EE 368

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Presented
by

Prof. P. Y. Okyere

Semester 2, 2022/2023
Course Outline
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS:
Formation of a.c. load flow equations.
Gauss-Seidel iterative method of
solution. Cartesian and polar forms of
load flow equations, formation of the
jacobian matrix and solution using
the Newton-Raphson method. Digital
computer study of load flow
FAULT ANALYSIS:
Causes of faults, types of faults, 3-
phase symmetrical fault calculations,
unsymmetrical shunt. Applications to
digital computation
OPERATION AND CONTROL:
Characteristics of governors and their
operation, speed changer settings, load-
sensitive components of a power station, load-
frequency characteristics, Exciter
characteristics, block diagram representation
of voltage control systems, voltage and
reactive power control.

STABILITY:
Equal area criterion and solution of
differential equations
LOAD FLOW STUDIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 To understand the importance of
load flow studies to power utilities
 To understand the nonlinear nature
of load flow equations
 To formulate the admittance matrix
of a power system
 To solve simple load flow problems
using the Gauss-Seidel and Newton-
Raphson iterative methods
 To derive simple equations for
load flow and formulate them in
a fashion suitable for iterative
analysis,
 To perform simple load flow
analysis by hand and appreciate
why computers perform these
tasks far better than humans
What is load flow study?
Load flow study of a power system
is the steady state solution of the
power system network subject to
certain inequality constraints under
which the system operates
 The load flow solution consists of
formulating the network equations
and finding a suitable mathematical
technique to solve the equations
Objectives of load flow studies
To ensure proper redistribution
of power when a line is being
removed for maintenance
For power system planning in
order to be able to accommodate
future expansion
To ensure that power system
plant is not run above
nameplate rating
To assess if contingency fault
conditions may potentially lead
to wide scale system outages
 Bus specifications for load flow
studies
 At any bus there are four
quantities of interest: |V|, δ, P and
Q
 For n-bus system, there are 2n
equations to be solved. Therefore
at each bus two of these quantities
are specified a priori.
 P and Q are specified quantities at
load buses, which are called PQ
buses.
 P and |V| are specified at generator
buses, which are called PV buses
 System losses are accounted for by
making one bus a slack bus. At this
bus |V| and δ are specified.
BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX
The admittance, y of a transmission
line is the inverse of its impedance, z
 A transmission line with r = 0.05 pu
and x = 0.15 pu will have impedance
z and admittance y as follows:
Consider the system below

The nodal equations by inspection

are given in the matrix form as
Example 1
Obtain the admittance matrix from the
three-busbar system shown in the
figure below
Example 2
Given the following line impedances of
a three-bus system, obtain its
admittance matrix.
Line bus to bus Rpu Xpu

1 1-2 0.05 0.15

2 1-3 0.10 0.30
3 2-3 0.15 0.45
THE LOAD FLOW PROBLEM
The nodal equation for a system
comprising n buses can be expressed
in matrix form as
I   Y V 
Where
 V= voltages at the nodes or buses
 I= currents injected into the nodes or
buses
 Y=bus admittance matrix
For n-bus system, the current
injected into the ith bus is
n i  1 , 2 , . . ., n
I i   YikVk
k 1

The injected current and the injected

complex power into the ith bus are
related by the equation
 n
From I i   YikVk andVi I i  Pi  jQi

k 1

n

Pi  jQi  Vi  YikVk i  1 , 2 , . . ., n
k 1

Equating real and imaginary parts

  n 
Pi  Re Vi  YikVk 
 k 1 
  n 
Qi   Im Vi  YikVk 
 k 1 
Let
Vi  Vi  i and
Yik  Yik  ik
Then in polar form
n
Pi  Vi  Vk Yik cos ik   k   i 
k 1
n
Qi   Vi  Vk Yik sin ik   k   i 
k 1
The injected power in terms of
generated power and load power at
a bus is given by the equation
 PG is positive means generator is
supplying active power.
 QG is positive means generator is
supplying reactive power (Generator is
operating at lagging power factor)
 PD is positive means load is absorbing
active power
 QD is positive means load is absorbing
reactive power (power is drawn at a
lagging power factor)
Example 3
An interconnected cable links
generating stations 1 and 2 as shown in
the figure below. The desired voltage
profile is flat i.e V1  V2  1 pu . The load
demands at the two buses are
S D 1  15  j 5  pu and S D 2  25  j 15  pu .

