................................................3
1.7 PROJECT WORK PLAN...................................................................................................4
1.8 IMPLEMENTATION BUDGET........................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................6
2.0 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................6
2.1 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS......................................................................................6
2.1.1 Classification of Distribution transformers...............................................................8
9.2.4. Distribution transformer operating Analysis.................................................................13
2.1.5 Distribution transformer protection.............................................................................14
2.1.5.1 Surge arrestor protection..........................................................................................15
2.1.5.2 Fuse protection...........................................................................................................15
2.1.5.3 Protection against temperature rise.........................................................................17
2.2 Available projects on protection and monitoring of distribution transformers............20

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CHAPTER ONE: PROJECT PROPOSAL

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Distribution Transformers (DTs) are used to step down voltages to the suitable values
required by consumers. DTs’ performance determines the overall efficiency of the power
system and they are among the most expensive and critical units in the system. In Uganda,
distribution networks operate at 11kV and 33kV to supply the final consumers’ feeders at
415V three phase and 240 volts per phase.

In Uganda, access to electricity has grown from a perennial 12%-15% to 51% according to
the most recent statistics released by the UBS [1]. With annual demand growing, electricity
access expected to grow as more effort is put in place to increase the supply to the wider
areas. It is also noted that even the connected consumers experience loss in supply frequently
as a result of the unreliable power supply. Causes of unreliability in power supply include;
faults in DTs and feeders, vandalism of power supply equipment, failure of transformers and
limited power available for dispatch.

With a SCADA system still being considered an expensive venture to monitor and control
DTs, there has been a great desire to explore other options such as designing a small scale
system for DT monitoring that utilizes the available prominent communication technology;
the Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) that can later be integrated into the
current SCADA system that is used for monitoring power transformers [2].

1.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND

Currently, in Uganda distribution companies like UMEME, its distribution transformers
parameters are being monitored by use of Peak load analysis scheme to determine
transformer load conditions which is not efficient since number of people varies from time to
time [3]. This calls for need for a system that can continuously monitor number of loads
connected and on-site oil level checking done manually by technicians regularly which is
time consuming and leads to human errors and late recognition of the fault.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Distribution transformers (DTs) are currently monitored manually, a traditional way which
cannot provide information about occasional overloads, overheating of transformer oil and
false working of some protective devices like surge arresters. Of which all these lead to
reduction in distribution transformer life span, lengthen power outages [4] and increase costs
of maintenance and replacement of such affected transformers which are often passed over to

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clients inform of high tariffs. These high tariffs would discourage rural electrification in
accordance to sustainable development goals

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE
According to the above challenges, we need a real-time monitoring system that can always
monitor distribution transformers’ parameters such as oil temperature, oil level, load current,
and voltage output continuously and sent to the monitoring center in time. As well as
monitoring the health of protection devices like fuses and surge arresters.

This system will help the utilities to optimally utilize distribution transformers and identify
problems before any catastrophic failure occurs. Thus, ensuring reliable power and low tariffs
to end-users.

1.4 PROJECT OBJECTIVES

1.4.1 Main Objective
To design and implement a remote monitoring system of a distribution transformer

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

 To design and build the monitoring circuit using sensors for distribution transformer
operating parameters
 To simulate the designed system using a suitable software l
 To implement the prototype of the designed monitoring system

• To identify distribution transformer failures and existing methods of monitoring DTs.

• To model and simulate circuit using PROTEUS Matlab software for a remote
monitoring system of a distribution transformer.
• To implement the prototype of the designed circuit.
• To test a fully remote monitoring system using a single phase distribution transformer
or a simple transformer module.
1.5 METHODOLOGY
The above specific objectives are to be achieved as follows;
1.5.1 Identification of distribution transformer failures
This will be achieved through research on faults that transformers both active and passive
faults. All this shall be covered from subsequent literature review of this project. Through use
of research papers, dissertations, journals and textbooks available.

