BIOL1201 2.introduction Macromolecules JL 2021

Macronutrients (Carbohydrate,
Protein, Lipids) and Water

1
Learning Outcomes
Students will learn:

• Types of macromolecules found in our food
• Biochemical function of macronutrients and water in
human body
• Identify sources of the macronutrients and water in
our diet
2
The University of Hong Kong, Copyrighted and All Rights Reserved, Dr. Jetty Lee.
Types of carbohydrates
• The major nutritional role of carbohydrates is to

provide energy and digestible carbohydrates provide
4 cal/g
• No single carbohydrate is essential, but carbohydrates
do participate in many required functions in the body
3
Functions of carbohydrates
• Carbohydrate have different functions in living things:
• Glucose - energy source for cell respiration

• Lactose - sugar/source of energy in milk
• Fructose - sweetness most succulent fruits
• Sucrose - transport sugar in plants
• Glycogen - stores glucose in liver and muscles
• Starch – storage carbohydrates in plant
• Cellulose - primary component of plant cell wall
4
Functions of carbohydrates in cells
• Major source of energy
• Immediate energy in the form of glucose
5
Glucose and glycolysis
• What is glycolysis?
- A process where the monosaccharide glucose is
oxidized, releasing the energy stored in its bonds to
produce ATP
- It is central in generating both energy and metabolic
intermediates
• Glycolysis generates energy for the cell and creates pyruvate

molecules that can be processed further through the aerobic
Krebs cycle (or critic acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle)
6
Glycolysis and energy
• Glycolysis has two phases:
• In the first phase,
- A series of five reactions, glucose is broken down to two
molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate with the use of 2 ATP
molecules
• In the second phase,
- Five subsequent reactions convert the two molecules of
glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate into two molecules of pyruvate,
generating 4 ATP molecules
- The net ATP production in glycolysis is 2 molecules of

ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation
7
2.5 ATP/NADH and 1.5 ATP/FADH2 are produced in the electron transport chain
Cellular respiration:
(5ATP)
(15ATP) (3ATP)
(5ATP)
(5ATP)
33ATP+4ATP=37ATP
8
Cellular respiration:
Glycolysis :
Cytoplasm
i. Uses 2 ATP to break down Glucose
ii. NADH & 4ATP (net gain +2 ATP) are created
iii. The NADH goes to the Krebs Cycle
Krebs Cycle
i.Uses Oxygen and Acetyl-CoA Mitochondria
ii.Makes 2 ATP, NADH, & FADH2 (electron carriers)
iii.Carbon Dioxide is given off as a by-product
iv.The NADH goes on to the ETC
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

i. Uses Oxygen and NADH Mitochondria
ii. Make 32 ATP and Water (used as an electron acceptor)
9
Carbohydrates - Energy Stores
• Both Liver and Muscle store glucose as energy source
Glycogenesis = glucose makes glycogen (anabolism)

10
Glycogenolysis = glycogen makes glucose (catabolism) 10
Problems with high sugars intake
• Dental caries
• Empty calories
- Deficiency in essential nutrients
• Obesity
- Increased blood triglyceride levels
- Increased fat synthesis
• Heart disease (cardiovascular disease (CVD))
- Increased low density lipoprotein (LDL)
- Increased fat synthesis
- Increased risk of developing diabetes
- Increased insulin resistance in cells
11
Blood sugar is regulated/stored by the metabolic
hormones' insulin and glucagon
High blood glucose:

Insulin (metabolic hormone)
signals to remove glucose to liver
and stores as glycogen
Low blood glucose:

Glucagon (metabolic hormone)
signals liver to convert glycogen
to glucose which then enters the
blood
12
Overwork the normal blood glucose control system!
Health problem with high sugary foods in presence of

insulin deficiency and/or insulin insensitivity 13
➔Caused by insulin insensitivity and/or deficiency
Body does not make enough insulin Body cannot use insulin properly
14
Many fast-food/drinks have added sugar
• The American Heart Association suggests only eating 100 to 150
calories of added sugar per day
• That’s about 6 to 9teaspoons of sugar
• Many fast-food drinks alone hold well over 12 ounces
• A 12-ounce (360ml) can of soda contains 8 teaspoons of sugar
• That equals 130 calories, 39 grams of sugar, and nothing else
15
High calorie sugary drinks
• Do you know the sugar (carbohydrate) content of your foods – hence
the calories intake?
16
Do you know the sugar calorie content of these foods?
17
Do you know the sugar calorie content of these packaged foods?
18
Taiwanese
Bubble/
19
Pearl Tea
Fruits have less simple sugar
20
Recommended carbohydrate intake
• RDA is 130 g/day for adults
• Recommended: 45-65% of total kcal
• Common intake level: 180-330 g of CHO/day (primarily from
white bread, soda, baked goods)
- 50% of total kcal
21
22
Functions of Dietary Fibre
- Intrinsic, hormonal, and colonic
effects of dietary fibre decrease food
intake by promoting satiation
and/or satiety
- Satiation is defined as the
satisfaction of appetite that develops
during the course of eating and
eventually results in the cessation of
eating
- Satiety refers to the state in which
further eating is inhibited and
occurs as a consequence of having
eaten
- Dietary fibre also decreases gastric
emptying and/or slows energy and
nutrient absorption, leading to lower
postprandial glucose and lipid levels
- Dietary fibre may also influence fat
oxidation and fat storage
Dietary fibre affects physiologic measurements - Dietary fibres added to a diet, the
rate of glucose appearance in the
blood is slowed, and insulin
secretion is subsequently decreased
Slavin J, doi:10.1016/j.nut.2004.08.018 23
Chronic Disease Risk 25
Types of Fibre
Decrease fiber intake Increase fiber intake
25
Change in Visceral Fat Volume (%)

20
15
10
• Soluble 5
- Forms a gel and helps to lower Effect of Fiber on Body Weight and Composition
-5
171
cholesterol and blood glucose Fig. 2.3 Effect of change of fiber density by increasing or lowering fiber intake by 3 g/1000 kcal on visceral fat
volume over 2 years in overweight Latino youth (p = 0.02) [76]
Chronic Disease Risk Weight (kg) BMI (units) Body fat (%) 27
and0.0percent body fat [77]. As fiber is a major shortfall “nutrient” in Western children and adolescent
- Some can be break down by gut bacteria to-0.5
Usual diet
diets, (20
these studies
g fiber)
Healthy diet (31 g
0 demonstrate the importance
fiber)
Usual diet + 36 g
of healthy dietary
psyllium
Healthy diet + 28 g
patterns with adequate fiber in youth
psyllium
prevent weight and abdominal fat gain or to promote weight loss in overweight or obese youth.
and serve as prebiotic -1.0
Risk of Type 2 Diabetes (%)

Change from Baseline
-10
Chronic
-1.5
Disease Risk
-20
Cardiovascular
-2.0 Disease (CVD)
A-2.5
number of review articles conclude that adequate fiber intake significantly reduces the risk of CVD
• Insoluble
-30
[3–9]. Several dose-response meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies suggest an inverse association
between
-3.0 fiber intake and CVD risk with a 9–11% reduction per 7–10 g fiber increment/day [78, 79]. There
is strong clinical evidence that healthy dietary patterns can significantly lower the CVD risk by 22–59%
- Adds bulk to stools which helps to depending
-3.5 on -40
the level
Academy of Nutrition(%)
of adherence
15 g/day
and
[2]. In 2008,
20 g/day
-2 Dietetics Evidence
-3
after thorough
25 g/day
Analysis
-11
30 g/dayevaluation of the available data, the
35 g/day
Library-24Committee -34 concluded that higher-fiber
Fig. 9.3 Effect
intakes mayofhelpusualtodiet and healthy
attenuate diet with
elevated and without
serum lipid added
levels,psyllium
blood (12 g 3×/day)
pressure, andin 72 obese adults
systemic (mean
inflammatory
prevent constipation Fig.43 years;
age 2.4 Effect
markers as
of increasing
BMI
key 34)
mechanisms
fiber intake
after 12 weeks to
on type 2[53]
(p < 0.05)
explain
cohort studies (p for nonlinearity <0.01) [15]
diabetes risk from a dose-response meta-analysis of 17 prospective
fiber’s CVD protective properties [3].
Investigation of Cancer (EPIC) Norfolk cohort (22,915 participants; mean age 58 years; mean BMI 26)
The European Prospective
- Promotes regularity and softer, larger