The station loads are equalized by the

flow of power in the cable.
Determine the load flow solution of the
system if the cable has impedance
Z  0.005  j 0.05  pu . It is given that generator
G1 can generate a maximum of 20.0 pu
real power
G1 G2

1 2

S D1 SD2
 At Generation Station 1, let
PG 1  20 pu
 Then the injected power
P1  PG 1  PD 1  20  15  5 pu
 Since the power and voltage of
bus 1 are known, it is a PV bus.
 Thus Bus 2 becomes the slack bus
and its δ is set to 0.
 The elements of the system Ybus
are:
 From the P1 equation,

 Substituting δ1 into the other

equations, we obtain
 Now

 Line Loss

 The above problem is a two-bus load

flow problem. For this case, it is
possible to obtain explicit solution.
Generally, the load flow
equations being non-linear, the
algebraic equations are solved by
iterative numerical techniques.
Commonly used techniques are
 The Gauss-Seidel Method and
 The Newton-Raphson Method
THE GAUSS-SEIDEL (GS)
METHOD
In general, for a power system having
n buses, the voltage at the ith bus is
given by
1  Pi  jQi n 
Vi     YikVk 
Yii  Vi * k 1 
k i
To explain how the GS method is
applied to the solution, we shall
assume that apart from the slack bus
all buses are PQ buses.
You may also replace Pi  jQi by Si *
Iterative computation of the bus voltages is
done as follows:
 Keep the slack bus voltage (V1), which is
known, fixed throughout the iterations.
 Assume initial values for Vi, i = 2, 3, ...,n. It
is normal practice to use a (nominal) flat
voltage start.
 Obtain V2 using the initial solution voltage
vector.
 Update the solution vector by replacing old
V2 by the new V2.
 Use the updated solution vector to obtain
V 3.
 In general, update the solution vector
after every step of an iteration, i.e. soon
after the calculation of a bus voltage.
 And calculate Vn using the solution vector
with updated Vi, i = 2, 3, ...,n-1 to
complete an iteration.
 Repeat the iterative process till the
solution vector converges within
prescribed accuracy.
The solution converges if the latest
solution vector and the previous solution
vector agree within a defined tolerance
If the solution vector is not updated at
every step of iteration but at the end of a
complete iteration, then the iterative
technique is known as Gauss iterative
method.
Gauss iterative method is much slower to
converge and may sometimes fail to
converge.
Calculation of line flows, line losses and
slack bus power after convergence:
 Let the line connecting bus p and q have
a series admittance ypq and a total line
charging admittance y′pq.

 Then the current in the line is given by

 The line flow from bus p to bus q is given
by
 
Ppq  jQ pq  V p V p  Vq  y pq  V p ypq / 2
   

 Similarly, the line flow from bus q to bus

p is given by

Pqp  jQqp  Vq Vq  V py
 
pq  V y / 2
 
q pq 
 The line loss in line p-q is given by the
algebraic sum of Ppq+jQpq and Pqp+jQqp
 The slack bus power is obtained by
summing the flows on the lines
terminating at the slack bus or
 Finding the injected current at the
slack bus using the nodal equation
and multiplying its conjugate by the
slack bus voltage.
Example 4
Using the Gauss-Seidel iterative method,
determine the voltages of busbars 2 and 3
after one iteration. Assume the following
initial voltages V2 = V3 = 1 + j0
Busbar Voltage (p.u.) Generation(p.u.) Load(p.u.)

