DC MOTORS

Motors
• Electromagnetic direct current (DC) motors
– Usually runs high speed and low torque (Gear
down)
• Electromagnetic alternating current (AC)
motors
– Seldom used in Robots because power supply is
battery
 DC Motors
Converts Electrical energy into Mechanical
energy
Construction : Same for Generator and motor
Working principle : Whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed in the magnetic field , a
force is set up on the conductor.
 DC Motors
• The most common actuator in mobile robotics
• simple, cheap, and easy to use.
• come in a great variety of sizes, to
accommodate different robots and tasks.
 Principles of Operation
• DC motors convert electrical into mechanical
energy.
• They consist of permanent magnets and loops of
wire inside.
• When current is applied, the wire loops generate
a magnetic field, which reacts against the outside
field of the static magnets.
• The interaction of the fields produces the
movement of the shaft/armature.
• Thus, electromagnetic energy becomes motion.
Working principle of DC motor
Working principle of DC motor
Force in DC motor
Basics of a Electric Motor

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A Two Pole DC Motor

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A Four Pole DC Motor

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Fleming’s Left Hand Rule Or
Motor Rule
FORE FINGER = MAGNETIC FIELD

900
900
900

MIDDLE FINGER= CURRENT

FORCE = B IAl

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Motor (armature) rotation is caused by the simultaneous
attraction and repulsion between the electromagnetic
field in the armature and a fixed magnetic field

Armature

Fixed Magnets
A Conductor in a Fixed A Current Carrying Conductor
Magnetic Field in a Fixed Magnetic Field

Force

Fixed Magnetic Field

Induced Magnetic Field
(Due to current)
 A Motor Armature in a Fixed
Magnetic Field

S
N
Direction of Force (Torque) acting
to turn the Armature (Conductor)

The magnetic field surrounding a current

carrying conductor interacts with an
existing magnetic field.
 Fleming's Left Hand (Motor) Rule
Thumb = Direction of
Conductor Motion Fore Finger = Direction of
Fixed Magnetic Field (N to S)

Middle Finger =
Conventional
Current Direction

Determines the direction of DC current

carrying conductor in a fixed magnetic field
 Fleming's Left Hand (Motor) Rule
Direction of Rotation

Fixed Magnetic Field Direction

Conventional
Current Direction S
N
 A S Use the Left Hand Rule to
Determine the Rotation
Direction of the Armatures
in A and B

N Hint: You will have to turn

your left hand upside down
for example A

B
Notice that when the
current through the
armature is reversed,
S
it moves (Rotates) in
the opposite direction
N
Armature of a DC Motor

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Voltage and Torque developed in a
DC Machine
•Induced EMF, Ea = Kam (volts)

•Developed Torque, Tdev = KaIa (Newton-meter

or Nm)

where m is the speed of the armature in

rad/sec.,  is the flux per pole in weber (Wb)
Ia is the Armature current
Ka is the machine constant

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Power Developed in a DC Machine
Neglecting Losses,
•Input mechanical power to dc
generator

= Tdev m= KaIam =Ea Ia

= Output electric power to load

•Input electrical power to dc motor

= Ea Ia= Ka m Ia = Tdev m

= Output mechanical power to load

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Classification of DC motors

DC motors are mainly classified into

three types as listed below:
 Shunt motor
 Series motor
 Compound motor
Differential compound
Cumulative compound
Torque
The turning or twisting force about an
axis is called torque .
P = T * 2 πN/ 60
Eb Ia = Ta * 2 πN/ 60
T ∞φIa
Ta ∞ I2a
Characteristic of DC motors

 TT/ Ia characteristic

 N/ Ia characteristic

 N/T characteristic
 Separately Excited DC Motor
Ra
If Rf

+
+
Vf +
Ea Armature Vt
- Field Coil -
- Ia

Field equation: Vf=RfIf Armature equation: Ea=Vt-IaRa

Ea=Kam

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Separately Excited DC Motor
Torque-speed Characteristics
RA
+
+ Armature
Vf - Mechanical Load
-

