POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Power Flow Study

Faruk DILSIZ

2014

International University of Sarajevo

Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences
Dean
Prof. Dr. Fuat GURCAN

Referees
Assist. Professor Dr. Emir KARAMEHMEDOVIC
Professor Dr. Migdat HODZIC

Date of the graduation

2014 (Fall Semester)
To my family and lover.
Contents

Abstract 1

1 Introduction 3

2 The Power Flow Problem and Its Solution 5

2.1 Power Flow (Load Flow) Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Focusing on Power Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 The Power Flow Problem on a Direct Current Network . . . . . . . . 7

3 Gauss Sidel Method 11

3.1 Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Case (b): Systems with PV buses : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive power generation
limits specified: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.1 Acceleration of convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4 The Per-Unit System 19

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 Conclusion 27

Acknowledgments 29

Bibliography 31

Nomenclature 33

i
Abstract
In this research,a practical method is given for solving the power flow problem
with control variables such as active and reactive power and transformer ratios
automatically adjusted to minimize instantaneous costs or losses. The solution is
feasible with respect to constraints on control variables and dependent variables such
as load voltages, reactive sources, and tie line power angles. The method is based on
power flow solution by applying the Per-Unit System and Gauss-Sidel Method for
obtaining the minimum and penalty functions to account for dependent constraints.

Key Words : Active Power,Reactive Rower,Load voltages,Reactive Sources,Tie

Line Power Angles,Gauss-Seidel,Per-Unit.

1
1 Introduction
Under normal conditions,electrical transmission systems operate in their steady-
state mode and the basic calculation required to determined the characteristics of
this state is called power flow.The object of power-flow calculations is to determine
the steady-state operating characteristics of the power generation system for a given
set of loads.[1] Power flow calculations provide active and reactive power flows and
bus voltage magnitude and their phase angle at all the buses for a specified power
system configuration. Loads are normally specified by their constant active and re-
active power requirement,assume unaffected by the small variations of voltage and
frequency expected during normal steady-state operation.The power flow solution is
consisted of two steps.The first one is to find the complex voltage at all busses.The
second step of computing current,active and reactive power flow.The solution has
to be obtained for ill-conditioned problems,in outage studies and for real time ap-
plication.The mathematical formulation of power flow problem results in a system
of algebraic nonlinear equations which must be solved by iterative techniques.The
purpose of power flow studies is to plan ahead and account for various hypothetical
situations. The basic steps involved in power flow studies are:
1. Determine element values for passive network components.
2. Determine locations and values of all complex power loads.
3. Determine generation specifications and constraints.
4. Develop a mathematical model describing power flow in the network.
5. Solve for the voltage profile of the network.
6. Solve for the power flows and losses in the network.
7. Check for constraint violations.

3
2 The Power Flow Problem and Its
Solution
The power flow problem consists of a given transmission network where all lines are
represented by a Pi-equivalent circuit and transformers by an ideal voltage trans-
former in series with an impedance. Generators and loads represent the boundary
conditions of the solution. Generator or load real and reactive power involves prod-
ucts of voltage and current. Mathematically, the power flow requires a solution of a
system of simultaneous nonlinear equations.

2.1 Power Flow (Load Flow) Study

Power flow studies are one of the most important aspects of power system planning
and operation. The power flow gives us the sinusoidal steady state characteristics of
the entire system - voltages, real and reactive power generated, as well as absorbed
and line losses. With this, one can obtain the voltage magnitudes and angles at
each bus, the generation of each generating unit, as well as the real and reactive
power losses in the system. All this is necessary to ensure the security,economy,and
control of electrical energy distribution. For a power system with N buses, the
steady state model of the power system is given by a set of up to 2N-2 nonlinear
equations, which are iteratively solved using the Newton-Raphson or Gauss-Seidel
iterative solvers.The basic equation for power-flow analysis is derived from the nodal
analysis equations for the power system:
For example, for a 4-bus system,
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 V1 I1
    