1 0.99˂0o ? 1 + j2
2 ? 0.25 - j0.1 0.2 + j0.1
3 ? 0.4 + j0.1 0
Solution
 3  j 6  2  j 4  1  j 2

Ybus   2  j 4 3  j 6  1  j 2 
  1  j 2  1  j 2 2  j 4 
And
P2  jQ2  PG 2  jQG 2   PD 2  jQD 2 

 0.25  j 0.1  0.2  j 0.1  0.05  j 0.2

P2  jQ2  0.05  j 0.2 Or P2  0.05 and Q2  0.2
Similarly
P3  jQ3  0.4  j 0.1
P3  jQ3  0.4  j 0.1 Or P3  0.4 and Q3  0.1
 1  0.05  j 0.2 
V2        
  2  j 4 0.99  j 0   1  j 2 1  j 0 
3  j6  1  j0 

 0.97  j 0.02

1  0.4  j 0.1 
V3     1  j 2 0.99  j 0    1  j 2 0.97  j 0.02 
2  j 4  1  j0 

 1.04  j 0.08
Assignment 2
Write a computer program to obtain V2
and V3 by GS method. Also calculate
the slack bus power, line flows and line
losses.

Use a tolerance of 0.001 for both the

real and imaginary parts of the
voltages.
Dealing with PV buses
At the PV buses, the unknown δ is
determined during an iteration as
follows:
 For the ith PV bus, calculate the
unknown Qi using the updated
voltage vector
  n 
Qi   Im Vi  YikVk 
 k 1 
  Use this Qi to obtain updated δi as
follows:
1  Pi  jQi n 
updated i  angle of    YikVk 
Yii  Vi * k 1  k i

 Or obtain the voltage Vi as follows:

The Q produced by a generation

source
QG ,min isQconstrained
G  QG , max as follows:
 The lower limit (machine operates with
leading p.f., i.e. QG is negative) ensures that a
small increment in load will not cause the
machine to fall out of step (i.e. lose steady
state stability).
 The upper limit (machine operates with
lagging p.f.) is set by the maximum field or
stator current.
 The limits depend on the generator output
power.
 The limits can be obtained from the operating
chart of the generator.
If at any stage during the
computation, Q at any PV bus
 falls below Qmin, it is fixed at Qmin or
 exceeds Qmax, it is fixed at Qmax
The bus then drops its PV
specification and becomes a PQ
bus.
If in subsequent computation, the
calculated Q does fall within the
available reactive power, the bus
is switched back to a PV bus.
Alternatively, the bus may be
kept continuously as PV as shown
in the flow chart below
NEWTON-RAPHSON
ITERATIVE METHOD
Review of method
 Consider a set of n non-linear algebraic
equations
f i ( x1 , x2 ,....., xn )  0; i  1, 2,...., n
Assume we have guessed a solution
X  ( x1 , x 2 ,....., x n )
o o o o

Because it is a guess
f i ( x1o , x o2 ,....., x on )  0; i  1, 2,...., n
But there must be
X o  (x1o , x o2 ,....., x on )
That will make
f i ( x1o  x1o , x o2  x o2 ,....., x on  xno )  0; i  1, 2,...., n

Expanding these equations in Taylor series

around Xo, we obtain
f i ( x1o , x o2 ,....., x on ) 
 f  o  f 
o
 f 
o

 i  x1   i  x2  .............. i  xn 
 x1   x2   xn  
 higher terms  0; i  1, 2,...., n
Where
o o o
 f i   f i   f i 
  ,   , ...... 
 x1   x2   xn 

Are derivatives of fi with respect to x1, x2,

….,xn evaluated at
o o o
( x1 , x 2 ,....., x n )

 Neglecting higher order terms, we can

write the above equations in matrix form
as
 f 
1
o 

   
f1 o
x1
f1 o
x2      x 
f1 o
xn
o
1 0 
   
 f   x1
2
o
   
f 2 o f o
x2
2
     x 
f o
xn
2
o
2
0 
 
     

      
      
             
 f o   f n o
    f n o f n o  
  x o  0 
 n   x1 x2   xn   n   

Or in a vector matrix form

F  J X  0
o o o

o
 The matrix J
 is known as Jacobian matrix.
 Approximate values of ΔXo can be obtained
from the above linear equations
 And these used to obtain updated values of
X as follows:
X  X  X
1 o o

