POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Prepared By:
Kenneth Kahuma

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING,
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY KAMPALA, UGANDA

Feb. 2018
 Load Flow Analysis 147

c hapter 1
Load Flow Analysis

1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the steady-state analysis of an interconnected power system during
normal operation. The power system is assumed to be operating under balanced condition and
can be represented by a single line diagram. The power system network contains hundreds of
buses and branches with impedances specified in per-unit on a common MVA base. Power flow
studies, commonly referred to as load flow, are essential of power system analysis and design.
Load flow studies are necessary for planning, economic operation, scheduling and exchange of
power between utilities. Load flow study is also required for many other analysis such as
transient stability, dynamic stability, contingency and state estimation.
Network equations can be formulated in a variety of forms. However, node voltage method
is commonly used for power system analysis. The network equations which are in the nodal
admittance form results in complex linear simultaneous algebraic equations in terms of node
currents. The load flow results give the bus voltage magnitude and phase angles and hence the
power flow through the transmission lines, line losses and power injection at all the buses.

2 BUS CLASSIFICATION
Four quantities are associated with each bus. These are voltage magnitude |V|, phase angle d,
real power P and reactive power Q. In a load flow study, two out of four quantities are specified
and the remaining two quantities are to be obtained through the solutions of equations. The
system buses are generally classified into three categories.
Slack bus: Also known as swing bus and taken as reference where the magnitude and phase
angle of the voltage are specified. This bus provide the additional real and reactive power to
supply the transmission losses, since these are unknown until the final solution is obtained.
Load buses: Also known as PQ bus. At these buses the real and reactive powers are specified.
The magnitude and phase angle of the bus voltage are unknown until the final solution is
obtained.
Voltage controlled buses: Also known as generator buses or regulated buses or P –|V|
buses. At these buses, the real power and voltage magnitude are specified. The phase angles of
the voltages and the reactive power are unknown until the final solution is obtained. The limits
on the value of reactive power are also specified.

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 The following table summarises the above discussion:
Bus type Specified Unknown
quantities quantities
Slack bus |V|, d P, Q
Load bus P, Q |V|, d
Voltage
controlled bus P, |V| Q, d

3 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

In order to obtain the bus-voltage equations, consider the sample 4-bus power system as shown
in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: The impedance diagram of sample 4-bus power system.

For simplicity resistances of the lines are neglected and the impedances shown in Fig. 1
are expressed in per-unit on a common MVA base.
Now impedances are converted to admittance, i.e.,
1 1
yik = = ...(1)
Z ik rik + jx ik
Figure 2 shows the admittance diagram and transformation to current sources and injects
currents I1 and I2 at buses 1 and 2 respectively. Node 0 (which is normally ground) is taken as
reference.

Fig. 2: The admittance diagram of Fig. 1.

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 Applying KCL to the independent nodes 1, 2, 3, 4 we have,
I1 = y10V1 + y12 (V1 – V2) + y13 (V1 – V3)
I2 = y20V2 + y12 (V2 – V1) + y23 (V2 – V3)
O = y23 (V3 – V2) + y13 (V3 – V1) + y34 (V3 – V4)
O = y34 (V4 – V3)
Rearranging the above equations, we get
I1 = (y10 + y12 + y13) V1 – y12V2 – y13V3
I2 = –y12V1 + ( y20 + y12 + y23 ) V2 – y23V3
O = –y13V1 – y23V2 + ( y13 + y23 + y34)V3 – y34V4
O = –y34V3 + y34V4
Let,
Y11 = (y10 + y12 + y13); Y22 = (y20 + y12 + y23);
Y33 = (y13 + y23 + y34); Y44 = y34
Y12 = Y21 = –y12
Y13 = Y31 = –y13
Y23 = Y32 = –y23
Y34 = Y43 = –y34
The node equations reduce to
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 + Y14V4
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 + Y24V4
I3 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 + Y34V4
I4 = Y41V1 + Y42V2 + Y43V3 + Y44V4
Note that, in Fig. 7.2, there is no connection between bus 1 and bus 4,
\ Y14 = Y41 = 0 Similarly Y24 = Y42 = 0. Also note that in this case I3 = 0, I4 = 0.
Above equations can be written in matrix form,

LMII OP LMYY
1 11 Y12 Y13 Y14 OP LMVV OP
1

\ MMI PP = MMY
2 21 Y22 Y23 Y24
PP MMV PP
2
...(2)

NI Q MNY PQ MNV PQ
3 31 Y32 Y33 Y34 3
4 41 Y42 Y43 Y44 4

or in general
Ibus = YbusVbus ...(3)
Where
Vbus = vector of bus voltages
Ibus = vector of the injected currents (the current is positive when
flowing into the bus and negative when flowing out of the bus)
Ybus = admittance matrix.
Diagonal element of Y matrix is known as self-admittance or driving point admittance, i.e.,

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 n

Yii = å yik , j ¹ i ...(4)

k =0
Off-diagonal element of Y matrix is known as transfer admittance or mutual admittance,
i.e.
Yik = Yki = –yik ...(5)
Vbus can be obtained from eqn. (7.3), i.e.,
Vbus = Y –1
bus Ibus ...(6)

From Fig. 7.2, elements of Y matrix can be written as:

Y11 = y10 + y12 + y13 = –j1.25 – j2 – j2.5 = –j5.75
Y22 = y20 + y12 + y23 = –j1 – j2 – j2.5 = –j5.5
Y33 = y34 + y13 + y23 = –j25 – j2.5 – j2.5 = –j30
Y44 = y34 = –j25
Y12 = Y21 = –y12 = j2
Y13 = Y31 = –y13 = j2.5
Y14 = Y41 = 0.0; Y24 = Y42 = 0.0
Y23 = Y32 = –y23 = j2.5
Y34 = Y43 = –y34 = j25

LM- j5.75j2 j2 j2.5 0 OP

\ Ybus =
MM j2.5 - j5.5
j2.5
j2.5
- j30
0
j25 PP
N 0 0 j25 – j25 Q
Example 1: Find out the Y matrix of the sample power
system as shown in Fig. 3. Data for this system are
given in Table 1

Fig. 3: 3 bus sample power system.

Table 1: Per unit impedances and line charging for

sample power system shown in Fig. 3

Bus code Impedance Line charging

i-k Zik y¢ik/2
1-2 0.02 + j0.06 j0.03
1-3 0.08 + j0.24 j0.025
2-3 0.06 + j0.18 j0.020
Solution:
Note that line charging admittance is considered in this example. One should represent
each line as p equivalent. First compute the total charging admittance at each bus, i.e.,

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 y13
¢ y¢
y10 = + 12 = j0.025 + j0.03 = j0.055
2 2

y21
¢ y¢ y¢ y¢
y20 = + 23 = 12 + 23 = j0.03 + j0.020 = j0.05
2 2 2 2

y31
¢ y¢ y¢ y¢
y30 = + 32 = 13 + 23 = j0.025 + j0.020 = j0.045
2 2 2 2

1 1 1
y12 = = = = 15.82 –71.56°
Z 12 0.02 + j0.06 0.0632 7156
. °

1 1 1
y13 = = = = 3955
. –71.56°
Z 13 0.08 + j0.24 4 (0.02 + j0.06)

1 1 1
y23 = = = = 5.273 –71.56°
Z 23 (0.06 + j0.18) 3 (0.02 + j0.06)

\ Y11 = y10 + y12 + y13 = j0.055 + (15.82 + 3.955) –71.56°

\ Y11 = (6.255 – j18.704)

\ Y22 = y20 + y12 + y23 = j0.05 + (15.82 + 5.273) –71.56°

\ Y22 = (6.672 – j19.96)

\ Y33 = y30 + y13 + y23 = j0.045 + (3.955 + 5.273) –71.56°

\ Y33 = (2.918 – j8.709)

Y12 = Y21 = –y12 = –15.82 –71.56° = (–5 + j15)

Y13 = Y31 = –y13 = –3.955 –71.56° = (–1.25 + j3.75)

Y23 = Y32 = –y23 = –5.273 –71.56° = (–1.667 + j5)

LM(6.255 - j18.704) ( -5 + j15) ( -125

. + j375
. ) OP
= M ( -5 + j15) + j5 ) P
\ Ybus
MM (-1.25 + j3.75) (6.672 - j19.960) ( -1667
.
(2.918 - j8.709) PQ
P
N ( -1667
. + j5)

4 BUS LOADING EQUATIONS

Consider i- th bus of a power system as shown in Fig. 4. Transmission lines are represented
by their equivalent p models. yi0 is the total charging admittance at bus i.

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 Fig. 4: i-th bus of a power system.