Y Y22 Y23 Y24  V2  I2 
   
 21
  =  

Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34  V3  I3 


Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 V4 I4

where Yij are the elements of the bus admittance matrix, Vi are the bus voltages,
and Ii are the currents injected at each node. The node equation at bus i can be
written as

n
X
Ii = Yij Vj (2.1)
j=1

5
Chapter 2 The Power Flow Problem and Its Solution

Relationship between per-unit real and reactive power supplied to the system at bus
i and the per-unit current injected into the system at that bus:

Si = Vi Ii∗ = Pi + jQi (2.2)

where
Vi is the per-unit voltage at the bus. Ii∗ is a complex conjugate of the per-unit current
: injected at the bus.
Pi and Qi are per-unit real and reactive powers.
Therefore,

n n
Pi + jQi Pi − jQi X X
Ii∗ = ⇒ Ii = ⇒ Pi − jQi = Vi∗
Yij Vj = Yij Vj Vi∗ (2.3)
Vi Vi∗
j=1 j=1

Let
   
Yij = Yij  ∠θij and Vi = Vi  ∠δi
Then
Pn    
Pi − jQi = j=1 Yij  Vj  Vi  ∠(θij
   
+ δj − δi )
Hence
Pn    
Pi = j=1 Yij  Vj  Vi  cos(θij
   
+ δj − δi )
And
Pn    
Qi = − j=1 Yij  Vj  Vi  sin(θij
   
+ δj − δi )[2]

2.2 Focusing on Power Flow

There are four variables that are associated with each bus:
1. P
2. Q
3. V
4. δ
Meanwhile, there are two power flow equations associated with each bus. In a power
flow study, two of the four variables are defined and the other two are unknown.
That way, we have the same number of equations as the number of unknown. The
known and unknown variables depend on the type of bus. Each bus in a power
system can be classified as one of three types:

6
2.3 The Power Flow Problem on a Direct Current Network

• Load bus (P-Q bus) : A buss at which the real and reactive power are
specified, and for which the bus voltage will be calculated. All busses having
no generators are load busses. In here, V and δ are unknown.
• Generator bus (P-V bus) : A bus at which the magnitude of the voltage
is defined and is kept constant by adjusting the field current of a synchronous
generator. We also assign real power generation for each generator according
to the economic dispatch. In here, Q and δ are unknown .
• Slack bus (swing bus) : A special generator bus serving as the reference
bus. Its voltage is assumed to be fixed in both magnitude and phase (for
instance, 1∠0˚ pu). In here, P and Q are unknown.

No Bus Types Specified Variables Unspecified Variables Remarks

1 Slack Bus/Swing Bus |V |, δ PG , QG |V |andδ are assumed if not specified as 1.0 and 0◦

2 Generator Machine/ P-V Bus |V |, PG δ, QG A generator is present at the machine bus

3 Load/ P-Q Bus PG , QG |V |, δ About 80% buses are of PQ type

Table 2.1: Classification of Buses[3]

Note that the power flow equations are non-linear, thus cannot be solved analytically.
A numerical iterative algorithm is required to solve such equations. A standard
procedure as follows:
• Create a bus admittance matrix Ybus for the power system.
• Make an initial estimate for the voltages (both magnitude and phase angle)
at each bus in the system.
• Substitute in the power flow equations and determine the deviations from the
solution.
• Update the estimated voltages based on some commonly known numerical
algorithms (Gauss-Seidel Method).
• Repeat the above process until the deviations from the solution are minimal.[4]

2.3 The Power Flow Problem on a Direct Current

Network
The problems involved in solving a power flow can be illustrated by the use of direct
current (DC) circuit examples. The circuit shown in Figure 2.1 has a resistance of
0.25Ω tied to a constant voltage of 1.0 V (called the reference voltage). We wish to
find the voltage at bus2 that results in a net inflow of 1.2 W. Buses are electrical

7
Chapter 2 The Power Flow Problem and Its Solution

nodes. Power is said to be “injected” into a network; therefore, loads can be modeled
as a negative injections.