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1.5.2 Designing and simulating the system
We shall start by downloading the required software like Mat lab, identifying all components
needed and then finally, the circuit will be designed from the Mat lab platform.
Among components include sensors which help in determining the required parameters like
current, voltage, temperature and oil level using current sensor, voltage sensor, temperature
sensor and oil level sensor respectively. After all components have been fully interconnected,
the system is made to run to display the variables on the LCD from the microcontroller
output.
1.5.3 Programming and implementing the prototype of the system
After successful simulation of the designed system, we are to program the microcontroller
that is Arduino Uno using C-language on Arduino IDE according to the respective sensors to
be connected as input to it and modules like GSM, LCD, Relay and GPS which will be its
output devices of the microcontroller.

Figure 1: layout for hardware implementation

Then after, we are to build the prototype by interconnecting actual components using jump
wires on the bread board following the general layout of the system as shown in figure 1
above.
1.5.4 Testing a fully implemented system
After a successful prototype of the system, we are to test the system using a simple
transformer module on a single phase power system.

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1.6 PROJECT SCOPE
Geographically, our project is based on distribution transformers owned by UMEME as one
of Uganda’s utility companies.
Technically, our project focuses on monitoring DTs’ parameters and working conditions of
their protective devices.
1.7 PROJECT WORK PLAN

Figure 2: Project work plan

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1.8 IMPLEMENTATION BUDGET
Table 1: The implementation budget

ITEM QUANTITY UNIT PRICE TOTAL(UGSHs)

(UGSHs)
Arduino Board Uno 1 100,000 100,000
Jumper wires 20 500 10,000
Bread boards 1 9,000 9,000
9V Battery 1 28,000 28,000
GSM Module 1 12000 12,000
LCD Display 1 18,000 18,000
Sim Card 2 5000 10,000
Thermistor 1 5000 5,000
Current sensor 2 12,000 24,000
Rectifier 1 5000 5,000
Ultrasonic sensor 1 16,000 16,000
Transformer module 1 20,000 20,000
Relay module 1 20,000 20,000
Surge arrester 1 50,000 50,000
Total UGSHs333,000/=

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives theoretical information about distribution transformer that is; its definition,
application, classification construction and different operating parameters. More so, it
explains various distribution transformer failures, causes and available monitoring systems.
2.1 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
Distribution transformers are always rated less than 200 MVA and used in the distribution
network to provide voltage transformation in the power system by stepping down the voltage
level where the electrical energy is distributed and utilized at the consumer end [5]. These
voltage transformations are from high voltage, HV (such as 132 kV or 66 kV) to medium
voltage, MV (such as 33kV or 11kV). This MV is consumed in large industries with higher
power demands and the voltage transformation is achieved by a primary distribution
transformer. The second type is a secondary distribution transformer which transforms this
medium voltage to low voltage, LV (such as 415V for three-phase systems and 120vV or
240V) for single phase systems that is consumable in low power demand industries and
domestic loads respectively.

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Figure 3: Simple power system showing primary and secondary distribution transformer

The frequency after transformation is identical to that before and the most common
frequencies are 50Hz at 240V and 60Hz at 120V [6].

2.1.2 Distribution Transformer Construction

There are basically two construction designs for transformer which are the core and the shell-
type designs. The major is that in core type transformer, the winding encircles the core while
in shell type transformer, the core encircles the winding of the transformer as shown in the
figure 4 below [7].

Figure 4: Core-type and Shell-type construction designs for a transformer

Basic parts of the distribution transformer and accessories

Figure 5:Cross-sectional and Exterior view of a distribution transformer

The core; carries magnetic flux and provides mechanical strength to the transformer.

Windings (or coils); to carry current in the transformer and they are arranged as cylindrical
shells around the core limb where each strand is wrapped with paper insulation.

Solid insulation; (made of cellulose base products such as press board and paper), is used
between the windings for electrical isolation.

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Oil tank; used to store the transformer oil that provides insulation between windings along
with desired cooling in the transformer.

Conservator; arranged above the oil tank at the outside of the transformer frame and
connected to the main tank with the help of a metallic tube. The oil within the tank can be
easily contacted & enlarge throughout loading so that the temperature of the oil can be
increased & decrease.

Breather unit; includes silica gel that absorbs moisture in the oil. It changes its color from
blue color to pink color it is not capable to absorb moisture in the oil.