Net injected current Ii into the bus i can be written as:

Ii = yi0Vi + yi1 (Vi – V1) + yi2 (Vi – V2) + ... + yin (Vi – Vn)
\ Ii = ( yi0 + yi1 + yi2 ... yin ) Vi – yi1V1 – yi2 V2 ... yinVn ...(7)
Let us define
Yii = yi0 + yi1 + yi2 + ... + yin
Yi1 = –yi1
Yi2 = –yi2
M
Yin = –yin
\ Ii = YiiVi + Yi1 V1 + Yi2 V2 + ... + YinVn ...(8)
n
or Ii = YiiVi + å YikVk ...(9)
k =1
k ¹i

The real and reactive power injected at bus i is

Pi – jQi = Vi* Ii

Pi - jQ i
\ Ii = ...(10)
V i*

From eqns (9) and (10) we get

n
Pi - jQ i
V i*
= YiiVi + å YikVk ...(11)
k =1
k ¹i

n
Pi - jQ i
\ YiiVi =
V i*
– å YikVk
k =1
k ¹i

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 \ Vi =
1 MML P - jQ
i i
- å YikVk PP
n O
...(12)
Yii
MN V i
*
k=1
k ¹i PQ
5 GAUSS-SEIDEL ITERATIVE METHOD
For the purpose of explanation consider a 4-bus sample power system as shown in Figure 5.
BUS 1 is considered as slack bus, where voltage magnitude and its angle are known.

Fig. 5: 4-bus power system.

In this case n = 4 and slack bus s = 1. From eqn 12 we can write

Vi =
1 MML P - jQ
i i
-
4
å YikVk
OP
PP
Yii
MN V i
*
k=1
k ¹i
Q
i = 1, 2, 3, 4
i ¹ s, i.e., i ¹ 1

LM P - jQ 4 OP
\ V2 =
1
Y22 MM V
2
*
2
- å Y2kVk PP
N Q
k =1
2 k ¹2

1 LM P - jQ OP
MN V PQ
2 2
\ V2 = *
- Y21V1 - Y23V 3 - Y24V 4
Y22 2

Similarly,

1 LM P - jQ OP
MN V PQ
3 3
V3 = *
- Y31V1 - Y32V2 - Y34V 4
Y33 3

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 1 LM P - jQ OP
MN V PQ
4 4
V4 = *
- Y41V1 - Y42V2 - Y43V 3
Y44 4

In the Gauss-Seidel method, the new calculated voltage at (p + 1) i.e. Vi(p + 1) immediately
replaces Vi(p) and is used in the solution of the subsequent equations. Therefore, above set of
equations can be written in iterative form, i.e.,

LM P - jQ OP
MM eV j PP
1
V2(p + 1) =
2
*
2
- Y21V1 - Y23V3( p) - Y24V4( p)
Y22
N Q
( p)
2

LM P - jQ OP
MM eV j PP
1 3 3
V3(p + 1) = *
- Y31V1 - Y32V2( p +1) - Y34V4( p)
Y33
N Q
( p)
3

LM P - jQ OP
MM eV j PP
1 4 4
V4(p + 1) = *
- Y41V1 - Y42V2( p +1) - Y43V3( p +1)

N Q
Y44 ( p)
4

Note that bus 1 is slack bus. Under normal operating conditions, the voltage magnitude of
buses are in the neighbourhood of 1.0 per unit or close to the voltage magnitude of slack bus.
Therefore, an initial starting voltage of (1.0 + j 0.0) for unknown voltages is satisfactory, and the
converged solution corelates with the actual operating states.

6 CALCULATION OF NET INJECTED POWER

From eqn. (11), we get,
n
Pi - jQ i
= YiiVi + å YikVk
V i* k=1
k¹i

MMLY V + åY V OPP n

MN PQ
\ Pi – jQi = V i* ii i
ik k ...(13)
k =1
k ¹i

Let Yii = |Yii| q ii , Yik = |Yik| q ik , Vi = |V i| d

i

\ Vi* = |Vi| –di , Vk = |Vk| d k

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 n
2
\ Pi – jQi = |V i| |Yii| qii + å|Yik||Vi||Vk| qi k + d k – d i
k=1
k¹i

n
\ Pi – jQi = |Vi|2 |Yii|cos qii + j|Vi|2 |Yii| sin qii + å|Yik||Vi||Vk|cos( q ik + d k - d i )
k=1
k¹i

n
+j å|Yik||Vi||Vk|sin(qik + dk - di ) ...(14)
k=1
k¹i

Separating real and imaginary part of eqn. (7.14)

n
Pi = |Vi|2 |Yii|cos qii + å|Yik||Vi||Vk|cos(q ik + d k - d i )
k=1
k¹i

n
\ Pi = å|V i||V k||Yik|cos(q ik - d i + d k ) ...(15)
k=1

and
n
–Qi = |Vi|2 |Yii|sin qii + å|Yik||Vi||Vk|sin( q ik + d k - d i )
k=1
k¹i

n
\ Qi = - å|Vi||Vk||Yik|sin(q ik - di + dk ) ...(16)
k =1

7 CONSIDERATION OF P-|8| BUSES

For P-Q buses, the real and reactive powers Pischeduled and Qischeduled are known. Starting with
initial values of the voltages, set of voltage equations can be solved iteratively. For the voltage-
controlled buses (P-|V| buses), where Pischeduled and |Vi| are specified, first eqn. (16) is solved
for Q ip+1 i.e.
n
Qip + 1 = - å|V i|p|V k|p|Yik|sin(q ik - d ip + d kp ) ...(7.17)
k=1

Then set of voltage equations are solved. However, at P-|V| buses, since |Vi| is specified,
only the imaginary part of Vi p + 1 is retained and its real part is selected in order to satisfy.

ee j + e f j
p+1
i
2
i
p+1
2
= |Vi|2 ...(18)

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 R
= S|V | -e f j UV 2
1

T W
2 p+1 2
\ eip + 1 i i ...(19)

Where
eip + 1 = real part of Vip+1
fip + 1 = imagining part of Vip+1

8 CONVERGENCE PROCEDURE
The updated voltages immediately replace the previous values in the solution of the subsequent
equations. This process is continued until changes of bus voltages between successive iterations
are unithin a specified accuracy, Define

DV = max Vi( p + 1) - V i( p) , i = 1, 2, ..., n ...(20)

if DV £ Î, then the solution has converged. Î is prespecified. Usually Î = 0.0001 or 0.00001

may be considered.
Another convergence criteria is the maximum difference of mismatch of real and reactive
power between successive iterations. Define

D P = max Picalculated - Pischeduled ...(21)

calculated
D Q = max Qi - Qischeduled ...(22)

if DP £ Î and DQ £ Î, the solution has converged. In this case Î may be taken as 0.0001 or
0.00001.

Acceleration Factor
In practice, the process of convergence of GS method is slow and it requires a large number of
iterations before a solution is obtained. The process of convergence can be speeded up if the
voltage correction during iterative process is modified to

Vi(p+1)
(acceleration)
= Vi + a V i e
(p+1)
- V i(p) j
where a is known as acceleration factor and is a real number. 1.4 < a < 1.6, recommended range
of a for most of the power system problem.

9 COMPUTATION OF LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES

Consider the line connecting busses i and k. The line and transformer at each end can be
represented by a circuit with series admittance yik and two shunt admittances y oik and y oki as
shown in Fig. 6.

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 Fig. 6: P-representation of a line and transformers connected between two buses.

From Fig. 6, we can write,

Iik = I ¢ik + I oik ...(23)
I ¢ik = (Vi – Vk )yik ...(24)
I oik = Vi yoik ...(25)
From eqns. (23), (24) and (25), we get,
Iik = (Vi – Vk )yik + Vi yoik ...(26)
The power fed into the line from bus ‘i ’ is:
Sik = Pik + jQik ...(27)
\ Pik + jQik = Vi I ik* ...(28)
Using eqns. (28) and (26), we get
Pik + jQik = Vi [(Vi – Vk )yik + Vi y oik ]*
\ Pik + jQik = Vi (Vi* – Vk*)yik* + V i Vi *( y oik )*
\ Pik – jQik = Vi*(Vi – Vk )yik + Vi*Vi y oik
\ Pik – jQik = |Vi|2yik – Vi*Vk yik + |Vi|2y oik ...(29)
Similarly, power fed into the line from bus ‘k ’ is
Pki – jQki = |Vk|2yik – Vk*Vi yik + |Vk|2y ok i ...(30)
Now Yik = –yik
\ yik = –Yik (31)
From eqns. (29) and (31), we get
Pik – jQik = –|Vi|2Yik + V i*Vk yik + |Vi|2y oik ...(32)

Yik = |Yik| q ik , V i =|Vi| d i , V i* =|Vi| - d i

yoik = j|yoik|
\ Pik – jQik = [–|Vi|2|Yik |cos qik + |Vi||Vk||Yik|cos (qik – di + dk )
–j [|Vi|2|Yik|sin qik – |Vi||Vk ||Yik |sin (qik – di + dk )
–|Vi|2|yoik|] ...(33)
2
\ Pik = –|Vi| |Yik |cos qik + |Vi||Vk ||Yik|cos (qik – di + dk ) ...(34)