Figure 2.1: Two Bus DC Network[5]

The current from bus2 to bus1 is

I21 = (E2 − 1.0) × 4 (2.4)

Power P2 is

P2 = 1.2 = E2 I21 = E2 (E2 − 1) × 4 (2.5)

or

(4E22 − 4E2 ) − 1.2 = 0 (2.6)

The solutions to this quadratic equation are E2 = 1.24V and E2 = −0.241V . Note
that 1.2W enter bus 2, producing a current of 0.966 A ( E2 =1.24), which means
that 0.96648 W enter the reference bus and 0.23352 W are consumed in the 0.25Ω
resistor.
Let us complicate the problem by adding a third bus and two more lines (see Figure
2.2). The problem is more complicated because we cannot simply write out the
solutions using a quadratic formula. The admittance equations are ;

    
I1 14 −4 10 E1
 I2  =  −4 9 −5
 E2  (2.7)
    

I3 −10 −5 15 E3

8
2.3 The Power Flow Problem on a Direct Current Network

Figure 2.2: Three Bus DC Network[5]

In this case, we know the power injected at buses 2 and 3 and we know the voltage
at bus 1. To solve for the unknowns (E2 ,E3 and P1 ). The solution procedure is
known as the Gauss-Seidel procedure, where in a calculation for a new voltage at
each bus is made, based on the most recently calculated voltages at all neighbouring
buses.
Bus 2
P2
I2 = = −4(1.0) + 9E2 − 5E3 (2.8)
E2

1 1.2
E2new = ( old + 4 + 5E3old (2.9)
9 E2

where E2old and E3old are the initial values for E2 and E3 respectively.
Bus 3
P3
I3 = = −10(1.0) − 5E2new + 15E3 (2.10)
E3

1 −1.5
E3new = ( old + 10 + 5E2new ) (2.11)
15 E3

where E2new is the voltage found in solving equation 2.11, and of E3old is the initial
value of E3 .

9
Chapter 2 The Power Flow Problem and Its Solution

Bus 1

P1 = E1 I1new = 1.0I1new = 14 − 4E2new − 10E3new (2.12)

At first assume a set of voltages at buses 2 and 3 and then use Eqs. 2.13-2.14-2.15
and 2.16-2.17 to solve for new voltages. The new voltages are compared to the
voltage’s most recent values.
First iteration ;

E20 = E30 = 1.0 (2.13)

1 1.2
E21 = ( + 4 + 5) = 1.133 (2.14)
9 1.0

1 −1.5
 
E31 = + 10 + 5(1.133) = 0.944 (2.15)
15 1.0

∆Emax = 0.133 < ε too large

Note: In calculating E31 we used the new value of E2 found in the first correction.
Second iteration ;
1 1.2
 
E22 = + 4 + 5(0.944) = 1.087 (2.16)
9 1.133

1 −1.5
 
E32 = + 10 + 5(1.087) = 0.923 (2.17)
15 0.944

∆Emax = 0.046
And so forth until ∆E < ε

10
3 Gauss Sidel Method
In power system, we usually need to solve the bus voltages in a power load flow.
The Gauss-Seidel method is an iterative algorithm for solving non linear algebraic
equations. An initial solution vector is assumed, chosen from past experiences,
statistical data or from practical considerations. At every subsequent iteration, the
solution is updated until convergence is reached. The Gauss-Seidel method applied
to power flow problem is as discussed below.

3.1 Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only

Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means
that (n–1) complex bus voltages have to be determined.Consider the expression for
the complex power at bus-i as
Pn
Si = Vi ( j=1 Yij Vj )∗
This can be written as,
hP i
n
Si∗ = Vi∗ j=1 Yij Vj
Since,
Si∗ = Pi − jQi
we get,
n
Pi − jQi X
= Yij Vj (3.1)
Vi∗ j=1