Body weight (kg) p-trend = 0.001
found fiber intake to be inversely associated with total cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglycerides and posi-
intively
risk above 25 gwith
fiber/day Waist[15].
circumference (cm) p-trend = 0.033that the risk of diabetes
associated HDL-C(Fig. 2.4)
regardless This analysis
of genetic profile alsoasfound
such APOE polymorphism [80].
decreased with cereal fiber, fruit fiber, and insoluble
Total fiber(g/1,000
fiber density intake. The
kcal)InterAct study meta-analysis
stool (19 cohort studies;0 617,968 participants; age 21–79 years; 4–16 years of follow-up; 41,066 diabe-
tes cases) reported a diabetes
Coronary
fiber Heart
< 11
-0.5 fiberDisease
by 25%, fruit
risk reduction
by 5%, and (CHD)
11per
to 13 13 toincrease
10 g fiber/day 15.5 > 15.5
in total fiber by 9%, cereal
vegetable fiber by 7%. The overall evidence indicates that the
- Reduces hemorrhoids and diverticula intake of total and cereal fiber is significantly inversely related to the risk of diabetes [89]. The
EPIC-InterAct Study -1 (26,088 participants; mean baseline age 52 years; 10.8 years of follow-up;
Change from Baseline

The US
11,559 Academywith
participants of Sciences,
diabetes)Institute
reportedofthatMedicine established
fiber intake the fiber
of 26.5 g/day wasadequate intake
associated withprimarily
a
(formation of pockets in lower colon) based

Finnish
on fiber’s
significant 18%-1.5
analyses Diabetes
risk of mean
lower risk on
all coronary
effects
of prospective
reducingvs.
of diabetes
studies
Prevention
events by
Trialestimate
8–11%
coronary heart disease
19 g fiber/day,
that for each overweight
(522 middle-aged,
(CHD) risk adjustments
after multivariate
10 g/day increment
[6]. Dose-response
subjects; of172
fiber,
men
[89]. A meta-
there
andis350
decreased
women; age -2 55 years; mean BMIand 31; CHD deaths
3 years) by 24%
showed that [79, 81]. Numerous
a comprehensive randomized
lifestyle pro- trials
havewith
gram consistently demonstratedexercise,
15 g fiber/1000 kcal, that intakes
and 5% of ≥26–30 g
weight losstotal fiber/day from
significantly loweredwhole foods risk
diabetes (including
bywhole
58% grains, especially
-2.5
over 3 years [90]. oats and barley,
A pooled fruit,
analysis of vegetables,
three large USlegumes,
cohortnuts) or ≥3–12 g
studies suggests isolated
that dietssoluble,
high in glycemic index or glycemic load foods and low in cereal fiber (refined carbohydrates) are
associated with a-3 significantly higher risk of diabetes [91]. The 2015 US Dietary Guidelines
Advisory Committee Scientific Report analysis showed that healthy dietary patterns significantly
lower the risk of-3.5 developing diabetes by 21% compared to a 44% increased risk seen with a low-
fiber Western-type diet [2]. The association between fiber and diabetes is partially explained by
Dreher ML 2018, Dietary Fiber in Health and Disease
Fig. 9.4 Effect of dietary fiber density on body weight and waist circumference in 522 overweight/obese prediabetic
fiber’sover
adults effect on reducing
3 years the risk
from the Finnish of body
Diabetes weightStudy
Prevention gain (multivariate
and obesityadjusted)
[90]. [55] 24
low-fiber diet (Fig. 9.5). The daily substitution of a fiber-rich food for a lower fiber, energy dense food
item at each meal and one snack is one approach to changing from a Western diet (15–17 g of daily
Functions and sources of insoluble and soluble fibre
25
Recommended fibre intake
• Adequate Intake is 26 g/day for women and 38 g/day for men
• Daily Value= 28 g/day
Daily fiber intake