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 Qik = |Vi|2|Yik |sin qik – |Vi||Vk ||Yik|sin (qik – di + dk )
–|Vi|2|yoik| ...(35)
Similarly power flows from bus k to i can be written as:
Pki = –|Vk|2|Yik |cos qik + |Vi||Vk||Yik|cos (qik – dk + di) ...(36)
Qki = |Vk|2|Yik |sin qik – |Vi||Vk ||Yik|sin (qik – dk + di)
–|Vk|2|yoki| ...(37)
Now real power loss in the line (i ® k) is the sum of the real power flows determined from
eqn. (34) and (36)
\ PLossik = Pik + Pki
\ PLossik = –|Vi|2|Yik|cos qik +|Vi||Vk||Yik|cos (qik – di + dk )
–|Vk|2|Yik|cos qik +|Vi||Vk||Yik|cos (qik – dk + di )
= – (|Vi|2 +|Vk|2 )|Yik|cos qik
+ |Vi||Vk||Yik|[ cos { qik – (d i – d k )} + cos { qik + (d i – d k )}]
= – (|Vi|2 +|Vk|2 )|Yik|cos qik + 2|Vi||Vk||Yik|cos qik cos (d i – d k )
\ PLossik = [2|Vi||Vk|cos (d i – d k ) –|Vi|2 – |Vk|2 ]|Yik|cos qik ...(38)
Let
Yik = Gik + jBik
Gik =|Yik| cos qik
Bik =|Yik| sin qik
\ PLossik = Gik [ 2|Vi||Vk|cos (d i – d k ) –|Vi|2 – |Vk|2 ] ...(39)
Reactive power loss in the line (i ® k) is the sum of the reactive power flows determined
from eqns. (35) and (37), i.e.
QLossik = Qik + Qki
\ QLossik = |Vi|2|Yik|sin qik –|Vi||Vk||Yik|sin(qik – di + dk )
–|Vi|2|yoik| +|Vk|2|Yik|sinqik
– |Vi||Vk||Yik|sin( qik – d k + d i ) – |Vk|2|yoki|
\ QLossik = (|Vi|2 +|Vk|2 ) Bik – |Vi||Vk||Yik|[ sin(qik – di + dk ) + sin(qik – dk + di )]
– (|Vi|2|yoik| +|Vk|2|yoki|)
\ QLossik = (|Vi|2 +|Vk|2 ) Bik – 2|Vi||Vk| Bik cos (di – dk ) – (|Vi|2|yoik| +|Vk|2|yoki|)
\ QLossik = Bik [|Vi|2 + |Vk|2 – 2|Vi||Vk|cos ( di – dk)] – [|Vi|2|yoik| +|Vk|2 |yoki|]
...(40)

10 ALGORITHM FOR GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD

Step-1: Initial Computation
With the load profile known at each bus (i.e. PLi and QLi are known), allocate Pgi and Qgi to all
generating units. While active and reactive generations are not allocated to the slack bus, these

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are permitted to vary during iterative process. This is must as voltage magnitude and phase
angle are specified at slack bus. With this data, net bus injected power (Pi + jQi) at all buses are
known other than slack bus.
Step-2: Formation of YBus Matrix
With the line and shunt admittance data, form YBus matrix.
Step-3: Iterative Computation of Bus Voltage
To start the iterative computation, a set of initial voltage values is assumed. Since in a power
system, the voltage variation is not too wide, it is usual practice to use a flat voltage start, i.e.
initially all voltages are set equal to (1 + j0) except the voltage of the slack bus which is specified
and fixed. It should be noted that (n – 1) voltage equations are to be solved iteratively for finding
(n – 1) complex voltages V2, V3, ..... Vn.
The iterative computation is continued till the change in maximum magnitude of bus
voltage, (DV) is less than a certain tolerance for all bus voltages, i.e.

DV = max|Vi(p+1) - Vi(p)| < Î, i = 2, 3,... n

Step-4: Computation of Slack Bus Power

Slack bus power can be computed using eqns. (7.15) and (7.16), i.e.
n
P1 = å|V1||Vk||Yik|cos(q1k - d i + d k ) ...(41)
k =1

n
Q1 = - å|V1||V k||Y1k|sin (q1k - d1 + d k ) ...(42)
k =1

Step-5: Computation of Line Flows

This is the last step in the load flow analysis. The power flows on the various lines are computed
using eqns. (34) and (35). Real and reactive power loss can be computed using eqns. (39)
and (40) respectively.
Example 2: Fig. 7 shows the single line diagram of a sample 3- bus power system. Data for
this system are given in Table 2 and 3.
(a) Using the Gauss- Seidel method, determine the
phasor values of the voltage at buses 2 and 3.
(Perform only two iterations).
(b) Find the slack bus real and reactive power after
second iteration.
(c) Determine the line flows and line losses after second
iteration. Neglect line charging admittance.

Fig. 7: 3-bus sample

power system.

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 Table 2: Scheduled generation and loads and assumed
bus voltage for sample power system

Generation Load
Bus code Assumed MW MVAr MW MVAr
i bus voltage
1 1.05 + j 0.0 – – 0 0
(slack bus)
2 1 + j 0.0 50 30 305.6 140.2
3 1 + j 0.0 0.0 0.0 138.6 45.2

Base MVA = 100

Table 3: Line impedances

Bus code Impedance

i –k Zik

1-2 0.02 + j0.04

1-3 0.01 + j0.03
2-3 0.0125 + j0.025

Solution:
Step-1: Initial computations
Convert all the loads in per-unit values

305.6 140.2
PL2 = = 3.056 pu; QL2 = = 1402
. pu
100 100

138.6 45.2
PL3 = = 1386
. pu; QL3 = = 0.452 pu
100 100
Convert all the generation in per-unit values.

50 30
Pg2 = = 0.50 pu; Qg2 = = 0.30 pu
100 100
Compute net-injected power at bus 2 and 3.
P2 = Pg2 – PL2 = (0.5 – 3.056) = –2.556 pu
Q2 = Qg2 – QL2 = (0.3 – 1.402) = –1.102 pu
P3 = Pg3 – PL3 = 0 – 1.386 = –1.386 pu

Q3 = Qg3 – QL3 = 0 – 0.452 = –0.452 pu

Step-2: Formation of YBUS matrix
1 1
y12 = y21 = = = (10 - j20)
Z 12 0.02 + j0.04

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 1 1
y13 = y31 = = = (10 - j30)
Z 13 (0.01 + j0.03)

1 1
y23 = y32 = = = (16 - j32)
Z 23 (0.0125 + j0.025)
Now
Y11 = y12 + y13 + y10
Charging admittance is neglected, i.e. y10 = 0.0
\ Y11 = y12 + y13 = (10 – j20) + (10 – j30) = (20 – j50)
Y22 = y21 + y23 = y12 + y23 = (26 – j52)
Y33 = y13 + y23 = (26 – j62)

\ Y11 = 53.85 -68.2° ; Y22 = 58.13 -634

. °

Y33 = 67.23 -67.2°

Y12 = –y12 = – (10 – j20) = –10 + j20 = 22.36 116.6°

\ Y12 = Y21

. 108.4°
Y13 = Y31 = –y13 = – (10 – j30) = 3162

Y23 = Y32 = –y23 = – (16 – j32) = 35.77 116.6°

LM 53.85 -68.2° OP
M 22.36 116.6° . 108.4°
3162
PP
= M 22.36 116.6° 35.77 116.6° P
\ YBUS
MM 58.13 -63.4°
P
MN 31.62 108.4° 67.23 -67.2° P
35.77 116.6°
Q
Step-3: Iterative Computation

LM P - jQ OP
MM eV j PP
1
V2(p + 1) =
2
*
2
- Y21V1 - Y23V3( p) ...(i)
Y22
N Q
( p)
2

LM P - jQ OP
MM eV j PP
1 3 3
V3(p + 1) = *
- Y31V1 - Y32V2( p +1) ...(ii)
Y33
N Q
( p)
3

Slacks bus voltage V1 = (1.05 + j0.0)

Starting voltage V2(o) = (1 + j0); V3(o) = (1 + j0)

15/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 Now

P2 - jQ2 -2.556 + j1102

.
= = 0.0478 220.1°
Y22 5813
. -63.4°

Y21 22.36 116.6°

= = 0.3846 180° = -0.3846
Y22 58.13 -63.4°

Y23 35.77 116.6°

= = 0.6153 180° = -0.6153
Y22 58.13 -63.4°

Therefore eqn.(i) can be written as:

LM0.0478 220.1° OP
V2(p + 1) = M V3( p) PP
MN eV j
+ 0.3846 V + 0.6153 ...(iii)
Q
* 1
( p)
2