So that,

n
Pi − jQi X
= Y ii Vi + Yij Vj (3.2)
Vi∗ j=1

Rearranging the terms, we get,

 
n
1  Pi − jQi X
Vi = − Yij Vj  ∀ i = 1, 2, 3.....n (3.3)
Yii Vi∗ j=1

11
Chapter 3 Gauss Sidel Method

Equation (3.3) is an implicit equation since the unknown variable, appears on both
sides of the equation. Hence, it needs to be solved by an iterative technique.
One iteration of the method involves computation of all the bus voltages.
In Gauss–Seidel method, the value of the updated voltages are used in the compu-
tation of subsequent voltages in the same iteration, thus speeding up convergence.
Iterations are carried out till the magnitudes of all bus voltages do not change by
more than the tolerance value.
Thus the algorithm for Gauss–Seidel method is as under:
1. Prepare data for the given system as required.
2. Formulate the bus admittance matrix Ybus . This is generally done by the rule
of inspection.
3. Assume initial voltages for all buses, (2,3,. . . n). In practical power systems,
the magnitude of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex bus
voltages at all (n-1) buses (except slack bus) are taken to be 1.0∠0◦ This is
normally refered as the flat start solution.
4. Update the voltages. In any (k+1)st iteration, from (3) the voltages are given
by
 
i−1 n
(k+1) 1  Pi − jQi X (k+1) X (k)
Vi = − Y V
ij j − Yij Vj  ∀ i = 1, 2, 3.....n (3.4)
Yii (Vik )∗ j=1 j=1+i

Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-i, updated values are
already available for buses 2,3. . . .(i-1) in the current (k + 1)st iteration. Hence
these values are used. For buses (i+1). . . ..n, values from previous, k th iteration
are used.
5. Continue iterations untill
(k+1) (k+1) (k)
|∆Vi | = |Vi − Vi | < ε ∀ i = 1, 2, 3.....n (3.5)
Where ε is the tolerance value. Generally it is customary to use a value of
0.0001 pu.
6. Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged using (1) [assuming
bus 1 is slack bus].
 
n
X
S1∗ = P1 − jQ1 = V1∗  Y1j Vj  (3.6)
j=1

7. Compute all line flows.

8. The complex power loss in the line is given by (Sik + Ski ). The total loss in
the system is calculated by summing the loss over all the lines.[6]
These steps will be illustrated with giving example at the following pages.

12
3.2 Case (b): Systems with PV buses :

3.2 Case (b): Systems with PV buses :

At PV buses, the magnitude of voltage and not the reactive power is specified.
Hence, it is needed to first make an estimate of Qi to be used in (3.4).
From (3.1) we have

 
n
X
Qi = −Im V1∗ Yij Vj 
j=1

Where I m stands for the imaginary part.

At any (k+1)st iteration, at the PV bus-i,
 
i−1 n
(k+1) (k) X (k+1) (k) X (k)
Qi = −Im (Vi )∗ Yij Vj + (Vi )∗ Yij Vj  (3.7)
j=1 j=1

The steps for ith PV bus are as follows:

(k+1)
1. Compute Qi using (24)
(k+1)
2. Calculate V i using (21) with Qi = Qi
3. Since,
|Vi | is specified at the PV bus, the magnitude of Vi obtained in step 2 has to be
modified and set to the specified value |Vi,sp |.
Therefore,
(k+1) (k+1)
Vi = |Vi,sp |∠δi (3.8)

The voltage computation for PQ buses does not change.[7]

3.3 Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive

power generation limits specified:
In the previous algorithm if the Q limit at the voltage controlled bus is violated
(k+1)
during any iteration, i.e (Qi ) computed using (3.7) is either less than Qi,min or
greater than Qi,max , it means that the voltage cannot be maintained at the specified
value due to lack of reactive power support. This bus is then treated as a PQ bus
in the (k+1)st iteration and the voltage is calculated with the value of Qi set as
follows:

13
Chapter 3 Gauss Sidel Method

If Qi < Qi,min If Qi > Qi,max

then Qi = Qi,min then Qi = Qi,max (3.9)

If in the subsequent iteration, if Qi falls within the limits, then the bus can be
switched back to PV status.[8]

3.3.1 Acceleration of convergence

It is found that in Gauss-Seidel method of load flow, the number of iterations increase
with increase in the size of the system. The number of iterations required can be
reduced if the correction in voltage at each bus is accelerated, by multiplying with
a constant α, called the acceleration factor. In the (k + 1)st iteration we can let

(k+1) (k) (k+1) (k)

Vi (accelerate, d) = Vi + α(Vi − Vi ) (3.10)

where is a α real number.