Radiator; used to increase the transformer’s cooling efficiency.

Bushings; (both HV and LV) insulating devices that insulate a high voltage electrical
conductor to pass through an earth conductor. Hence, it provides a current path through the
tank wall.

Tap changer; fitted with the transformer for adjusting the secondary voltage to carter for the
seasonal load changes. However, the modern practice is to install the tap changer within the
transformer tank.

Thermal Relay; employed as an indicator of winding temperature. It can also be utilized to

trigger alarms or fans utilized with big transformers.

Explosion vent and pressure relief device; to lessen pressure inside the distribution
transformer via external pressure release to prevent an explosion of the transformer.

Contacts and temperature detector; If you want to track oil temperature and when the
temperature goes beyond a particular limit, the transformer is disconnected from the service
[8].

2.1.1 Classification of Distribution transformers

The various types of the distribution transformer are categorized on the following basis

I. Mount location
II. Type of insulation
III. Nature of supply

2.1.1.1 Mounting location

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This category classifies distribution transformers according to their location which include
pole-mounted, pad-mounted and underground transformers.
Pole-mounted distribution transformers

These transformers are mounted on an electrical service pole at the height of the overhead
cables. Most (and almost all) distribution transformers in rural area are of this type and
typically range from 16 kVA to 100kVA and are available in small size and easy to fit on a
two-member pole structures. These transformers are reliable to harsh climates when they
used in remote areas and the most common cooling mechanism used in them is oil natural air
natural (ONAN) as most of them are oil immersed.

Figure 6: Pole-mounted distribution transformer with its fittings

Pad-Mounted distribution transformer

This type of transformer includes a locked steel cupboard that is arranged on a concrete pad
and is installed in places where they do not have space for a fenced enclosure and are mostly
used to supply large buildings. It is used with electric power distribution lines at an overhead
electrical line for reducing the primary voltage to supply for the customers. The power rating
of this transformer ranges from 75 kVA to 5000 kVA and includes fixed switches & fuses.
Underground distribution transformer
In highly populated cities, there is scarcity of land as well as the prices of land are very high.
This has led to the development of underground sub-station in which the distribution
transformer is placed underground.

The design of underground sub-station requires more careful consideration than other types
of sub-stations. Some of the considerations include the following;

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There should be reasonable access for both equipment and personnel, provision for
emergency lighting and protection against fire, good ventilation, provision for remote
indication of excessive rise in temperature so that HV supply can be disconnected as well as
the switches and fuses should be air cooled to avoid bringing oil into the premises.

The mechanism for cooling is the use of forced air or forced air into the winding since there
is limited flow of natural air in the underground setting hence, Oil Natural Air Forced or Oil
Natural Water Forced systems of cooling are employed for oil immersed transformers [6].

Figure 7: Underground and pad-mounted distribution transformers

2.1.1.2 Type of insulation

This categorizes the distribution transformers basing on the type of insulation and cooling for
windings of the different phases and these include liquid-immersed and the dry-type
transformers.

Dry-type uses air as a cooling medium, and liquid type cooled uses oil hence oil-immersed
type. Although both types have the same end result there are a number of differences between
them worth noting, that will affect which type you choose.

Maintenance: Oil cooled transformers required more maintenance procedures [9], which

must be performed more often than dry-type for instance, the oil needs to be sampled to test
for contamination, whereas dry type transformers are very resistant to chemical contaminants.

Costs (Initial and Operating): Compared to oil cooled, dry type has a significantly higher
operating loss. Oil filled transformers have a higher standard energy efficiency, and as a
result have a higher lifespan than dry type.

Noise: Oil cooled transformers have a lower operating sound level, thus less noise pollution
than dry-type.

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Recyclability: The end-of-life recycling for dry type is limited, while oil units boast an easier
core/coil reclamation. Oil cooled have superior operating life and maintainability, producing
less waste and requiring less replacements and labor.
Efficiency: Dry type transformers are larger units, limited in voltage and size, making them
more prone to overheating if they experience overload. As a result, they have higher electrical
losses, and it is more expensive to maintain dry type power supply over time. Oil cooled units
are smaller and more efficient. They require less demand and create a smaller environmental
footprint.