Field Coil

Vt Ra
m   T
m K a ( K a ) 2

T
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 Series Excited DC Motor
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Ra Rsr Rae

+
Armature

Series Field Coil -

T Vt R  Rsr  Rae
m   a
K srT K sr

m
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Equivalence of motor and generator

•In every generator there is a motor (Tdev opposes Tpm)

•In every motor there is a generator (Ea opposes VT)

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 Losses in dc machines-shunt motor
example
If Ia Ia – If
+ +
Vt
Ea
Shunt Field Coil -
-
Armature Mechanical Load
Field coil has Rfw :
Implicit field resistance
Ra
Rfc

Field equation: Vt=Rf If Armature equation: Vt=Ea+Ia Ra

Rf=Rfw+Rfc Ea=Kam

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 Len’s Law
The direction of induced EMF is given by
Lenz’s law .
According to this law, the induced EMF will
be acting in such a way so as to oppose the
very cause of production of it .

e = -N (dØ/dt) volts
 Back emf
• induced EMF in the rotating armature
conductors always acts in the opposite
direction of the supply voltage .
• According to the Lenz’s law, the direction of
the induced EMF is always so as to oppose
the cause producing it .
• In a DC motor , the supply voltage is the
cause and hence this induced EMFopposes
the supply voltageoses the supply voltage.
back emf (also known as “counter emf”)
A changing magnetic field in wire produces a current. A
constant magnetic field does not.

We saw how changing the magnetic field experienced by a

coil of wire produces ac current.

But the electrical current produces a magnetic field, which by

Lenz’s law, opposes the change in flux which produced the
current in the first place.
The effect is “like” that of friction.

The counter emf is “like” friction that opposes the original

change of current.

Motors have many coils of wire, and thus generate a large

counter emf when they are running.
If your house lights dim when an appliance starts up, that’s
because the appliance is drawing lots of current and not
producing a counter emf.

When the appliance reaches operating speed, the counter emf

reduces the current flow and the lights “undim.”

Motors have a rated speed when they are manufactured. If

the motor runs at a lower speed, there is less-than-expected
counter emf, and the motor can draw more-than-expected
current.

If a motor is jammed or overloaded and slows or stops, it can

draw enough current to melt the windings and burn out. Or
even burn up.
Two brief examples

Induced emf on an airplane wing.

Blood flow measurement.

Commutation Process-in detail.

Example: An airplane travels 1000 km/h in a region where the
earth’s field is 5x10-5 T and is vertical. What is the potential
difference induced between the wing tips that are 70 m apart?

     
     
     
     v
     
     
The electrons “pile up” on the left hand wing of the plane,
leaving an excess of + charge on the right hand wing.

The equation for  at the bottom of

slide 10 gives the potential difference.
(You’d have to derive this on a test.) -
     
ε =B v      
     
ε =  5×10-5 T   70 m   280 m/s       v
     
ε = 1V      
+

No danger to passengers! (But I would want my airplane

designers to be aware of this.)
Example: Blood contains charged ions, so blood flow can be
measured by applying a magnetic field and measuring the
induced emf. If a blood vessel is 2 mm in diameter and a 0.08
T magnetic field causes an induced emf of 0.1 mv, what is the
flow velocity of the blood?