In general for (r+1)th iteration

r 1
X  X  X r r

Iterations are continued till

f i ( x1 , x2 ,....., xn )   ; i  1, 2,...., n
Where ε is a specified value.
Example 5
Solve the following two algebraic
equations using NR:
2 x  x1 x2  x1  2  0
2
1

x  x2  0
2
1

Possible solutions are

( x , x )  (1,1), (1,1) and (2, 4)
1 2
Solution
Let
f1 ( x1 , x2 )  2 x12  x1 x2  x1  2  0
f 2 ( x1 , x2 )  x12  x2  0

 f1 ( x1 , x2 ) f1 ( x1 , x2 ) 
 x x2  4 x1  x2  1 x1 
J  1
 
 f 2 ( x1 , x2 ) f 2 ( x1 , x2 )   2 x1  1
 x1 x2 
Let’s act like we do not know the
solution and start with initial guess of
( x1 , x 2 )  (0.9,1.1)
o o

3.7 0.9
J 
o

1.8  1 
1   1  0.9 0.18797 0.16917 
J 
o 1
   
 5.32  1.8 3.7  0.33835  0.69549
We also need to evaluate

We usually need to iterate several times in order to

obtain a satisfactory solution.

Exercise 1: Write a simple program to solve the

above problem.
 1.00000001 0.99999999 0.9 1.1
4.00000003 1.00000001 1.003571429 0.996428571
2.00000002 -1 1.000004242 0.999995758
1.00000001 0.99999999
1 1

4.010714286 1.003571429
2.007142857 -1
0.165974401 0.166567167
0.333134333 -0.665675901

3.02072E-08
3.02072E-08

1.00452E-08
-1.00452E-08

1
1
 NEWTON-RAPHSON
ALGORITHM FOR LOAD
FLOW SOLUTION
We assume that all buses are PQ apart
from the slack bus.
At ith PQ bus the non-linear algebraic
equations are
f iP ( V ,  )  Pi ( specified )  Pi  0
f iQ ( V ,  )  Qi ( specified )  Qi  0
Pi and Qi are the given expressions of
injected power in terms of Ybus elements
and voltage magnitudes and angles.
Expanding these equations in Taylor
series around Xo, we obtain
F  J ΔX  [0]
o o o

Or
ΔX  J o
  o 1
F o

For a trial set of variables |Vio| and δio ,

the vector of residuals Fo corresponds
to
 f iP  Pi ( specified )  Pi (calculated )  Pi
o o

f iQ  Qi ( specified )  Qi (calculated )  Q i
o o

While the vector of corrections ΔXo

correspond to |ΔVio|, Δδio
The vector of residuals F is also known as
power mismatch.
For a 3-bus system the equations for
obtaining the approximate corrections
vector can be written as
Note that bus 1 is the slack bus
In general, the equations may be
written in shortened form as

Iterative computation of the bus

voltages of a 3-bus system, for
example, will be done as follows:
1. Assume initial values for Vi, i = 2,
3. It is normal practice to use a
flat voltage start.
2. Calculate P2(calc), P3(calc),
Q2(calc) and Q3(calc).
3. Calculate ΔP2, ΔP3, ΔQ2 and ΔQ3
4. Obtain the matrix of partial
derivatives (Jacobean matrix)
5. Invert the Jacobean matrix and use
it with the power mismatch to
determine Δδ2, Δδ3, ΔV2 and ΔV3
6. Update δ2, δ3, V2 and V3 to end the
iteration. Say V2new = V2old + ΔV2
7. Repeat the iterative process till the
power mismatch is within prescribed
accuracy.
Dealing with PV buses
If the ith bus is a PV bus, Qi is
unspecified so there will be no row
corresponding to ΔQi.
Again since Vi is fixed, there will be
no column corresponding to ΔVi
Example 6
The Ybus of a 3-bus system is given
below. The specified quantities at the
buses are also tabulated below. Find
the load flow solution using the NR
method. Use a tolerance of 0.01 for
power mismatch. Start iteration with
V2 = 1 + j0 and δ3 = 0.
Bus Voltage (p.u.) Generation(p.u.) Load(p.u.)
1 1.04˂0o Unspecified 2.0 + j1.0
(slack bus)
2 Unspecified 0.5 + j1.0 0.0 + j0.0
(PQ bus)
3 |V3| =1.04 0.0 + j?(Unspecified) 1.5+j0.6