Voltage Capabilities: Dry type transformers are designed to handle small to medium MVA
and voltage ratings, making them ideal for smaller applications. Oil cooled transformers can
handle heavier loads, so applications that require higher voltages will require oil units.

Location: Location of the transformer will be the biggest determinant for which type you
will need. Dry type is specified for use in buildings and near buildings, simply because they
are environmentally safer. Dry type transformers are less flammable and pose less of a fire
risk, making them ideal for shopping malls, hospitals, residential complexes and other
commercial areas. Oil cooled transformers are used in outdoor installations due to the
possibility of oil leakage and spills which pose a fire risk, but these units are
more environmentally friendly.

Taking these variables into account, oil units appear to be the better option overall with
higher energy efficiency, recyclability, low noise pollution, lower operational costs and a
small environmental foot print. However, oil units simply cannot be used in any situation.
Dry type is the best and many times, required option for commercial and indoor operations,
because they are safer units to operate around people and areas where fire hazards may exist.

2.1.1.3 Nature of supply

This categorizes distribution transformers according to the nature of the supply voltage that is
single phase or three phase voltage.

Single Phase distribution transformer

These transformers are specially used for networks wherever a three-phase supply is not
required. Usually, these are used for repairing overhead distribution loads in residential, and
also applicable in industrial lighting, light commercial loads & power applications.

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Figure 8: Single-phase and three-phase bank pole-mounted distribution transformers

Three-phase distribution transformer

This is used to transform the high (or medium) voltage from the main distribution circuit to a
minor distribution circuit within one distribution transformer. However, three single-phase
transformers can be connected together with their all the three primary winding connected to
each other as one and all the three secondary windings to each other, forming as one
secondary winding to form a three-phase transformer bank.

Figure 9: The Core Type Construction and exterior view of a tree-phase distribution
transformer

Advantages of using three-phase distribution transformers

 Since it is prewired and ready to install makes it easier to install.
 It provides the same kVA with the core material required being very less compared to
a bank of three single phase transformers.
 It is lighter and smaller and requires less space to install.
 Higher efficiency and low cost compared with three units of single-phase
transformers.

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  Transportation is easy and also transportation cost is less.
 Bus bar structure and switchgear installation for single three phase unit is simpler.
 Only three terminals are required to be brought out in case of a three-phase
transformer compared to six terminals from three single phase transformers [10].

9.2.4. Distribution transformer operating Analysis

These include voltage regulation, losses and efficiency as well as the name plate rating all of
which determine the performance of a given distribution transformer.

2.1.2 Transformer Losses

When input power is supplied to the primary of transformer, some portion of that power is
used to compensate core losses in transformer i.e., Hysteresis loss in transformer and Eddy
current loss in transformer core and some portion of the input power is lost as I 2R loss and
dissipated as heat in the primary and secondary windings, because these windings have some
internal resistance in them.

2.1.3 Efficiency in a distribution transformer

Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output
power divided by the input power.

The most used efficiency used to determine the performance distribution transformers is
compared on the basis of energy consumed in one day and this called the All-day efficiency
given by;

Output (¿ kWh)
All−day efficiency= (for 24 hours)
Input (¿ kWh)

This is considered when secondary of transformer is not supplying any load (or supplying
only little load), then only core losses of transformer are considerable and copper losses are
absent (or very little). Copper losses are considerable only when transformers are loaded.
Thus, for such transformers copper losses are relatively less important [11].

2.1.4 Name plate rating of a distribution transformer

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Figure 10: Name plate rating of a distribution transformer

The name plate rating of a transformer contains the necessary information about the
distribution transformer which is very vital during its installation (that is determining the
maximum number of loads as determined by the current rating), replacement and
maintenance. Other information includes power rating in kVA, vector group, type of cooling
used, operating temperature and frequency [12].

2.1.5 Distribution transformer protection

This part explains various mechanisms put in place to protect the transformer against high
voltages, high currents and excessive heating which greatly affect the lifespan of the
distribution transformer.