When

α=1

(k+1)
the value of Vi is the computed value.
If

1<α<2

then the value computed is extrapolated.

Generally α is taken between 1.2 to 1.6 for Gauss-Seidel load flow procedure. At
PQ buses (pure load buses) if the voltage magnitude violates the limit, it simply
means that the specified reactive power demand cannot be supplied, with the voltage
maintained within acceptable limits.[9]

14
3.3 Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive power generation limits
specified:

Example
For the power system shown in figure below, with the data as given in tables be-
low, obtain the bus voltages at the end of first iteration, by applying Gauss-Seidel
method.

Figure 3.1: Power System Network

SB EB R(pu) X(pu)
1 2 0.10 0.40
1 4 0.15 0.60
1 5 0.05 0.20
2 3 0.05 0.20
2 4 0.10 0.40
3 5 0.05 0.20
Table 3.1: Line Data Of Example

Bus No. PG (pu) QG (pu) PD (pu) QD (pu) |VSP |(pu) δ

1 - - - - 1.02 0◦
2 - - 0.60 0.30 - -
3 1.0 - - - 1.04 -
4 - - 0.40 0.10 - -
5 - - 0.60 0.20 - -
Table 3.2: Bus Data Of Example

Solution

In this example we have,

• Bus 1 is slack bus, Bus 2, 4, 5 are PQ buses, and Bus 3 is PV bus

15
Chapter 3 Gauss Sidel Method

• The lines do not have half line charging admittances

P2 + jQ2 = PG2 + jQG2 –(PD2 + jQD2 ) = –0.6–j0.3

P3 + jQ3 = PG3 + jQG3 –(PD3 + jQD3 ) = 1.0 + jQG3

Similarly,

P4 + jQ4 = −0.4 − j0.1

P5 + jQ5 = −0.6 − j0.2

The Ybus formed by the rule of inspection is given by :

 
2.15685 − j8.62744 −0.58823 + j2.35294 0 −0.39215 + j1.56862 −1.17647 + j4.70588
−0.58823 + j2.35294 2.35293 − j9.41176 −1.17647 + j4.70588 −0.58823 + j2.35294 0.0 + j0.0 
 

 0 −1.17647 + j4.70588 2.35294 − j9.41176 0 −1.17647 + j4.70588
−0.39215 + j1.56862 −0.58823 + j2.35294 0 0.98038 − j3.92156 0 
−1.17647 + j4.70588 0 −1.17647 + j4.70588 0 2.35294 − j9.41176

The voltages at all PQ buses are assumed to be equal to 1+j0.0 pu. The slack bus
voltage is taken to be
V10 = 1.02 + j0.0 in all iterations.
(1)
h i
P2 −jQ2
V2 = Y122 (V20 )∗
− Y21 V10 − Y23 V30 − Y24 V40 − Y25 V50 = 0.9814∠−3.0665◦ = 0.97999−
j0.0525

Bus 3 is a PV bus. Thus, we must first calculate Q3 . This can be done as under:

Q3 = −V3 V1 Y31 sin(θ31 − δ3 + δ1 ) − V3 V2 Y32 sin(θ32 − δ3 + δ2 ) − V32 Y33 sin(θ33 )

We note that
δ1 = 00 δ2 = −3.06650 δ3 = 00 δ4 = 00 δ5 = 00
∴ δ31 = δ33 = δ34 = δ35 = 00 δik = δi − δk ; δ32 = 3.0665

Q3 = 0.425204pu
(1)
h i
V3 = Y133 P(V 0 1 0
0 ∗ − Y31 V1 − Y32 V2 − Y34 V4 − Y35 V5
3 −jQ3 0
= 1.05569∠3.077◦ = 1.0541+
3)
j0.05666pu.