24.23  75.95o 12.13104.04 o 12.13104.04 o 

 o 
Ybus   12.13104.04o 24.23  75.95o 12.13104.04 
 12.13104.04o 12.13104.04 o 24.23  75.95o 

Solution
P2  V2 V1 Y21 cos 21  1   2   V2 Y22 cos  22
2

 V2 V3 Y23 cos( 23   3   2 )
P3  V3 V1 Y31 cos 31  1   3 
 V3 V2 Y32 cos 32   2   3   V3 Y33 cos  33
2

Q2   V2 V1 Y21 sin  21  1   2   V2 Y22 sin  22

2

 V2 V3 Y23 sin( 23   3   2 )
Substituting given and assumed values,
we get the calculated powers to be P2o =
-0.23 pu, P3o = 0.12 pu and Q2o = -0.96
pu
The corrections at the end of the first
iteration are obtained as follows:
  P P2 P2    
 2  2
P  2
    2  3  V2   
   P P3 P3   
 P3    3     3

    2  3  V2 
 
   Q2 Q2 Q2   
Q2     V 
  2  3  V2   2 
The Jacobian elements are
evaluated as follows:
 Differentiate the equations for P2,
P3 and Q2 above with respect to δ2,
δ3 and |V2| and
 Substitute the given and assumed
values at the start of iteration.
P2  V2 V1 Y21 cos 21  1   2   V2 Y22 cos  22
2

 V2 V3 Y23 cos( 23   3   2 )
If this problem is solved using a
computer, the solution converges
after three iterations.

The final results are

 |V2| =1.081 pu δ2= -0.024 radians
 |V3| =1.04 pu δ3= -0.0655 radians
Assignment 3
Write a computer program to confirm
the above results. Also calculate the
slack bus power, line flows and line
losses.

Use a tolerance of 0.01 for power

mismatch.
Comparison of GS and NR
methods
GS Method
It works well if complex
numbers are expressed in
rectangular form.
It uses fewer arithmetic
operations to complete an
iteration.
It is slower to converge.
The number of iterations for the
GS method is directly
proportional to the number of
buses.
It has poor convergence if the
slack bus is not properly chosen
and there are series capacitors.
Its chief advantages are that it is
easy to program and it requires
small computer memory.
NR Method
It requires more memory if complex numbers
are expressed in rectangular form. Hence
polar notation is preferred.
Its programming logic is more complex and it
requires large computer memory.
For typical large systems, the time per
iteration in NR method is about 7 times that
of the GS method.
However, the number of iterations is
practically independent of the number of
buses.
It converges after 3 to 5 iterations for a
large system.
Its sensitivity to improper choice of
slack bus and the presence of series
capacitors is minimal.
For large systems, the NR method is
faster, more accurate and more reliable.
The NR method is more suitable than
GS method for all but very small
systems.
Assignment 4
Two generating stations are interconnected
by a cable of impedance 0.005 +j0.05 p.u.
The specified quantities at the station buses
in p.u. are tabulated below. Using NR
method, determine (a) the voltage angle δ
and the generated reactive power QG at
station 2 (b) the generated active and
reactive power PG and QG at station 1.
Use a tolerance of 0.001 for power
mismatch. Start iteration with δ2 = 0.
Bus Voltage (p.u.) Generation(p.u.) Load(p.u.)
1 1.0˂0o Unspecified 25 + j15
(slack bus)
2 |V2| =1.0˂ ? 20 + j?(Unspecified) 15+j5
(PV bus)

Note the following:

 Only P2 equation is required because bus 2 is PV bus
 There will be only one row for the Jacobian
corresponding to ΔP2
 There is only one column corresponding to Δδ2 since
│V2│ is fixed
 P2 is given by