As the distribution transformer plays a crucial role in the power distribution network, it has to
be protected against all the above in order to minimize its failure rates which would in turn
result in unreliable power supply to consumers. This disruption affects the economy of nation
in the form of loss of revenue, materials, repairing charges etc.

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2.1.5.1 Surge arrestor protection

This involves the use of a metal oxide varistor (MOV) based devices that are fitted on the
primary side and used to protect the transformer from transient or over voltages. This
achieves protection by diverting the excess voltage to a different path hence maintaining a
required safe voltage across the input primary windings [13].

Figure 11: Basic parts of a surge arrestor

These transient voltages come from lightning which causes a flashover on the phases as well
as the switching impulses which cause a sudden rise in the phases.

Figure 12: A distribution transformer fitted with surge arrestor

2.1.5.2 Fuse protection

Transformer fuses come in many different forms and are designed in the form of a glass or
ceramic tube with a metal wire. The fuse characteristic, or how quickly the fuse blows, is of
great importance when it comes to fuses. Classifications of Utility fuses

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They are broadly can be classified into two broad categories; Current limiting and Expulsion
type of fuses

Current limiting fuses

These are quick-acting fuses on detection of an excess current and have the following
operating advantages; Fast clearing, Reducing burning at the point of fault, Minimal line
damage and Reduction of damage to other equipment in the faulted circuit.

Expulsion fuses

These are slow in that they allow for high surge currents over very short periods. They have
their operation based on two criteria which are; Melting open an element while building up
adequate dielectric strength to clear a fault and Waiting for current to pass through reference
point zero to clear the fault.

Figure 13: Current limiting fuses and Expulsion fuses

Common examples of fuses used on a distribution transformer

a) Glass tube fuses

These are perhaps the most common type of fuses and come in several sizes and are used
widely.

b) Miniature circuit-breakers

These come with both thermal characteristics and current characteristics, or a combination of
the two. They do not have to be replaced when they blow, but are reset manually when an
electric circuit is overloaded. A miniature circuit-breaker, however, is normally slow-acting.

c) Thermal fuses

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These blow at a given temperature. When the ambient temperature exceeds the melting point
of the temperature-sensitive fuse element, it melts and breaks the circuit. This makes it
suitable for circuit breaking at high temperatures in most electronic and electrical equipment.
A thermal fuse can therefore not be reset but has to be replaced if possible [14].

d) Dropout fuses

The dropout (swing out) fuse is an expulsion type and its main function is to protect
distribution transformers on an electrical distribution network. It is also particularly useful for
inaccessible sub-stations where indication of fusing is of advantage. On blowing of fuse
element, the fuse carrier hangs down vertically from the bottom contact which is
advantageous in locating the fault as hanging fuse carrier is noticeable from distance and this
save times which otherwise would be taken in investigation. Replacement is done by lifting
out the fuse carrier by means of the insulated operating rod, rewire the fuse element and
swing it up the carrier to remake the circuit.

2.1.5.3 Protection against temperature rise

During its normal operation, a transformer has no-load losses and load losses which
fundamentally translate into dispersed thermal energy. This energy depends on the
construction of the transformer itself, its power and the installation conditions. As the load
increases consequently the losses and consequently the transformer temperature increase.
The temperature rises in the core, windings, transformer oil and the entire transformer tank.

Temperature is one the most important factor that reduces transformers lifetime. Thus, using
transformers in an optimum and standard temperature will help to keep transformers working
for a longer time.

The environmental temperature is assumed to be 30. But the loading capability for each
degree of temperature rise above 30 will reduce the transformer life time by 1.5 percent.
Also, by decreasing the temperature, it will increase as 1 percent for every one degree.

Transformer oil as a coolant

The transformer oil (which is the type of insulation used in most of the distribution
transformers) is used for both insulating the windings as well as to quench the excess heat
produced within the windings and the core.

Thermally actuated relays

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This is a new innovation that involves the use of relays which work hand-in-hand with the
temperature sensors as described below. Some of the temperature sensors  available for most
transformers include the Pt100 thermo sensor (which supplies a signal proportional to the
temperature monitored) and the PTC thermistors (Which supplies ON/OFF signal
depending on whether the temperature measured is less or more than the sensor’s
threshold).