Since it is a PV bus, the voltage magnitude is adjusted to specified value and V31 is
computed as:
V31 = 1.04∠3.077◦ pu
(1)
h i
1 P4 −jQ4
V4 = Y44 (V40 )∗
− Y41 V10 − Y42 V21 − Y43 V41 − Y45 V50 = 0.955715∠–7.303◦ = 0.94796–j0.12149

16
3.3 Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive power generation limits
specified:
(1)
h i
1 P5 −jQ5
V5 = Y55 (V50 )∗
− Y51 V10 − Y52 V21 − Y53 V31 − Y54 V41 = 0.994618∠−1.56◦ = 0.994249–j0.027

Thus at the end of 1st iteration, we have,

V1 = 1.02∠0◦ pu V2 = 0.98140∠ − 3.066◦ pu

V3 = 1.04∠3.077◦ pu V4 = 0.955715∠ − 7.303◦ pu

and V = 0.994618∠ − 1.56◦ pu

17
4 The Per-Unit System
An interconnected power system typically consists of many different voltage levels
given a system containing several transformers and/or rotating machines. The per-
unit system simplifies the analysis of complex power systems by choosing a common
set of base parameters in terms of which, all systems quantities are defined. The dif-
ferent voltage levels disappear and the overall system reduces to a set of impedances.
[10]

4.1 Overview
The primary advantages of the per-unit system are:
1. The per-unit values for transformer impedance, voltage and current are identi-
cal when referred to the primary and secondary (no need to reflect impedances
from one side of the transformer to the other, the transformer is a single
impedance).
2. The per-unit values for various components lie within a narrow range regardless
of the equipment rating.
3. The per-unit values clearly represent the relative values of the circuit quanti-
ties. Many of the ubiquitous scaling constants are eliminated.
4. Ideal for computer simulations. The complete characterization of a per-unit
system requires that all four base values be defined. Given the four base values,
the per-unit quantities are defined as
V
Vpu = (4.1)
Vbase

I
Ipu = (4.2)
Ibase

Z
Zpu = (4.3)
Zbase

S
Spu = (4.4)
Sbase

19
Chapter 4 The Per-Unit System

Note that the numerator terms in the previous equations are in general complex
while the base values are real-valued. Once any two of the four base values (Vbase ,
Ibase , Sbase , and Zbase ) are defined, the remaining two base values can be determined
according their fundamental circuit relationships. Usually the base values of power
and voltage are selected and the base values of current and impedance are determined
according to

Sbase
Ibase = (4.5)
Vbase

2
Vbase Vbase
Zbase = = (4.6)
Ibase Sbase
If we also assume that:
• The value of Sbase is constant for all points in the power system
• the ratio of voltage bases on either side of a transformer is chosen to equal
the ratio of the transformer voltage ratings, then the transformer per-unit
impedance remains unchanged when referred from one side of a transformer
to the other.

Example
Let’s understand the concept of per unit system by solving an example. In the
one-line diagram below, the impedance of various components in a power system,
typically derived from their nameplates, are presented. The task now is to normalize
these values using a common base.

Figure 4.1: Oneline Diagram Of A Power System[11]

20
4.1 Overview

Now that you have carefully examined the system and its parameters, the equivalent
impedance diagram for the previous system would look something like the following.

Figure 4.2: Impedance Diagram Of A Power System[11]

Resistive impedance for most components have been ignored. Rotating machines
have been replaced with a voltage source behind their internal reactance. Capacitive
effects between lines and to ground are ignored as well. To obtain the new normalized
per unit impedances, first we need to figure out the base values (Sbase , Vbase , Zbase )
in the power system. Following steps will lead you through the process.

• Step 1: Assume a system wide Sbase of 100MVA. This is a random assump-

tion and chosen to make calculations easy when calculating the per unit
impedances. So, Sbase = 100MVA

• Step 2: Voltage base in the system is determined by the transformer. For

example, with a 22/220kV voltage rating of T1 transformer, the Vbase on the
primary side of T1 is 22kV while the secondary side is 220kV. It does not matter
what the voltage rating of the other components are that are encompassed by
the Vbase zone. See figure below for the voltage bases in the system.

