THEORY: Introduction to Load Flow

Load flow (power flow) analysis is the determination of current, voltage, active power and
reactive voltamperes at various points in a power system operating under normal steady-state or static
condition. Load flow studies are made to plan the best operation and control of the existing system as
well as to plan future expansion to keep pace with the load growth. Such studies help in ascertaining
the effects of new loads, new generating stations, new lines and new interconnections before they are
installed. The prior information serves to minimize the system losses and to provide a check on the
system stability.
The mathematical formulation of load flow problem results in a set of algebraic non-linear
equations involving a lot of computational work. Digital computers because of greater flexibility,
economy, accuracy and quicker operation, have practically replaced network analyzers used previously
for the solution of the load flow problems.
Load flow studies are performed to calculate the magnitude and phase angle of voltages at the
buses and also the active power and reactive voltamperes flow for the given terminal or bus conditions.
The following variables are associated with each bus or node:
1. Magnitude of the voltage , Vi
2. Phase angle of the voltage, δi
3. Active power, Pi
4. Reactive voltamperes Qi
Three types of buses or nodes are identified in a power system network for load flow studies. In each
bus two variables are known and two are to be determined. The bus classification depends upon the
specified variables. The buses are classified as follows:

a) Swing Bus or Reference Bus or Slack Bus:-

The voltage magnitude Vi and phase angle δi are specified for this bus. This bus is first to
respond to a changing load condition.

b) Generator Bus or Voltage Controlled Bus or PV Bus:-

Here Vi and Pi are specified. Often the upper and lower limits of Q are also specified.

c) Load Bus or P-Q Bus:-

Here the active power Pi and reactive voltamperes Qi are specified.

Buses with neither generator nor load ma be considered as load buses where Pi = Qi = 0. If any
bus in a power system network has both load and generator, then load is generally treated as
negative generation.

Bus Types for Power Flow Analysis

Bus type Specified variables Unknown variables

Reference Bus or Slack Bus Vi , δi Pi , Qi
Generaor Bus or PV Bus Vi , Pi Qi , δi
Load Bus or P-Q Bus Pi , Qi Vi , δi

One of the generator buses is selected as the reference bus for the reason given below:
 The losses in the system remain unknown until the load flow solution is complete. It is for this
reason that one of the generator buses is made to take the additional real and reactive powers to supply
the transmission losses PL and QL. This bus is, therefore, known as the slack bus or swing bus. Since
the voltages throughout the system must be close to 1.0 per unit, the voltage at the slack bus is
assigned to be 1.0 per unit and it’s angle δi is equal to zero. Generally, the bus connected to the largest
generating station is selected as the slack bus.

In load flow studies single-phase representation with positive-sequence network is used since
power system is generally balanced under normal conditions of operation.

Bus Admittance Matrix: (YBUS)

Consider a small power system network consisting of two generating stations, three transmission lines,
one load and a static capacitor connected to load bus 3. We assume that the network is symmetrical
and operating under balanced load conditions.
In a three node network, we can write the node voltage equation as:

I1 = (y12 + y31) V1 - y12 V2 - y31 V3

I2 = - y12 V1 + (y12 + y23) V2 - y23 V3

- I3 = - y31 V1 - y23 V2 + (y31 + y23 + y30 ) V3

where, y12 = (1/z12), y23 = (1/z23), y31 = (1/z31)

In matrix form
 I1   (Y12 + Y31 ) −Y12 −Y31   V1 
     
 I2  =  −Y12 (Y12 + Y23 ) −Y 23   V2 
 − I3   −Y − + +   
   31 Y 23 (Y31 Y23 Y30 
)  V3 

It is to be noted that all injected currents are positive and extracted currents are negative.
The above equations an be written as:
 I1   Y11 Y12 Y13   V1 
     
 I2  =  Y21 Y22 Y 23   V2 
 − I3     
   Y13 Y 32 Y33   V3 

where, Y11 = (y12 + y31) , Y22 = (y12 + y23) , Y33 = (y31 + y23 + y30) , Y12 = Y21 = - y12
Y23 = Y32 = - y23 , Y13 = Y31 = - y31