The sensors are positioned in the hot point of the winding. Both the PT100 and PTC signals
must be processed by the temperature control unit, which does not form part of the standard
equipment [15].

2.1.6 Distribution Transformer failures

Faults occur in different parts and components of the transformer due to mechanical,
electrical or thermal stress caused due to different conditions. Some of the most commonly
occurring failures of the transformer and their causes.

2.1.6.1 Winding failure

These windings withstand dielectric, thermal and mechanical stress during this process. The
faults that occur in the winding are due to these stresses which cause them to break or the
burn-outs

a) Dielectric faults occur in the winding due to turn-to-turn insulation breakdown which
commonly occur due to high current and voltage which are high above the rated values and
this breakdown of the insulation results in the flashover of the winding turns and cause short
circuit.

The two causes of values high than rating are lightning impulse attack with no lightning
arresters and fault voltages.

b) Since the windings are usually of copper; the copper line resistance thermal losses occur.
These thermal losses make hotspots in the winding due to bad or lack of maintenance. This
over time causes wear and tear and the decrease of the physical strength up to the point of
breaking of the winding.

c) Mechanical faults are the distortion, loosening or displacement of the windings. This
results in the decrease of the performance of the transformer and the tearing of the turn-to-
turn ratio. The main reasons that cause this fault are the improper repair, bad maintenance,

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corrosion, manufacturing deficiencies, low oil level, vibration and mechanical movement
within the transformer.

2.7.1.2. The core failure

The cores of the transformers are laminated to reduce eddy-current thus, the lamination of the
core can become defected by poor maintenance, old oil or corrosion. The breakdown of the
smallest part of the lamination results in increase of thermal heat due to eddy-current where
this heat damages windings as well as the oil in the transformers resulting in the release of a
gas from the oil that damages other parts of the transformer.

2.7.1.3. Bushing failure

Some of the main reasons for bushing failure include;

 Loosening of conductors is caused by transformer vibrations which results in

overheating. This heat damage the insulating paper and the oil used.
 Sudden high fault voltages causes’ partial discharge (breakdown of solid/liquid
electrical insulators) which damage the bushes and causes its degeneration and
complete breakdown within hours.
 Seal breaking of bushes happen due to ingress of water, aging or excessive dielectric
losses. Due to this fault core failure of the transformer occurs.
 Not replacing of old oil over long time or its deficiency due to leakage causes internal
over-flashing.

2.7.1.4. Tank Failures

The fault in the tank occurs due to environmental stress, corrosion, high humidity and sun
radiation resulting in a leakage or cracks in the tank walls through which oil spills from the
tank causing the reduction of oil.

Thus, a reduction in oil level results in the reduction of insulation in the transformer and
affecting the windings. More so, there is over-heating which damages different parts of the
transformer since oil is also used for cooling purposes.

2.7.1.5. Protection system Failure

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Protection systems such as Buchholz protection, fuses, temperature relay and surge protection
may fail to detect the fault and act to resolve it as fast as possible or to isolate protecting the
transformer.

For example, failure in surge protection and failure in fuse protection will cause high voltage
and high currents respectively to pass to the windings which become damaged because these
high voltages and currents.

Moisture, heat and corrosion are the main reasons of the failure of surge protection and fuse
protection as it causes overheating and short circuit in the surge arrestors and fuses.

2.1.7.6. Cooling system failure

Cooling system (which contains cooling fans, oil pumps and water-cooled heat exchangers)
reduces the heat produced in transformers due to copper and iron losses.

The failure in the cooling system causes the heat to build up in the transformer which effect
different parts of the transformer and also causes more gas pressure to be built inside which
may cause the transformer to blow.