Now
P3 - jQ3 -1386
. + j0.452
= = 0.0217 229.2°
Y33 67.23 -67.2°

Y31 31.62 108.4°

= = 0.47 175.6°
Y33 67.23 -67.2°

Y32 35.77 116.6°

= = 0.532 183.8°
Y33 67.23 -67.2°

Therefore eqn. (ii) can be written as:

LM0.0217 229.2° OP
V3(p + 1) = M
MN eV j
- 0.47 175.6° V - 0.532 183.8° V ( p +1 )
PP ...(iv)
Q
* 1 2
( p)
2

Now solve eqns (iii) and (iv) iteratively,

p=0

0.0478 220.1°
V2(1) = + 0.3846 ´ 1.05 + 0.6153 (1 + j 0)
(1 + j 0)*

\ V2(1) = 0.98305 -1.8°

0.0217 229.2°
V3(1) = - 0.47 175.6° ´ 1.05 - 0.532 183.8° ´ 0.98305 -1.8°
(1 + j 0) *

16/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 \ V3(1) = 1.0011 -2.06°
After first iteration

V2(1) = 0.98305 -1.8°

V3(1) = 1.0011 -2.06°

p=2

0.0478 220.1°
V2(2) = + 0.3846 ´ 1.05 + 0.6153 ´ 10011
. -2.06 °
. °) *
(0.98305 -18

\ V2(2) = 0.0486 218.3° + 0.40383 + 0.615578 - j 0.02214

\ V2(2) = 0.98126 - j 0.05226 = 0.98265 -3.048°

\ V2(2) = 0.98265 -3.048°

0.0217 229.2°
V3(2) = - 0.47 175.6° ´ 105
. - 0.532 183.8° ´ 0.98265 -3.048°
(1.0011 -2.06°)*

\ V3(2) = 0.02167 227.14° - 0.4935 175.6° - 0.5227 180.75°

\ V3(2) = -0.01474 - j0.01588 + 0.49204 - j0.03786 + 0.5226 + j0.00684

\ V3(2) = 0.9999 – j0.0469
\ V3(2) = 1.00099 -2.68°
After 2nd iteration

V2(2) = 0.98265 -3.048°

V3(2) = 1.00099 -2.68°

Step-4: Computation of slack bus power. After 2nd iteration slack bus power is computed.
From eqn. (41)
3
P1 = å|V1||Vk||Y1k|cos(q1k - d1 + d k )
k =1

\ P1 = |V1|2 |Y11|cos q11 +|V1||V2||Y12|cos (q 12 - d 1 + d 2 )

+|V1||V3||Y13|cos (q13 - d 1 + d 3 )
\ |V1| = 1.05, d1 = 0°, |V2| = 0.98265, d2 = –3.048° |V3| = 1.00099, d3 = –2.68°
|Y11| = 53.85, q11 = –68.2°

17/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 |Y12| = 22.36, q12 = 116.56°
|Y13| = 31.62, q13 = 108.4°
\ P1 = (1.05)2 × 53.85 × cos (–68.2°) + 1.05 × 0.98265 × 22.36 cos (116.56° – 0 – 3.048° )
+ 1.05 × 1.00099 × 31.62 cos (108.4° – 0 – 2.68°)
\ P1 = 22.048 – 9.2038 – 9.004

\ P1 = 3.84 pu MW. = 3.84 × 100 = 384 MW

From eqn. (42)

3
Q1 = – å|V1||V k||Y1k|sin( q1k - d 1 + d k )
k =1

\ Q1 = –|V1|2 |Y11|sin q11 - |V1||V 2||Y12|sin (q 12 - d 1 + d 2 )

-|V1||V 3||Y13|sin ( q13 - d 1 + d 3 )

2
\ Q1 = –|1.05| × 53.85 × sin (–68.2°) – 1.05 × 0.98265 × 22.36 sin (116.56° – 3.048° )
– 1.05 × 1.00099 × 31.62 sin (108.4° – 2.68°)
\ Q1 = 55.1238 – 21.1552 – 31.99

\ Q1 = 1.9786 pu MW. = 197.86 MW

Step-5: Calculation of line flows and line losses.

From eqn. (7.34)
Pik = –|Vi|2|Yik| cos qik +|Vi||Vk||Yik| cos (qik – di + dk)
\ P12 = –|V1|2|Y12| cos q12 +|V1||V2||Y12| cos (q12 – d1 + d2 )
\ P12 = –(1.05)2 × 22.36 cos (116.56°) + 1.05 × 0.98265 × 22.36 cos (116.56° – 0 – 3.048° )

\ P12 = +11.0227 – 9.2038 = 1.8189 pu MW

\ P13 = –|V1|2|Y13| cos (q13 ) +|V1||V3||Y13| cos (q13 – d1 + d3 )

\ P13 = –(1.05)2 × 31.62 cos (108.4°) + 1.05 × 1.00099 × 31.62 cos (108.4° – 0 – 2.68° )

\ P13 = +11.0038 – 9.0042 = 2.0 pu MW

\ P23 = –|V2|2|Y23| cos q23 +|V2||V3||Y23| cos (q23 – d2 + d3 )

\ P23 = –(0.98265)2 × 35.77 × cos (116.6°) + 0.98265 × 1.00099
× 35.77 cos (116.6° + 3.048° – 2.68°)
\ P23 = 15.4654 – 15.9557

\ P23 = –0.4903 pu MW

18/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 Using eqn. (36)
\ P21 = –|V2|2|Y12| cos q12 +|V1||V2||Y12| cos (q12 – d2 + d1 )
\ P21 = –(0.98265) 2 × 22.36 cos (116.56°) + 1.05 × 0.98265 × 22.36 cos (116.56° + 3.048° + 0°)

\ P21 = 9.654 – 11.398 = –1.744 pu MW

\ P31 = –|V3|2|Y13| cos q13 +|V1||V3||Y13| cos (q13 – d3 + d1 )

\ P31 = – (1.00099)2 × 31.62 cos (108.4°) + 1.05 × 1.00099 × 31.62 cos (108.4° + 2.68° + 0°)

\ P31 = 10 – 11.953 = –1.95 pu MW

P32 = –|V3|2|Y23| cos q23 +|V3||V2||Y23| cos (q23 – d3 + d2)

\ P32 = – (1.00099)2 × 35.77 cos (116.6°) + 1.00099 × 0.98265
× 35.77 cos (116.6° + 2.68° – 3.048°)

\ P32 = 16.048 – 15.551 = 0.496 pu MW

Real power losses in line 1-2, 1-3 and 2-3,

PLoss12 = P12 + P21 = 1.8189 – 1.744 = 0.0749 = 7.49 MW.
PLoss13 = P13 + P31 = 2 – 1.95 = 0.05 pu MW = 5 MW.
PLoss23 = P23 + P32 = – 0.4903 + 0.496 = 0.0057 pu MW = 0.57 MW.
Reactive line flows can be calculated from eqns. (7.35) and (7.37). From eqn (7.35), we get,
Q12 = |V1|2 |Y12|sinq12 – |V1||V2||Y12| sin (q12 – d1 + d2 )
\ Q12 = (1.05)2 × 22.36 sin (116.56°) – 1.05 × 0.98265 × 22.36
sin (116.56° – 3.048°)

\ Q12 = 22.05 – 21.1552 = 0.8948 pu MVAr.

\ Q13 = (1.05)2 × 31.62 sin (108.4°) – 1.05 × 1.00099 × 31.62
sin (108.4° – 2.68°)
\ Q13 = 33.0788 – 31.9908 = 1.088 pu MVAr.

\ Q23 = (0.98265)2 × 35.77 × sin (116.6° ) – 0.98265 × 1.00099 × 35.77

sin (116.6° + 3.048° – 2.68° )
\ Q23 = 30.8836 – 31.3582
\ Q23 = – 0.4746

\ Q21 = (0.98265)2 × 22.36 sin (116.56° ) – 1.05 × 0.98265 × 22.36

sin (116.56° + 3.048° )
\ Q21 = 19.3122 – 20.0582 = –0.746 pu MVAr.

\ Q31 = (1.00099)2 × 31.62 sin (108.4° ) – 1.05 × 1.00099 × 31.62

sin (108.4° + 2.68° )

19/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 \ Q31 = 30.0629 – 31.0098 = –0.9469

\ Q23 = (1.00099)2 × 35.77 sin (116.6° ) – 1.00099 × 0.98265 × 35.77

sin (116.6° + 2.68° – 3.048°)
\ Q23 = 32.0472 – 31.5606 = 0.4866 pu MVAr.

Reactive power loss in line 1-2, 1-3 and 2-3.

\ QLoss12 = Q12 + Q21 = 0.8948 – 0.746 = 0.1488 = 14.88 MVAr

\ QLoss13 = Q13 + Q31 = 1.088 – 0.9469 = 0.1411 = 14.11 MVAr

\ QLoss23 = Q23 + Q32 = –0.4746 + 0.4866 = 0.012 = 1.2 MVAr

Note that all the results are computed after 2nd iteration and details calculation are given
for the purpose of understanding.