21
Chapter 4 The Per-Unit System

Figure 4.3: Voltage Base In The Power System[11]

• Step 3: The base impedance is calculated using the following formula:

For T-Line 1
2202
Zbase = 100
= 484ohm
For T-Line 2
1102
Zbase = 100
= 121ohm
For 3-phase load
112
Zbase = 100
= 1.21ohm
• Step 4: Calculate the per unit impedance
For T-line 1 using equation
48.4
Xt1 = 484
= 0.1p.u
For T-line 2 using equation
65.43
Xt2 = 121
= 0.5p.u
For 3-Phase load
Power Factor:cos−1 (0.6) = 53◦
Thus,
S3phase (load) = 53∠53◦
For generator
The new per unit reactance using equation

22
4.1 Overview

Xsg = 0.18 × ( 100

90
22 2
) × ( 22 ) = 0.2p.u
For transformer T1
Xt1 = 0.1 × ( 100
50
22 2
) × ( 22 ) = 0.2p.u
For transformer T2
Xt2 = 0.06 × ( 100
40
220 2
) × ( 220 ) = 0.15p.u
For transformer T3
Xt3 = 0.064 × ( 100
40
22 2
) × ( 22 ) = 0.16p.u
For transformer T4
Xt4 = 0.08 × ( 100
40
110 2
) × ( 110 ) = 0.2p.u
For Motor
100
Xsm = 0.185 × ( 66.5 ) × ( 10.45
11
)2 = 0.25p.u
The equivalent impedance network with all the impedances normalized to a common
system base and the appropriate voltage base is provided below.

Figure 4.4: The equivalent impedance of the system[11]

23
Chapter 4 The Per-Unit System

Power System example solves by using matlab :

The Per-Unit system below is drawn with PSS program and started up. All the
values of the elements are shown on the figure below. The task now is to minimize
these values using a Matlab.

Figure 4.5: Power System Figure (drawn in PSS program)

clc
clear a l l
z12=1+3 i
z23=4+10 i
z24 =0.7+6 i
z34=2+10 i
z45 =0.8+2 i
s3 =(30+40 i )∗1000000
s4 =(40+10 i )∗1000000
s5 =(40+25 i )∗1000000
s b a s e =100000000
vbase1 =220000
vbase2 =100000
vbase3 =66000
z b a s e 1 =( vbase1 )^2/ s b a s e
z b a s e 2 =( vbase2 )^2/ s b a s e
z b a s e 3 =( vbase3 )^2/ s b a s e
z12pu=z12 / z b a s e 2
z23pu=z23 / z b a s e 2
z24pu=z24 / z b a s e 2
z34pu=z34 / z b a s e 2
z45pu=z45 / z b a s e 2

24
4.1 Overview

y12=1/z12pu
y23=1/z23pu
y24=1/z24pu
y34=1/z34pu
y45=1/z45pu
s3pu=s3 / s b a s e
s4pu=s4 / s b a s e
s5pu=s5 / s b a s e
V1=1
V2=1
V3=1
V4=1
V5=1
Vnom=[V1 ; V2 ; V3 ; V4 ; V5 ]
Y=[1 0 0 0 0 ;
−y12 y12+y23+y24 −y23 −y24 0 ;
0 −y23 y23+y34 −y34 0 ;
0 −y24 −y34 y24+y34+y45 −y45 ;
0 0 0 −y45 y45 ]
I 3=conj ( s3pu /Vnom( 3 ) )
I 4=conj ( s4pu /Vnom( 4 ) )
I 5=conj ( s5pu /Vnom( 5 ) )
I =[V1;0; − I 3 ;− I 4 ;− I 5 ]
V=inv (Y) ∗ I
e=abs (Vnom−V)
I 3=conj ( s3pu /V( 3 ) )
I 4=conj ( s4pu /V( 4 ) )
I 5=conj ( s5pu /V( 5 ) )
I 2 =[V1;0; − I 3 ;− I 4 ;− I 5 ]
V2=inv (Y) ∗ I 2 e=abs (V−V2)
V1_in_kv=sqrt ( r e a l (V2(1)^2)+imag (V2 ( 1 ) ) ^ 2 ) ∗ 2 2 0 0 0 0
angle_V1=atand (imag (V2 ( 1 ) ) / r e a l (V2 ( 1 ) ) )
V2_in_kv=sqrt ( r e a l (V2(2)^2)+imag (V2 ( 2 ) ) ^ 2 ) ∗ 1 0 0 0 0 0
angle_V2=atand (imag (V2 ( 2 ) ) / r e a l (V2 ( 2 ) ) )
V3_in_kv=sqrt ( r e a l (V2(3)^2)+imag (V2 ( 3 ) ) ^ 2 ) ∗ 1 0 0 0 0 0
angle_V3=atand (imag (V2 ( 3 ) ) / r e a l (V2 ( 3 ) ) )
V4_in_kv=sqrt ( r e a l (V2(4)^2)+imag (V2 ( 4 ) ) ^ 2 ) ∗ 1 0 0 0 0 0
angle_V4=atand (imag (V2 ( 4 ) ) / r e a l (V2 ( 4 ) ) )
V5_in_kv=sqrt ( r e a l (V2(5)^2)+imag (V2 ( 5 ) ) ^ 2 ) ∗ 6 6 0 0 0
angle_V5=atand (imag (V2 ( 5 ) ) / r e a l (V2 ( 5 ) ) )
Vtotal_kv =[V1_in_kv ; V2_in_kv ; V3_in_kv ; V4_in_kv ; V5_in_kv ]
angle_of_Vtotal =[ angle_V1 ; angle_V2 ; angle_V3 ; angle_V4 ; angle_V5 ]