=Bℓv

v =  / (B ℓ)
If B is applied  to the blood vessel, then B is  to v. The
ions flow along the blood vessel, but the emf is induced across
the blood vessel, so ℓ is the diameter of the blood vessel.

v = (0.1x10-3 V) / ( (0.08 T)(0.2x10-3 m) )

v = 0.63 m/s
Speed control of DC motors
According to the speed equation of a dc motor
N ∞ Eb/φ
∞ V- Ia Ra/ φ
Thus speed can be controlled by-
Flux control method: By Changing the flux by
controlling the current through the field winding.
Armature control method: By Changing the
armature resistance which in turn changes the
voltage applied across the armature
Speed Control of Separately Excited
DC Motor(2)
•By Controlling Terminal Voltage Vt and keeping If or 
constant at rated value .This method of speed control is applicable
for speeds below rated or base speed.
T1<T2< T3 V1<V2<V3
m
T1 T2 T3

Vt Ra
m   T
K a ( K a ) 2

V1 V2 V3 VT

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 Speed Control of Separately Excited
DC Motor
•By Controlling(reducing) Field Current If or  and keeping
Vt at rated value. This method of speed control is applicable
for speeds above rated speed.

T1<T2< T3  1>  2>  3

m

1 Vt Ra
T1 m   T
K a ( K a ) 2

2 T2
T3
3

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Flux control
Advantages of flux control:
It provides relatively smooth and easy control
Speed control above rated speed is possible
As the field winding resistance is high the field current is
small. Power loss in the external resistance is small . Hence
this method is economical
Disadvantages:
Flux can be increased only upto its rated value
High speed affects the commutation, motor operation
becomes unstable
Armature voltage control method
The speed is directly proportional to the voltage
applied across the armature .
Voltage across armature can be controlled by adding
a variable resistance in series with the armature
Potential divider control :
If the speed control from zero to the rated speed is
required , by rheostatic method then the voltage
across the armature can be varied by connecting
rheostat in a potential divider arrangement .
 Starters for DC motors
Needed to limit the starting current .
1. Two point starter
2. Three point starter
3. Four point starter
 Testing of DC machines
To determine the efficiency of as DC motor , the output and input
should be known.
There are two methods.
The load test or The direct method
The indirect method
Direct method: In this method , the efficiency is determined by
knowing the input and output power of the motor.
Indirect method: Swinburne’s test is an indirect method of testing
DC shunt machines to predetermine the effficency , as a motor
and as a Generator. In this method, efficiency is calculated by
determining the losses .
Applications:
Shunt Motor:
Blowers and fans
Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps
Lathe machines
Machine tools
Milling machines
Drilling machines
Applications:
Series Motor:
Cranes
Hoists , Elevators
Trolleys
Conveyors
Electric locomotives
Applications:
Cumulative compound Motor:
Rolling mills
Punches
Shears
Heavy planers
Elevators
 Starters
• The DC motor unlike other types of motor has
a very high starting current .
• This limitation to the starting current of dc
motor is brought about by means of the
starter.
• Starters are devices containing a variable
resistance connected in series to the armature
winding so as to limit the starting.
 Vs  Eb  I a Ra
P ZN
Eb 
60a
• From this equation we can see that Eb is
directly proportional to the speed N of the
motor.
• Now since at starting N = 0, Eb is also zero, and
under this circumstance the voltage equation
is modified to
Vs  0  I a Ra