Example 3: Solve problem Ex-2 considering bus 2 is P-|V| bus. Details are given in
Fig. 8. Use same line and load data as given in Table 3 and 2.

Fig. 8: Sample power system.

Solution
P2 = –2.556, P3 = –1.386, Q3 = –0.452
V1 = (1.05 + j0), V2(0) = 1.0 + j0.0 Þ P-|V| bus.

V3(0) = 1.0 + j0.0 Þ P- Q bus.

Bus-2 is a regulated bus where voltage magnitude and real power are specified. For the
voltage controlled bus, first the reactive power is computed.
Using eqn. (7.16),
3
Q2 = - å|V2||V k|Y2k|sin(q 2k - d 2 + d k )
k =1

20/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 \ Q2 = –|V2||V1||Y21|sin (q21 – d2 + d1 ) – |V2|2|Y22|sin (q22)
–|V2||V3||Y23|sin (q23 – d2 + d3)
Q2(p+1) = –|V2|(p).|V1||Y21|sin (q21 – d2(p) + d1 ) – (|V2|(p))2|Y22|
sin q22 –|V2|(p)|V3|(p)|Y23|sin (q23 – d2(p) + d3(p))
|Y21| = 22.36, q21 = 116.56°,
|Y22| = 58.13, q22 = –63.4°
|Y23| = 35.77, q23 = 116.6°
\ p=0

Q2(1) = –|V2|(o)|V1||Y21|sin (q21 – d2(o) + d1 ) – (|V2|(o))2|Y22|

sin q22 –|V2|(o)|V3|(o)|Y23|sin (q23 – d2(o) + d3(o))
|V1| = 1.05, d1 = 0.0°,
|V2|(o) = 1.0, d2(o) = 0.0°,
|V3|(o) = 1.0, d3(o) = 0.0°
Q2(1) = –1 × 1.05 × 22.36 sin (116.56°) – (1.0) 2 × 58.13 sin (–63.4°)
–1 × 1 × 35.77 sin (116.6° )
\ Q2(1) = –21 + 51.97718 – 31.98389

\ Q2(1) = –1.0067 pu MVAr.

The value of Q2(1) is taken as net reactive power injected at bus 2, i.e. Q2 = Q2(1) = –1.0067
pu MVAr.
Now, compute

1 LM P - jQ ( p + 1) OP
MM eV j PP
2 2
VC(p+1)
2
= *
- Y21V1 - Y23V3( p)
Y22
N Q
( p)
2
p=0

1 LM P - jQ (1) OP
MM eV j PP
2
VC(1)
2 =
2
*
- Y21V1 - Y23V3( o )
Y22
N Q
(o)
2

P2 - jQ2(1) -2.556 + j10067

.
= = 0.04725 2219
. °
Y22 5813
. -63 .4°
Y21 Y
= -0.3846; 23 = -0.6153
Y22 Y22

LM0.04725 221.9° OP
\ VC(1) = M
MN eV j
+ 0.3846 V + 0.6153 V3( o ) PP
Q
2 * 1
( o)
2

21/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 0.04725 221.9°
\ VC(1)
2
= + 0.3846 ´ 1.05 + 0.6153 ´ 1.0
1.0
\ VC(1)
2 = –0.035168 – j0.03155 + 0.40383 + 0.6153

\ VC(1)
2
= 0.98396 – j0.03155
Since |V2| is held constant at 1.0 pu, only the imaginary part of VC2(1) is retained, i.e. f2(1)
= –0.03155 and it is real part is obtained from,

e2(1) = b10. g - b0.03155g

2 2
= 0.9995
Thus
V2(1) = (0.9995 – j0.03155)

\ V2(1) = 1.0 -1.807°

LM P - jQ OP
MM eV j PP
1 3 3
Now, V3(p+1) = *
- Y31V1 - Y32V2( p+1)
Y33
N Q
( p)
3

p=0

LM0.0217 229.2° OP
\ V3(1) = M
MN eV j
- 0.47 175.6° V - 0.532 183.8° V 2(1) PP
Q
* 1
( o)
3

0.0217 229.2°
\ V3(1) = - 0.47 175.6° ´ 1.05 - 0.532 183.8° ´ 1 ´ -1.808°
1.0

\ V3(1) = –0.014179 –j0.016426 + 0.4920 – j0.03786 + 0.53167 + j0.01849

\ V3(1) = 1.00949 –j0.035796

\ V3(1) = 1.0101 -2.03°

After 1st iteration

V2(1) = 1.0 -1.808°

V3(1) = 1.0101 -2.03°

p=1
Q2(2) = –|V2||V1||Y21|sin (q21 – d2(1) + d1) – (|V2|*)2|Y22|sin q22
–|V2||V3|(1)|Y23|sin (q23 – d2(1) + d3(1))
d1 = 0.0°, d2(1) = –1.808°, d3(1) = –2.03°

22/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 |V1| = 1.05, |V2| = 1.0, |V3|(1) = 1.0101
\ Q2(2) = –1 × 1.05 × 22.36 sin (116.56° + 1.808°)
–(1.0)2 × 58.13 sin (–63.4°)
–1.0 × 1.0101 × 35.77 sin (116.6° + 1.808° – 2.03°)
\ Q2(2) = –20.6586 + 51.9772 – 32.3693

\ Q2(2) = –1.0507

LM0.04725 221.9° OP
\ VC(2) = M
MN eV j
+ 0.3846 V + 0.6153 V 3(1) PP
Q
2 * 1
(1)
2

0.04725 221.9°
\ VC(2)
2 =
+ 0.3846 ´ 1.05 + 0.6153 ´ 1.0101 -2.03°
1 1.808°
\ VC(2)
2
= –0.036146 – j0.03043 + 0.40383 + 0.62112 – j0.02201

\ VC(2)
2 = 0.9888 – j0.05244

Now f2(2) = –0.05244

\ e2(2) = b
1 - 0.05244 g 2
=0.9986
\ V2(2) = 0.9986 - j 0.05244 = 1 -3°

0.0217 229.2°
\ V3(2) = - 0.47 175.6° V1 - 0.532 183.8° V2( 2 )
e j
V3(1)
*

0.0217 229.2°
\ V3(2) = - 0.47 175.6° ´ 1.05 - 0.532 183.8° ´ 1 -3°
1.0101 2.03°

\ V3(2) = –0.01460 – j0.01575 + 0.4920 – j0.03786 + 0.5319 + j0.00742

\ V3(2) = 1.0093 – j0.04619 = 1.0103 -2.62°
After 2nd iteration

V2(2) = 1 -3°
V3(2) = 1.0103 -2.62°

11 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
Newton-Raphson method is an iterative method which approximates the set of non-linear
simultaneous equations to a set of linear equations using Taylor’s series expansion and the
terms are restricted to first order approximation.

23/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 Given a set of non linear equations,
y1 = f1(x1, x2, ...xn)
y2 = f2(x1, x2, ...xn) ...(7.43)
... ........................
yn = fn(x1, x2, ...xn)
and the initial estimate for the solution vector

x1(0), x2(0), ................. x n(0)

Assuming Dx1, Dx2, .........., Dxn are the corrections required for x1(0 ), x2(0), ... x n(0 ) respectively,
so that the equations (7.43) are solved i.e.,

e
y1 = f1 x1(0 ) + Dx1 , x 2(0 ) + Dx 2 ,......... , x n(0 ) + Dx n j
y = f ex
2 2
(0 )
1 + Dx1 , x 2( 0 ) + Dx 2 ,......... , x n(0 ) + Dx j n

..... ............................................................................ ...(44)

e
yn = fn x1( 0) + Dx1 , x 2(0 ) + Dx 2 ,........., x n( 0 ) + Dx n j
Each equation of the set (44) can be expanded by Taylor’s series for a function of two or
more variables. For example, the following is obtained for the first equation.

e
y1 = f1 x1(0 ) + Dx1 , x 2(0 ) + Dx 2 ,........., x n(0 ) + Dx n j
e
(0 ) (0 ) (0 )
= f1 x1 , x2 ,........., x n + Dx1 j ¶f1
¶x1 0
+ Dx 2
¶f1
¶x 2 0
+... Dx n
¶f1
¶x n 0
+ y1

Where y1 is a function of higher powers of Dx1, Dx2, .... , Dxn and second, third ..., derivatives
of the function f1. Neglecting y1, the linear set of equations resulting is as follows:

e
y1 = f1 x1(0 ) , x 2( 0) ,........., x n(0 ) + Dx1j ¶f1
¶x 1 0
+ Dx2
¶f1
¶x 2 0
+... Dx n
¶f1
¶x n 0

e
(0) ( 0) ( 0)
y2 = f2 x1 , x 2 ,......... , x n + Dx1 j ¶f2
¶x 1 0
+ Dx2
¶f2
¶x 2 0
¶f
+... Dx n 2
¶x n 0