25
5 Conclusion
In this study, the load flow problem, also called as the power flow problem, has been
considered in detail. The load flow solution gives the complex voltages at all the
buses and the complex power flows in the lines. Though, algorithms are available
using the impedance form of the equations, the sparsity of the bus admittance matrix
and the ease of building the bus admittance matrix, have made algorithms using the
admittance form of equations more popular.The most popular method is the Gauss-
Seidel method. This method have been discussed in detail with illustrative examples.
In smaller systems, the ease of programming and the memory requirements make
Gauss-Seidel method attractive.

27
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my utmost gratitude to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Izudin Dzafic for
his supports ,valuable guidance and suggestions throughout the study. I would like
to thank Mesut OZ and Alimert Vuran for their suggestions during my project.I
would also like to thank my family for their continuous support. Lastly, I want to
thank all who gave a hand during my project.

29
Bibliography
[1] I. Dzafic, E. Halilovic, and E. Karamehmedovic, “Power system analysis,” in
Introduction to Power System Analysis,International University of Sarayevo,
january 2013, pp. 103–114.
[2] D. McCalley, in The Power Flow Problem, Lowa State University, June 2004,
pp. 10–22.
[3] H. Chowdhury, in Load Flow Analysis in Power System,Universty of Missouri,
february 2006, pp. 140–190.
[4] J. Grainger and W. Stevenson, “Power flow,” in Power System Analysis.
McGraw-hill, New York, Martch 1994.
[5] J. A. Wood and F. B. Wollenberg, “Power technologies,” in Power Genera-
tion,Operation and Control, Second Edition, University of Minnesota, April
2007, pp. 105–130.
[6] Y. Liang, “Improved gauss seidel method on power network,” in Gauss Seidel
Method,University of Florida, January 2004.
[7] Y. Saad, in Iterative Methods,Second Edition. Society for industrial and applied
mathematics, February 2003.
[8] A. Keyhani, “Keyhani lecture,www.mty.itsm.mx,” in Gauss-Seidel Method,Ohio
State University, 2008.
[9] A. G. Tcheslavski, “Power system representations and equations,” in Power
System,www.ee.lamar.edu, 2009.
[10] S. Kouro, “Per-unit system,” in Power Conversion, September 2011.
[11] “Per unit system-practice problem solved for easy understanding,” in Per Unit
System,www.peguru.com, June 2001.

31
Nomenclature
SG complex power generation

δ bus voltage angle

E synchronous machine-generated voltage

P real bus power

PD real power demand

PG real power generation

Q reactive bus power

QD reactive power demand

QG reactive power generation

R resistance

S complex bus power

SD complex power demand

X reactance

Y admitance

Ybus bus admittance matrix

Yii driving point admittance at bus i

Yij transfer admittance between busses i and j

Z impedance

33