children 1 to 3 years 19 g
children 4 to 8 years 25 g
children 9 to 13 years 26 g (female), 31 g (male)
adolescents 14 to 18 years 26 g (female), 38 g (male)
Adults (50 years or

Adults (over 50)
younger)
men 38 g 30 g
women 25 g 21 g
26
Per Serving Per 75g
Per Slice Per 100g
27
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816495-2.00003-4 28
Problem with excessive intakes of dietary fibre
• Too much fiber (>60 g/day) will:

- Dehydration
- Nutrient malabsorption: bind to some vitamins
(iron, zinc, copper etc.), reducing their
bioavailability
- Fill the stomach of a young child quickly
- Bloating and flatulence
- Abdominal pain
- Intestinal blockage
- Constipation
29
Proteins
• Made up of chains of amino acids; classified by number of
amino acids in a chain
• Peptides: fewer than 50 amino acids
- Dipeptides: 2 amino acids
- Tripeptides: 3 amino acids
- Polypeptides: more than 10 amino acids
• Proteins: more than 50 amino acids.
- Typically, 100 to 10,000 amino acids linked together
- Chains are synthesizes based on specific bodily DNA
• Amino acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen
30
Structure of an Amino Acid
Condensation and hydrolysis reaction
anabolism
catabolism
31
Essential, non-essential and conditionally essential
amino acids
• Essential amino acids

- Humans cannot synthesize these amino acids from other
molecules
- Must be consumed in the diet
• Non-essential amino acids

- Can be synthesized in the body
• Conditionally essential amino acids

- Cannot be synthesized due to illness or lack of necessary
precursor e.g. tyrosine (could be made from phenylalanine)
32
33
Protein in our body
34
Protein Metabolism
• Protein metabolism (deamination and transamination) takes
place in the LIVER
• Excessive dietary proteins are broken down in a process called

deamination (removal of an amino group from a molecule)
• The amino acid pool acts as a reservoir for:

(a) non-essential amino acids synthesis and
(b) synthesis of new proteins such as albumin and plasma
proteins etc
35
are not permitted on blackboard due to size limitations.
Sources and
A. SOURCES ANDFates of AMINO
FATES OF Amino Acids
ACIDS IN THEin Human Body
BODY
36
Catabolism of Amino Acid
B. PROTEIN CATABOLISM
I. DIET Proteolysis of Proteolysis of Controlled

dietary proteins proteins that proteolysis of
1. ~1/3 in the stomach move through ubiquitin-tagged
of the amino acids in
and lumen of the the endocytic intracellular
the amino acid pool
come from dietary small intestine pathway takes proteins takes
proteins. releases free place in the place in the
2. ~2/3 amino acids into lysosomes of proteasomes of
of the amino acids in the bloodstream. all cells. all cells.
the amino acid pool
come from
intracellular sources.
AMINO ACID POOL
II. LYSOSOMAL DEGRADATION
1. Lysosomes degrade proteins taken up by endocytosis, or proteins 37

that
traffic within the endocytic pathway.
Catabolism of Amino Acid
• The important reaction commonly employed in the breakdown of an amino acid is
always the removal of its a-amino group. The product ammonia is excreted after
conversion to urea or other products and the carbon skeleton is degraded to CO2
releasing energy
• The important reaction involved in the deamination of amino acids is
i. Transamination
Most amino acids are deaminated by transamination reaction catalysed by
aminotransferases or transaminases
The a-amino group present in an amino acid is transferred to an a-keto acid to yield a
new amino acid and the a-keto acid of the original amino acid
Glutamate + oxaloacetate a-ketoglutarate + aspartate pyridoxal phosphate