Vs
Ia 
Ra
• the motor the armature resistance is kept very
small usually of the order of 0.5 Ω and the
bare minimum supply voltage being 220 volts.
• Even under these circumstance the starting
current, Ia is as high as 220/0.5 amp = 440
amp.
• Such high starting current of dc motor creates
two major problems.
• 1) Firstly, current of the order of 400 A has the
potential of damaging the internal circuit of
the armature winding of dc motor at the very
onset.
• 2)Very high electromagnetic starting torque of
DC motor is produced by virtue of the high
starting current, which has the potential of
producing huge centrifugal force capable of
flying off the rotor winding from the slots.
• Hence to reduce high starting current and high
starting torque of DC motor, starters are
needed.
• The main principal of this being the addition
of external electrical resistance Rext to the
armature winding, so as to increase the
effective resistance to Ra + Rext, thus limiting
the armature current to the rated value.
• The new value of starting armature current is
desirably low and is given by.
Vs
Ia 
Ra  R ext
• Now as the motor continues to run and gather
speed, the back emf successively develops and
increases, countering the supply voltage,
resulting in the decrease of the net working
voltage. Thus now,
Vs  Eb
Ia 
Ra  R ext
• At this moment to maintain the armature
current to its rated value, Rext is progressively
decreased unless its made zero, when the
back emf produced is at its maximum.
• To regulate the external electrical resistance
starters are needed.
3point Starters
 Construction
• The contact points of these sections are called studs and are
shown separately as OFF, 1, 2,3,4,5, RUN.
• Other than that there are 3 main points, referred to as
– 1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
– 2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature
winding.)
– 3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.) 3
point starter
• the point 'L' is connected to an electromagnet called overload
release (OLR).
• The other end of 'OLR' is connected to the lower end of
conducting lever of starter handle where a spring is also
attached with it and the starter handle contains also a soft iron
piece housed on it.
• This handle is free to move to the other side RUN against the
force of the spring. This spring brings back the handle to its
original OFF position under the influence of its own force.
• Another parallel path is derived from the stud '1', given to the
another electromagnet called No Volt Coil (NVC) which is
further connected to terminal 'F'. The starting resistance at
starting is entirely in series with the armature.
• The OLR and NVC acts as the two protecting devices of the
starter.
 Working of 3-point starter
• To start with the handle is in the OFF position when the supply
to the DC motor is switched on.
• Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make
a contact with stud No. 1.
• At this point, field winding of the shunt or the compound
motor gets supply through the parallel path provided to starting
resistance, through No Voltage Coil, while entire starting
resistance comes in series with the armature.
• The high starting armature current thus gets limited as the
current equation at this stage becomes Ia = E/(Ra+Rst).
• As the handle is moved further, it goes on making contact with
studs 2, 3, 4 etc., thus gradually cutting off the series resistance
from the armature circuit as the motor gathers speed.
• Finally when the starter handle is in 'RUN' position, the entire
starting resistance is eliminated and the motor runs with
normal speed.
• This is because back emf is developed consequently with
speed to counter the supply voltage and reduce the armature
current.
• So the external electrical resistance is not required anymore,
and is removed for optimum operation. The handle is moved
manually from OFF to the RUN position with development of
speed.
•
 Working of NVC
• The supply to the field winding is derived through no voltage
coil. So when field current flows, the NVC is magnetized.
• Now when the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron piece
connected to the handle and gets attracted by the magnetic
force produced by NVC, because of flow of current through
it.
• The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in
'RUN' position against the force of the spring as long as supply
is given to the motor.
• Thus NVC holds the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence
also called hold on coil.
• Now when there is any kind of supply failure, the current flow
through NVC is affected and it immediately looses its
magnetic property and is unable to keep the soft iron piece on
the handle, attracted.
• At this point under the action of the spring force, the handle
comes back to OFF position, opening the circuit and thus
switching off the motor.
• So due to the combination of NVC and the spring, the starter
handle always comes back to OFF position whenever there is
any supply problems.
• Thus it also acts as a protective device safeguarding the motor
from any kind of abnormality.
4-POINT STARTER
 Construction
• A 4 point starter has 4 main operational points, namely
– 1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
– 2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature
winding.)
– 3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
– 4. A 4th point N. (Connected to the No Voltage Coil)
• No Voltage Coil is connected independently across the supply
through the fourth terminal called 'N' in addition to the 'L', 'F'
and 'A'.
• Hence, any change in the field supply current does not
bring about any difference in the performance of the
NVC.
• Thus it must be ensured that no voltage coil always
produce a force which is strong enough to hold the
handle in its 'RUN' position, against force of the spring,
under all the operational conditions.
• This current is adjusted by ,R connected in series with
the NVC using fourth point 'N‘.
• Apart from this above mentioned fact, the 4 point and 3
point starters are similar in all other ways.