Some of the main reasons for cooling system failure include;

 Leakage in the oil/water pipes which causes the reduction in the fluids that results in
low heat exchange which is not good for the transformer. Leakage happens because of
environmental stress, corrosion, high humidity and sun radiation.
 Due to a fault in the cooling fans which rush-in cool air into the tanks for cooling
purpose. The fans create faults because of poor maintenance, over use or motor wear-
out.
 Cooling system can perform wrongly due to bad thermostats which measure the heat
in the transformer. Faulty thermostats show wrong temperature causing the cooling
system to operate accordingly and not in the way needed [16].
2.2 Available projects on protection and monitoring of distribution transformers.

Some technologies have been developed in different countries to curb distribution

transformers’ failures.

In 2018, Hassan Jamal and Muhammad Waseem Intisar Ali Sajjad at Department of
Electrical Engineering University of Engineering & Technology Taxila, Pakistan, after
observing that overloading in distribution transformer results in temperature increases of its

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winding and expansion of insulating oil, they designed a protection system of distribution
transformers against high temperatures [17]. This system consists a Temperature sensing unit
(TSU) in DT oil tank which sends a continuous signal to the microcontroller which interprets
this signal to manipulate the function of the cooling system, tripping system and protection
failure backup system (PFBS) for DT under excessive overloading, and output displayed by
use of LCD. However, this system didn’t account for remote monitoring and control, and this
continued to lengthen power outages as it required technicians to occasionally visit the
transformer site to read the temperature values from the LCD.

In 2015, Marek Florkowski, Dariusz Smugala $ Paweł KŁYS designed a distribution

transformers protection system against High Frequency Switching Transients. This system
was proposed after identifying that surge arresters could provide overvoltage protection only
and could not limit high transient over voltages, TOV, since their amplitudes may be lower
than the protection level. The surge arresters do not filter HF oscillations and do not eliminate
wave reflections. With RC-snubber technology, this was characterized by large size and cost
which typically limits its applicability only to the cases, when the equipment reliability is of
primary concern (e.g. industrial applications). This system mitigates generated Transient
over voltages, TOV resulting from the VCB–cable–transformer interaction and inrush
currents that may lead to overstressing the insulation system of transformers which can
negatively affect the equipment lifetime and lead to an internal short-circuit [18].

Figure 14: Idea of R-L choke placed prior to protected device

The R-L choke of appropriately designed frequency characteristic allows one to significantly
reduce the voltage wave front rise time and at the same time, minimize its influence on the
equipment under normal operating conditions. However, this technology has not adequately
protected the distribution transformer due to a need to occasionally monitor the performance
and health of its components like resistor, inductor and sometimes capacitor.

Another technology involves DT monitoring and automatic load sharing, this design was
implemented by Mwangi Charles Nganga and Kimbugwe Simon Peter, students of Makerere

21
University in 2014. This project was based on the fact that overloading is among the causes
distribution transformer failure, in that loading the transformer past its rated current leads to
overheating of the transformer winding, detetoriates its dielectric strength, mechanical and
thermal stress and may cause the transformer to burn. They also designed microcontroller
based system that monitored the voltage, current and ambient temperature of Distribution
transformers using various sensors and by using a standby transformer, to automate load
sharing between the transformers connected in parallel in case one is loaded beyond its rated
value. However, this kind of Load sharing through use of a standby transformer would mean
that two DTs are to be installed in the same locality. This is a redundancy solution which is
costlier than having a single transformer that would cater for the total power demand [4].
The solution to this, would be to periodically record values of load currents from current
sensors, from which technicians can base on in making decision on whether to resize the
existing transformer or not according to power demand in that area. This will replace load
analysis scheme that is used currently by the utility company like UMEME.

Another project was designed by students at KIU, Uganda to remotely switch on the loads
one at a time until an excess load is detected after which it is commanded to go off by itself in
order to protect the distribution transformer from overload. The aim was to automatically
limit the number of loads connected to the transformer depending on the transformer rating
and at the same time avoiding direct contact with any of the substation equipment by using a
remote controller to avoid electric shock [19]. However, this project is not feasible since
power companies aim at having more people connected to the grid. This would be too
discouraging to consumers after being disconnected as a result of overload, and overloading
is not the only abnormality that affect distribution transformers’ performance, others include
high temperatures, over current, voltage surges and low levels of oil in the oil tank.

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