The elements Y11, Y22 and Y33 forming the diagonal elements are called self-admittances. The
self-admittance of a node ‘x’ is equal to the sum of admittances of all the elements connected to the
node ‘x’. In general, the diagonal element Ypp is given by

Ypp = yp1 + yp2 + ….. + ypn

Where, ypq is the admittance of the element connected between the buses ‘p’ and ‘q’.
 The off-diagonal terms, Y12, Y13, Y21, Y23, Y31, Y32, are called mutual admittances. All these
terms have a negative sign. In general, the off-diagonal term of the bus admittance matrix is equal to
the negative of the admittance connected between node ‘p’ and node ‘q’.
That is, ypq = - yqp
For a network having ‘n’ nodes (buses) excluding ground, a set of following equations, one for each
node, can be written as
I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 + ………. + Y1n Vn

I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2 + ……….. + Y2n Vn

………………………………………….
………………………………………….

I3 = Yn1 V1 + Yn2 V2 + ………. + Ynn Vn

These equations can be written in matrix form as:

I1 Y11 Y12 Y1n V1

I2 = Y21 Y22 Y2n V2

. . . . .
. . . . .
In Yn1 Yn2 Yn3 Vn

In a more compact form, Ibus = Ybus Vbus

Where, Ibus = bus current vector =

I1
I2
.
.
In

Vbus = bus voltage vector =

V1
V2
.
.
Vn
Ybus = bus admittance matrix =
Y11 Y12 Y1n
Y21 Y22 Y2n
. . .
. . .
Yn1 Yn2 Yn3

Bus voltages are measured with respect to the ground. These equations are called the nodal
current equations. It is a vector equation.
If the power system elements have mutual coupling, the bus admittance matrix cannot be found
directly by inspection of the line diagram.

Advantages of the bus admittance matrix Ybus are as follows:

1. Data preparation is simple.
2. It’s formation and modification are easy.
3. Since it is a sparse matrix (most of its elements are zero), computer memory requirements are
less. For a large power system more than 90 % of its off-diagonal elements are zero. This is
due to the fact that in power system networks each node (bus) is connected to not more than
three nodes in general and an element Ypq exists only if a transmission line links the nodes ‘p’
and ‘q’.

1
I1 Z31
~
V1
3 y30

Z12 Transmission Lines

V3 I3
V2
~ Z23
I2
2
Power system network for power flow
Static Load Flow Equations (SLFE):

From the nodal current equations, the total current entering the ith bus of an ‘n’ bus system is
given by

Ii = Yi1 V1 + Yi2 V2 + ………. + Yij Vj + Yin Vn = ∑ Yik Vk,

Where, k = 1.2.3………., n --- (1)

Let Vk = Vk δk; Yik = Yik θik

Hence, Ii = ∑ Yik Vk  (δk + θik) , where k =1.2.3………., n --- (2)

The complex power injected into the i-th bus is

Si = Pi + jQi = Vi Ii* --- (3)

Since, Vi = Vi δi

Si = Pi + jQi = Vi ∑ Yik Vk  ( δi - δk - θik),

Where, k = 1.2.3………., n --- (4)

Separation of real and imaginary parts gives

Pi = Vi ∑ Yik Vk cos ( δi - δk - θik) , where k = 1.2.3………., n

and i = 1.2.3………., n ----(5)

Qi = Vi ∑ Yik Vk sin ( δi - δk - θik) , where k =1.2.3………., n

and i = 1.2.3………., n ----(6)

Equations (5) and (6) are known as Static Load Flow equations (SLFE). They give ‘2n’ real
and reactive power equations. At each bus we have 4 variables Pi, Qi, Vi and δi resulting total of ‘4n’
variables. In order to find a solution it is necessary to specify two variables at each bus. Thus the
number of unknown variables is reduced to ‘2n’. The solution of these remaining ‘2n’ variables is
done by numerical methods because equations (5) and (6) are non linear. These equations may be
solved by iterative techniques which employ successive approximations eventually converging upon a
solution.

The desirable features of an ideal load flow method are as follows:

1. High speed, that is, fast convergence

2. Minimal storage
3. Simplicity and ease of programming
4. Reliability for ill-conditioned system such as systems having junctions of very high and low
series impedances, long EHV lines, large series capacitances, series and shunt compensation.
These factors affect the convergence.