..........................................................................................................

e j
yn = fn x1( 0) , x 2(0 ) ,........., x n( 0 ) + Dx1
¶f n
¶x1
¶f ¶f
+ Dx 2 n + ... Dx n 2
¶x 2 ¶x n 0
...(45)

24/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 LM y - f ex , x ,. .. x j OP LM ¶¶xf ¶¶xf ... ¶¶xf OP L Dx O
PP MM PP MM PP
(0 ) (0 ) (0 ) 1 1 1

MM
1 1 1 2 n 1
1 0 2 0 n 0

\ M y - f e x , x ,. . . , x j P = M
M ¶f ¶f ... ¶f PP MMDx PP
MM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PP M ¶.........................
(0 ) (0 ) ( 0) 2 2
¶x P M
2
P
..... P
...(46)
M P M
2 2 1 2 n 2
x ¶x
MM PP M
1 0 2 0 n 0

M PP MM PP
MM y - f ex , x , . . . x j PP M ¶f ¶f ... ¶f P MNDx PQ
N n n
(0 )
1
(0 )
2
( 0)
n
n
Q MN ¶x ¶x ¶x PQ
1 0
n

2 0
n

n 0
n

or D = JR ...(47)
Where J is the Jacobain for the functions fi and R is the change vector Dxi. Eqn. (47) may
be written in iterative form i.e.
D(p) = J(P)R(P)
\ R(p) = [J(P)]–(1) D(P) ...(48)
The new values for xi¢s are calculated from
\ xi(p+1) = xi(p) + Dxi(p) ...(49)
The process is repeated until two successive values for each xi differ only by a specified
tolerance. In this process J can be evaluated in each iteration may be evaluated only once
provided Dxi are changing slowly. Because of quadratic convergence Newton’s method is
mathematically superior to the Gauss-Seidel method and is less prone to divergence with ill-
conditioned problems.

12 LOAD FLOW USING NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

Newton-Raphson (NR) method is more efficient and practical for large power systems. Main
advantage of this method is that the number of iterations required to obtain a solution is
independent of the size of the problem and computationally it is very fast. Here load flow
problem is formulated in polar form.
Rewriting eqn. (15) and (16)
n
Pi = å|Vi||Vk||Yik|cos(q ik - di + dk ) ...(50)
k =1

n
Qi = - å|Vi||Vk||Yik|sin(q ik - di + dk ) ...(51)
k =1

Equations (50) and (51) constitute a set of nonlinear algebraic equations in terms of the
independent variables, voltage magnitude in per unit and phase angles in radians, we can
easily observe that two equations for each load bus given by eqn. (50) and (51) and one
equation for each voltage controlled bus, given by eqn. (50). Expanding eqns. (50) and (51)
in Taylor-series and neglecting higher-order terms. We obtain,

25/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 OP LMM FG ¶¶dP IJ FG ¶P IJ FG ¶P IJ FG ¶P IJ OP L Dd
MML DP OP
(p) (p) (p) (p)

PP MM H M K H ¶d K H ¶|V |K H ¶|V |K PP MM
(p) 2 2 2 2 (p)
L L
PP
2 2

MM M PP MM M
2 n 2 n

MM PP MM FG ¶P IJ (p) O

K G
M
F ¶P IJ (p) FG ¶PM IJ (p) O

K G
M
F ¶P IJ (p)
PP MM PP
PP MM H ¶d K H ¶|V |K PP
n n

H ¶d K H ¶|V |K
n n

\M
M DP (p)
n
PP = MM
2
n
2
n
PP MM D|DdV |
(p)
n
PP
MM DQ 2
(p)

PP MMFG ¶Q IJ F ¶Q IJ FG ¶Q IJ F ¶Q IJ PP MM 2
( p)

PP
...(52)

L G L G
(p) (p) (p) (p)

MM M PP MMH ¶dM K
2
H ¶d K
2
H ¶|V |K
2
H ¶|V |K
2
PP MM M PP
MM 2

PPQ MMF ¶Q I F
n 2 n

PP MM PPQ
¶Q I FG ¶QM IJ F ¶Q I
O M O M
MN DQ NGH ¶d JK L G
H ¶d JK L G
H ¶|V |JK PQ MN D|V |
(p) (p) (p) (p)

H ¶|V |K
(p) n n n n ( p)
n n
2 n 2 n

In the above equation, bus-1 is assumed to be the slack bus.

Eqn. (52) can be written is short form i.e.,

LMDDQP OP = LMJJ JJ OPLMDDd|V|OP

N Q N QN Q 1
3
2
4
...(53)

13 DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW SOLUTION

Transmission lines of power systems have a very low R/X ratio. For such system, real power
mismatch DP are less sensitive to changes in the voltage magnitude and are very sensitive to
changes in phase angle Dd. Similarly, reactive power mismatch DQ is less sensitive to changes
in angle and are very much sensitive on changes in voltage magnitude. Therefore, it is reasonable
to set elements J2 and J3 of the Jacobain matrix to zero. Therefore, eqn. (7.53) reduces to
LMDDQP OP = LMJ0 J0 OPLMDDd|V|OP
N Q N QN Q 1
4
...(54)

or DP = J1.Dd ...(55)
DQ = J4.D|V| ...(56)
For voltage controlled buses, the voltage magnitudes are known. Therefore, if m buses of
the system are voltage controlled, J1 is of the order (n – 1) × (n – 1) and J4 is of the order
(n – 1 – m) × (n – 1 – m).
Now the diagonal elements of J1 are
n
¶Pi
¶d i
= å|Vi||Vk||Yik|sin(q ik - d i + d k ) ...(57)
k =1
k ¹i

off-diagonal elements of J1 are

¶Pi
= –|Vi||Vk||Yik|sin(q ik - d i + d k ) ...(58)
¶d k k¹i

The diagonal elements of J4 are

26/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 n
¶Qi
= – 2|V i||Yii|sin q ii - å|Vk||Yik|sin(q ik - d i + d k ) ...(7.59)
¶|Vi| k =1
k¹i

¶Qi
= –|V i||Yik|sin(q ik - d i + d k ) ...(60)
¶|Vk| k ¹i

The terms DPi( p) and DQi( p) are the difference between the scheduled and calculated values
at bus i known as power residuals, given by
scheduled
DPi( p) = Pi - Pi(p)
(calculated) ...(61)

DQi( p) = Qischeduled - Qi(p)

(calculated) ...(62)
The new estimates for bus voltage magnitudes and angles are,
|Vi|(p + 1) = |Vi|(p) + D|Vi|(p) ...(63)
di(p + 1) = di(p) + Ddi(p) ...(64)

14 DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW ALGORITHM

Step-1: Read system data
Step-2: Form YBUS matrix
Step-3: For load buses Pischeduled and Qischeduled are specified. Voltage magnitudes and phase
angles are set equal to the slack bus values, or |Vi| = 1.0, |di| = 0.0 radian.
For voltage controlled buses, where|Vi|and Pischeduled are specified, phase angles are set equal

to the slack bus angle, i.e. d (i0 ) = 0.0 radian.

Step-4: For load buses, Pi( p) and Q i( p) are calculated using eqns. (50) and (51) and

DPi( p) and DQi( p) are calculated from eqns. (61) and (62).

Step-5: For voltage controlled buses, Pi( p) and DPi( p) are computed using eqns. (50) and (61)
respectively.
Step-6: Compute elements of J1 and J4 using equations (57) – (60).
Step-7: Solve equations (55) and (56) for computing Dd and D|V|.
Step-8: Compute new voltage magnitudes and phase angles using eqns. (63) and (64).
Step-9: Check for convergence, i.e. if

max|DPi( p)| £ Î and

max|DQi( p)| £ Î., solution has converged go to Step-10, otherwise, go to step-4.

Step-10: Print output results.
Example 4: Solve the problem in Ex-7.2 using decoupled NR method. Perform there iterations.