(vitamin B6)
ii. Oxidative deamination:

2 ATP used 2 ATP gained
Urea cycle: Amino acid + FAD + H2O a-Keto acid + NH3 + FADH2
The ammonia produced is then converted to urea in mammals.
iii. Non oxidative deamination:

Amino acids such as serine and histidine are deaminated non-oxidatively 38
Metabolic Fate of Amino Acids
39
The Biological Functions of Proteins
40
How much protein do you need?
• Healthy, non-pregnant adults:
• Should consume enough to replace what is used every day
• The goal is nitrogen balance
• Pregnant woman, people recovering from surgery or injury, and growing children:
• Should consume enough to build new tissue
Nitrogen balance
and imbalance
41
Protein Requirement
• Depends on its nutritive value, caloric intake and physiological

states (growth, pregnancy, lactation) of the individual
• Protein intake recommendations:

• 10–35% of total daily kilocalories
• Adults over 18 (0.8-1.0 g/kg daily): 20% higher for men than
women
• Double for growing age e.g. growing child 2g/kg versus 1g/kg
for adults
• Additional requirement (20-30% above normal) for pregnant
and lactating women
42
Protein Requirement
• The lowest level of dietary protein intake that will balance the losses
of nitrogen from the body, and thus maintain body protein mass
“The question of how much protein must be supplied in the diet

depends on the DIGESTIBILITY and AVAILABILITY of
amino acids supplied by a specific diet and the ability of the consumer
to respond to the amino acid supply with deposition of body protein”
Fuller MF & Wang TC. Digestible ideal protein – a measure of dietary protein value. Pig News Information 1990; 11:
353-357
43
Protein Requirement
• Estimating the amount of biologically utilizable protein depends on both the
AMOUNT and QUALITY of protein consumed
• Even though higher amino acid requirements can be met from recommended
intakes of high-quality proteins, the amounts of low-quality protein adults need
to meet protein requirements may be greater
• Adequacy can be achieved within a diet comprised of poor-quality protein, if
large enough amounts are ingested to satisfy the need for the limiting amino acids
Consume less
meat, enjoy more
variety?
High quality Low quality
↑ 44
Dietary Sources of Proteins
• It is recommended that a healthy

eating pattern consists of
ingesting a variety of high-quality
protein foods to ensure a
sufficient supply of amino acids
for lean mass (e.g., muscle)
maintenance or growth, and
overall diet quality. In other words,
the constituent amino acids of a
protein food should match the
requirement of the consumer and
consist of a variety of protein
foods to ensure nutrient density
• In general, animal protein

sources are superior to
vegetable protein sources
45
Not ALL Proteins are High Quality
• High quality protein:

- Is digestible
- Contains all essential amino acids
- Provides adequate amino acid to synthesize non-essential
amino acid
• Protein Quality helps to be aware of:
- Amino acid score
- Limiting protein
- Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS)
- Biological value of protein rates absorption and retention of
protein for use
46
Protein Quality
• A factor that affects food’s nutritional, nutritive or biological value
• Important aspects of protein quality:
- The characteristics of the protein and the food matrix in which it is
consumed
- The demands of the individual consuming the food, as influenced by
age, health status, physiologic status, and energy balance
“Protein quality describes characteristics of a protein in relation to its ability to

achieve defined metabolic actions”
• Any factor that alters digestibility and AA availability would in turn

affect the nutritional value of the protein
Millward DJ et al. Protein quality assessment: impact of expanding understanding of protein and amino acid needs for optimal
health. AJCN 2008; 87(suppl): 1576S-81S
47
Protein Quality
• What are complete proteins?
- Contain all nine essential amino acids
- Usually, animal source are complete proteins
- Are considered higher quality
• What are incomplete proteins ?
- Low in one or more essential amino acid (limiting amino acid)
- Usually, plant sources are incomplete proteins
- So, in our diet, we should complete the amino acid pool by complementing each
other:
• Legumes: ↓ methionine, ↑ lysine
• Grains: ↑ methionine, ↓ lysine
• Not required at each meal → overall intake important
Legumes Grains
48
Limiting Amino Acid

“If a protein doesn't provide enough of the essential amino acid e.g. isoleucine, it would be considered
incomplete. Isoleucine would be referred to as the limiting amino acid, because there is not enough of it for
the protein to be complete. Most plant foods are incomplete proteins, with a few exceptions such as soy”
• Cereals (most) – lysine (also isoleucine, threonine,
tryptophan)
• Legumes - Sulfur amino acids (cysteine/methionine,
trytophan)
• It is possible to pair foods containing incomplete
proteins with different limiting amino acids to provide
adequate amounts of the essential amino acids. These
two proteins are called complementary proteins,
because they supply the amino acid(s) missing in the
other protein (important for vegetarians)
Table 2.2G.1 Limiting amino acids in some common plant foods1

Food Amino Acid(s)
Beans and Most Legumes Methionine, Tryptophan
Tree Nuts and Seeds Methionine, Lysine
Grains Lysine
Vegetables Methionine, Lysine 49
Fibre and Anti-Nutritional Factors

• Fibre influences the susceptibility of food protein to digestion. These are
antinutritional factors that have been reported to adversely affect
the digestibility of protein, bioavailability of amino acids and
protein quality of foods
• The most well-described antinutritional factors found in plants
that limit protein digestibility are protease inhibitors (e.g., trypsin
and chymotrypsin inhibitors), tannins and phytates
• Soybean and faba bean contains trypsin inhibitor. Mature
legumes as well as bran and germ of cereal grains contain the
high concentrations of trypsin inhibitors
Soy Faba
Soaking
reduces the
Prevent digestion of
anti-nutrient
protein in the body factor
50
All absorbed?
Bioavailability or Digestibility of Protein
• It is a common misconception that all proteins

are created equal. Depending on the type of
protein ingested, protein bioavailability, that is,
how well your body can utilize a specific type of
protein, can change drastically
• Its capacity to provide metabolically available
Nitrogen and Amino Acids to tissues and
organs
- Digestibility - defined in terms of the balance of amino acid across the entire
gut (mouth to anus: faecal digestibility), based on the principle that the difference
between intake and losses provides a measure of the extent of digestion and
absorption of food protein as amino acid by the gastrointestinal tract for use by
the body
- Biovailability - the proportion of ingested dietary amino acid that is absorbed in
a chemical form suitable for it to be utilized for protein synthesis or metabolism:
it is an estimation
51
Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS)
• The current (preferred or “best”) internationally approved method for protein quality
assessment for humans, adopted by FAO/WHO in 1991
• Relies on determination of protein contents, amino acid profile and protein digestibility
• Does not include impact of anti-nutritional factors associated with proteins, including
naturally occurring and those formed during processing, on protein digestibility and
quality
• Faecal digestibility may overestimate due to microbial degradation
• Humans consume proteins

from varied protein
sources. PDCAAS values
of single protein sources
may not have practical
significance.
52
PDCAAS
100% is the maximum score
mg of limiting AA (LAA) in
1 g test protein
PDCAAS True fecal digestibility
(%) mg of same AA in (DF; %)
1 g of reference or
“ideal” protein
DF = (NI – NFΔ) / NI where

NI = nitrogen intake (g protein/6.25)
NFΔ = fecal nitrogen on a diet containing the protein minus fecal nitrogen
on a protein-free diet (corrects for endogenous nitrogen)
• Complete proteins can often have PDCAAS values of ≥ 1.00