27/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 Solution: From eqns. (7.50) and (7.51)
P2 = |V2||V1||Y21|cos(q21 – d2 + d1) +|V2|2|Y22|cosq22
+ |V2||V3||Y23|cos(q23 – d2 + d3)
P3 = |V3||V1|Y31|cos(q31 – d3 + d1) +|V3||V2||Y32|
cos(q32 – d3 + d2) + |V3|2|Y33|cosq33
Q2 = –|V2||V1||Y21|sin(q21 – d3 + d1) –|V2|2|Y22|
sin q22 – |V2||V3||Y23|sin(q23 – d2 + d3)
Q3 = –|V3||V1||Y31|sin(q31 – d3 + d1) –|V3||V2||Y32|
sin(q32 – d3 + d2) –|V3|2|Y33|sinq33
¶P2
= |V2||V1||Y21|sin(q21 – d2 + d1) +|V2||V3||Y23|sin(q23 – d2 + d3)
¶d 2
¶P2
= –|V2||V3||Y23|sin(q23 – d2 + d3)
¶d 3
¶P3
= –|V3||V2||Y32|sin(q32 – d3 + d2)
¶d 2
¶P3
= |V3||V1||Y31|sin(q31 – d3 + d1) +|V3||V2||Y32|sin(q32 – d3 + d2)
¶d 3
¶Q2
= –|V1||Y21|sin(q21 – d2 + d1) – 2|V2||Y22|sinq22 –|V3||Y23 sin(q23 – d2 + d3)
¶|V2|
¶Q2
= –|V2||Y23|sin(q23 – d2 + d3)
¶|V3|

¶Q3
= –|V3||Y32|sin(q32 – d3 + d2)
¶|V2|

¶Q3
= –|V1||Y31|sin(q31 – d3 + d1) –|V2||Y32|sin(q32 – d3 + d2) – 2|V3||Y33|sinq33
¶|V3|
Data
|Y22| = 58.13, q22 = –1.106 rad = –63.4°
|Y33| = 67.23, q33 = –1.173 rad = –67.2°
|Y21| = 22.36, q21 = 116.6° = 2.034 rad
|Y23| = 35.77, q23 = 116.6° = 2.034 rad
|Y31| = 31.62, q31 = 108.4° = 1.892 rad
|V1| = 1.05, d1 = 0.0 rad, |V2|(0) = 1.0, d2(0) = 0.0 rad
|V3|(0) = 1.0, d3(0) = 0.0 rad
¶P2
= 1.05 × 22.36 sin (116.6°) + 35.77 sin (116.6°) = 52.97
¶d 2

28/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 ¶P2
= –35.77 sin (116.6°) = –31.98
¶d3
¶P3
= –35.77 sin (116.6°) = –31.98
¶d2
¶P3
= 1.05 × 31.62 sin (108.4°) + 35.77 sin (116.6°) = 63.48
¶d 3
¶Q2
= –1.05 × 22.36 sin (116.6°) – 2 × 58.13 × sin (–63.4°) –35.77 × sin (116.6°)
¶|V2|
= –21 + 103.95 – 31.98 = 50.97
¶Q3
= –1.05 × 31.62 × sin (108.4°) – 35.77 × sin (116.6°) – 2 × 67.23 × sin (–67.2°)
¶|V3|
= –31.50 – 31.98 + 123.95 = 60.47
¶Q2
= –35.77 sin (116.6°) = –31.98
¶|V3|
¶Q3
= –35.77 sin (116.6°) = –31.98
¶|V2|
LM 52.97 -31.98OP
J1(0) =
MN-31.98 63.48PQ
= M
L 50.97 -31.98OP
J 4(0)
MN-31.98 60.47PQ
For this problem J1 and J4 as computed above, assumed constant throughtout the iterative
process
P2((0cal
)
) = 1.05 × 22.36 cos (116.6°) + 58.13 cos (–63.4°) + 35.77 cos (116.6°)

\ P2((0cal
)
) = –0.50

P3((0cal
)
) = 1.05 × 31.62 cos (108.4°) + 35.77 cos (116.6°) + 67.23 cos (–67.2°)

\ P3((0cal
)
) = –0.44

Q2(0(cal
)
) = –1.05 × 22.36 sin (116.6°) – 58.13 sin (–63.4°) – 35.77 sin (116.6°)

\ Q2(0(cal
)
) = –1.0

Q3(0(cal
)
) = –1.05 × 31.62 sin (108.4°) – 35.77 sin (116.6°) – 67.23 × sin (–67.2°)

\ Q3(0(cal
)
) = –1.503

P2(sch) = –2.556
P3(sch) = –1.386

29/64 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 Q2(sch) = –1.102
Q3(sch) = –0.452

DP2(0) = P2(sch) – P2((0cal

)
)
= –2.556 – (–0.5) = –2.056

DP3(0) = P3(sch) – P3((0cal

)
) = –1.386 – (–0.44) = –0.946

(0 )
DQ2(0) = Q2(sch) – Q2( cal ) = –1.102 – (–1) = –0.102
(0 )
DQ3(0) = Q3(sch) – Q3( cal ) = –0.452 – (–1.503) = 1.051

LMDP (0 ) OP = LM 52.97 -31.98OP LMDd OP

( 0)

MNDP PQ MN-31.98 63.48PQ MNDd PQ

2 2
\
(0 ) ( 0)
3 3

LMDd (0 ) OP = LM 52.97 -31.98OP LM-2.056OP

-1

MNDd PQ NM-31.98 63.48QP NM-0.946QP

2
\
(0 )
3

\ Dd (20) = –0.0687 radian = –3.936°

\ Dd (30) = –0.0495 radian = –2.837°

Similarly
LMDQ
OP = LM 50.97 -3198
(0 )
. O LD|V | O
PM P
(0 )

MNDQ
PQ MN-3198 60.47 PQ MN D|V | PQ
2 2
\
(0 ) (0 )
3
. 3

LD|V | OP = LM 50.97 -31.98OP LM-0.102OP

\M
(0 ) -1

MND|V | PQ NM-31.98 60.47QP NM 1.051 QP

2
(0 )
3

\ D|V2|(0 ) = 0.01332

D|V3|(0) = 0.0244

\ d (1) (0 ) (0 )
2 = d 2 + Dd 2 = –0.0687 radian = –3.936°

d (1)
3
= d (30 ) + Dd 3(0 ) = –0.0495 radian = –2.837°

|V2|(1) = |V2|(0) + D|V2|(0) = 1.0 + 0.01332 = 1.01332

|V3|(1) = |V3|(0) + D|V3|(0) = 1.0 + 0.0244 = 1.0244

2nd Iteration
In load flow studies computation of elements of J1 and J4 matrices in each iteration is not
required because they do not change much. In this problem J1 and J4 as computed above,
assumed constant throughout the iterative process.

30/37 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 P2((1)cal ) = –2.62

P3((1)cal ) = –0.96

(1)
Q2( cal ) = 0.005

(1)
Q3( cal ) = –0.16177

\ DP2(1) = –2.556 – (–2.62) = 0.064

DP3(1) = –1.386 – (– 0.96) = –0.426

DQ2(1) = –1.102 – (0.005) = –1.107

DQ3(1) = –0.452 – (– 0.16177) = – 0.29

LMDd (1) OP = LM 52.97 -3198

. O L 0.064 O
P M P
-1

MNDd PQ MN-3198 63.48 PQ MN–0.426 PQ

2
\
(1) .
3

\ D d (1)
2 = –0.004 rad = –0.229°

D d (1)
3 = –0.0087 rad = –0.5°

LMD|V | (1) OP = LM 50.97 -31.98OP -1

LM-1107
. OP
MND|V | PQ MN-31.98 60.47PQ MN –0.29 PQ
2
\
(1)
3

\ D|V2|(1) = – 0.037

\ D|V3|(1) = – 0.02436

\ d (22) = d (1) (1)

2 + Dd 2
= –0.0687 – 0.004 = –0.0727 rad = –4.165°

d3(2) = d (31) + Dd (31) = –0.0495 – 0.0087 = – 0.0582 rad = –3.337°

|V2|(2) = |V2|(1) + D|V2|(1) = 1.01332 – 0.037 = 0.9763
|V3|(2) = |V3|(1) + D|V3|(1) = 1.0244 – 0.02436 = 1.0

3rd iteration

P2((2cal
)
) = –2.875

P3((2cal
)
) = –1.4268

Q2(2(cal
)
) = –1.15

31/37 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 Q3(2(cal
)
) = –0.314

\ DP2(2) = 0.319

DP3(2) = 0.0408

DQ2(2) = 0.048

DQ3(2) = –0.138

LMDd (2 ) OP = LM 52.97 –31.98 OP LM0.3190OP

-1

MNDd PQ MN–31.98 63.48 PQ MN0.0408PQ

2
(2 )
3

\ Dd (22) = 0.0092 rad = 0.52°

Dd (32) = 0.00528 rad = 0.30°

\ d (23) = –0.0727 + 0.0092 = –0.0635 rad = –3.64°

d (33) = –0.0582 + 0.00528 = –0.0529 rad = –3.03°

MMLDD||VV || OP = LM 50.97 OP LM 0.048 OP

(2 ) -1
–31.98
PQ MN–31.98 60.47 PQ MN–0.138PQ
2

N 3
(2 )

\ D|V2|(2) = –0.0007
D|V3|(2) = –0.00267
\ |V2|(3) = |V2|(2) + D|V2|(2) = 0.9763 – 0.0007 = 0.9756
|V3|(3) = |V3|(2) + D|V3|(2) = 1.0 – 0.00267 = 0.9973

Example 5

V1 = 1.0 0° (slack bus)

|V2|(0) = 1.0U|V
d (20) = 0.0 W|
starting values

|V3| = 1.0 PV bus

d (30) = 0.0} starting value
YBus matrix for this system:

LM 26.925 –68.2° 11.18 116.6 ° 15.81 108.4 ° OP

= M 11.18 116.6° PP
YBus
MM 29.065 -63.4° 17.885 116 .6 °
PQ
N 15.81 108.4° 17.885 116.6 ° 33.615 –67.2 °

32/37 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 Use deoupled load flow method to solve the problem. Perform three iterations. Write a
computer program and check whether you are converging or not.
Solution: If voltage controlled buses are contained in the power system, the Newton-
Raphson iterative solution process is actually simplified because the order of the Jacobian is
reduced by one for each voltage controlled bus. Therefore complete equations of this system can
be written as:

LM ¶P ¶P2 ¶P2 OP (p)

LM DP OP MM ¶d¶P P LM Dd OP
2
(p)

¶P P
¶d 3 ¶|V2| (p)
2

MM DP PP
2

MM Dd PP
2

=M
MM ¶d
3 ¶P3
¶|V |P
P3

MNDQ PQ MND|V |PQ

3

¶Q P
3
2 ¶d 3 2
2
MMN¶¶dQ
2

2
¶Q2
¶d 3 ¶|V |PQ
P 2

2
2

For decoupled load flow case we can write

LMDP OP LM¶P ¶P OP Dd (p)

(p)

=M
¶d
2
¶d
P LM OP 2
(p)

MM ¶P ¶P PP MNDd PQ
2 2

MNDP PQ
2 3

N¶d ¶d Q
3 3 3 3
2 3

F ¶Q IJ × D|V |
=G
(p)

H ¶|V |K
2 (p)
and DQ2(p) 2
2

¶P2
= |V2||V1||Y21|sin(q21 – d2 + d1) + |V2| |V3| |Y23|
¶d 2
sin (q23 – d2 + d3)

¶P2
= –|V2| |V3| |Y23| sin (q23 – d2 + d3)
¶d 3

¶P3
= –|V3||V2||Y32| sin(q32 – d3 + d2)
¶d 2

¶P3
= |V3||V1||Y31| sin(q31 – d3 + d1) + |V3||V2||Y32|
¶d 3
sin(q32 – d3 + d2)

¶Q2
= –|V1||Y21| sin(q21 – d2 + d1) – 2|V2||Y22|
¶|V2|
sin q22 – |V3||Y23| sin(q23 – d2 + d3)
P2 = |V2||V1||Y21| cos(q21 – d2 + d1) + |V2|2|Y22|
cos q22 + |V2||V3||Y23| cos(q23 – d2 + d3)

33/37 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 P3 = |V3||V1||Y31| cos(q31 – d3 + d1) + |V3||V2| |Y32|
cos (q32 – d3 + d2) + |V3|2|Y33| cos q33
Q2 = –|V2||V1||Y21| sin (q21 – d2 + d1) – |V2|2|Y22|
sin q22 – |V2||V3||Y23| sin(q23 – d2 + d3)
P2(sch) = Pg2 – PL2 = 0.50 – 0.0 = 0.50 pu
Q2(sch) = Qg2 – QL2 = 1.0 – 0.0 = 1.0 pu
P3(sch) = Pg3 – PL3 = 0.0 – 1.50 = –1.50 pu
Iteration-1
p=0
|V1| = 1.0, d1 = 0.0
(0)
|V2| = 1.0, d (20) = 0.0

|V3| = 1.0, d3(0) = 0.0

(0)
P2(cal) = 1 × 1 × 1 × 11.18 cos (116.6°) + (1) 2 × 29.065 cos (–63.4°)
+ 1 × 1 × 17.885 × cos (116.6°) » 0.0
(0)
P3(cal) = 1 × 1 × 15.81 cos (108.4°) + 17.885 cos(116.6°)
+ (1)2 × 33.615 cos (–67.2°) = 0
(0)
Q2(cal) = –11.18 sin (116.6°) – 29.065 sin (–63.4°) – 17.885
sin (116.6°) = 0.0
0
\ DP2(0) = P2(sch) – P2(cal) = 0.50

DP3(0) = –1.5
(0)
DQ2(0) = Q2(sch) – Q2(cal) = 1.0

¶P2
= 11.18 sin(116.6°) + 17.885 sin(116.6°) = 25.988 » 26
¶d 2

¶P2
= –17.885 sin(116.6°) = –16
¶d 3

¶P3
= –17.885 sin(116.6°) = –16
¶d 2

¶P3
= 15.81 sin(108.4°) + 17.885 sin(116.6°) = 31
¶d 3

LM 26 -16 OP
\ J10 =
MN-16 31 PQ

34/37 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 ¶Q2
= –11.18 sin(116.6°) – 2 × 29.065 sin(–63.4°)
¶|V2|
– 17.885 sin (116.6°) = 26

LMDd ( 0) OP = LM 26 -16 OP -1
LM 0.50OP
MNDd PQ MN-16 31PQ MN-1.50PQ
2
\
( 0)
3

\ Dd (20) = –0.015 rad = –0.86°

Dd (30) = –0.056 rad = –3.2°

DQ2(0) 1
D|V2|0 = = = 0.0384
¶Q2 26
¶|V2|

\ d (21) = 0 – 0.86°= –0.86°

d (31) = –3.2°
|V2|(1) = |V2|(0) + D|V2|(0) = 1.0 + 0.0384 = 1.0384
Iteration-2
p=1
(1)
P2(cal) = 1.0384 × 11.18 cos(116.6° + 0.86° – 0°)
+ (1.0384)2 × 29.065 cos(–63.4°)
+ 1.0384 × 17.885 cos (116.6° + 0.86° – 3.2°)
= 1.049
(1)
Similarly, P3(cal) = –1.78
(1)
Q2(cal) = 0.79
\ DP2(1) = 0.5 – 1.049 = –0.549

DP3(1) = –1.5 – (–1.78) = 0.28

DQ2(1) = 1 – 0.79 = 0.21

LMDd ( 1) OP = LM 26 -16 OP LM-0.549OP

-1

MNDd PQ MN-16 31PQ MN 0.28PQ

2
\
( 1)
3

\ Dd (21) = –0.0228 rad = –1.3°

Dd 3(1) = –0.0027 rad = –0.15°
0.21
D|V2|(1) = = 0.008
26
d (22) = d (21) + Dd (21) = –0.86° – 1.3° = –2.16°

35/37 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 d (32) = d (31) + Dd (31) = –3.2° – 0.15° = –3.35°
|V2|(2) = |V2|(1) + D|V2|(1) = 1.0384 + 0.008 = 1.0464

15 FAST DECOUPLED LOAD FLOW

The diagonal elements of J1 described by eqn. (57) may be written as:
n
¶Pi
¶d i
= å |Vi||Vk||Yik| sin(qik – di + dk) – |Vi|2 |Yii| sin qii ...(65)
k=1

Using eqns. (7.65) and (7.51), we get

¶Pi
= –Qi – |Vi|2 |Yii| sin qii
¶d i

¶Pi
\ = –Qi – |Vi|2 Bii ...(66)
¶d i
where Bii = |Yii| sin qii is the imaginary part of the diagonal elements of the bus admittance
matrix. In a practical power system, Bii >> Qi and hence we may neglect Qi. Further simplification
is obtained by assuming |Vi|2 » |Vi|, which gives,
¶Pi
= –|Vi|Bii ...(67)
¶d i
Under normal operating conditions, dk – di is quite small. Therefore, qik – di + dk » qik and
eqn. (58) reduces to
¶Pi
= –|Vi||Vk|Bik
¶d k
Assuming |Vk| » 1.0
¶Pi
= –|Vi|Bik ...(68)
¶d k
Similarly, the diagonal elements of J4 as given by eqn. (59) may be written as:
n
¶Qi
¶|Vi| å
= –|Vi||Yii|sin qii – |Vi||Vk||Yik| sin(qik – di + dk) ...(69)
k=1

Using eqns. (69) and (51), we get,

¶Qi
= –|Vi||Yii|sin qii + Qi
¶|Vi|

¶Qi
\ = –|Vi|Bii + Qi ...(70)
¶|Vi|
Again Bii >> Qi, Qi may be neglected.
¶Qi
\ = –|Vi|Bii ...(71)
¶|Vi|

36/37 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems

 Assuming qik – di + dk » dik, eqn. (7.60) can be written as:

¶Qi
= –|Vi|Bik ...(72)
¶|Vk|
Therefore, eqns. (7.55) and (7.56) take the following form:
DP
= –B¢ Dd ...(73)
|Vi|
DQ
= –B¢¢ Dd ...(74)
|Vi|
B¢ and B¢¢ are the imaginary part of the bus admittance matrix YBUS. B¢ and B¢¢ are constant-
matrices and they need to be inverted once. The decoupled and fast decoupled power flow
solutions requires more interations than the coupled NR method but requires less computing
time per iteration.

37/37 Power Flow Formulation,Analysis and Applications in Power Systems