• Standard practice is to truncate values exceeding 1.00 to simply 1.00
WHO Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition. Report of a Joint WHO/FAO/UNU Expert
53
Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series 935. WHO, 2002.
Example of PDCAAS Calculation
• Identify the limiting amino acid (LAA) in a protein source
mg /g Protein
Whole Wheat IOM Standard (B)
Amino Acid Flour (A) Ratio (A/B)
Histidine 22 18 1.22
Isoleucine 40 25 1.6
Leucine 63 55 1.15
Lysine 26 51 0.51 (LAA, <1.0)
Met + Cys 35 25 1.4
Phe + Tyr 81 47 1.72
Threonine 27 27 1.00
Tryptophan 11 7 1.57
Valine 43 32 1.34
Institute of Medicine (IOM). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, 54
Cholesterol, Fiber, protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2005, p. 686-689.
Example of PDCAAS calculation
• PDCAAS of whole wheat = ratio for lysine (LAA) x digestibility
- (0.51/1.0) × 0.85 = 0.433 Digestibility=0.85
- Therefore, whole wheat is an incomplete protein and not
suitable as a sole protein source in the diet
Protein Source PDCAAS

Egg 1.0
Milk 1.0
Beef 0.92
Soy protein 1.0
Wheat 0.42
Whey protein 1.0
Casein 1.0
Hoffman JR and Falvo MJ. J Sports Sci
Med. 2004;3:118–130.
Peanuts 0.52 Schaafsma G. J Nutr. 2000;130(7):1865S-
1867S.
Black beans 0.75
55
Digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS)
• DIAAS: the digestibility values of each individual indispensable amino acid are
used to calculate the digestible indispensable amino acid (DIAA) reference
ratios of the food or diet of interest
mg of digestible dietary indispensable
DIAAS Lowest amino acid in 1g of the dietary protein
Ratio
100 value mg of the same dietary
indispensable amino acid in 1 g of
the reference protein
- Faecal digestibility may overestimate due to microbial degradation; sampling from

fecal pool leads to erroneous estimation of unabsorbed amino acids because of the
microbial utilization and synthesis of amino acids in the large intestine
- Note that the main difference between DIAAS and PDCAAS is that true ileal amino
acid digestibility for the dietary indispensable amino acids is used rather than a single
faecal crude protein digestibility value
- DIAAS may be used to assess the quality of single ingredients or individual foods to
take into consideration complementation. A DIAAS over 100 indicates potential to
complement protein of lower quality provided that a suitable total N intake is maintained 56
Example of DIAAS calculation
• DIAAS of whole milk powder (WMP)
TABLE 1.
24
Calculation of DIAAS value for whole milk powder (WMP)
Composition data1 True ileal IAA Digestibility1 True ileal digestible IAA content
Dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition: Report of an FAO Expert Con
in WMP2
Weight Protein Lys SAA Thr Trp Lys SAA5 Thr Trp Lys SAA Thr Trp
(g)
(g/100g) (mg/g protein) (mg/g protein)
A B C D E F G H I J CxG DxH ExI FxJ

Milk 100 28 78 35 44 13 0.95 0.94 0.90 0.90 74 33 40 12
Powder
78x0.95
Age group (y) IAA Reference pattern: mg/g 3
Digestible IAA reference ratio 4
DIAAS for WMP
protein (refer to Table 5 in (%)
this report)
Lys SAA Thr Trp Lys SAA Thr Trp
lowest
Infant (birth to 6 mths) 69 33 44 17 74/69 1.07 1.00 0.91 0.69 69 (Trp)
Child (6 months to 3 yrs) 57 27 31 8.5 1.30 1.22 1.29 1.41 122 (SAA)
Older child, adolescent, adult 48 23 25 6.6 1.54 1.43 1.60 1.82 143 (SAA)
1
Reference: CVB Feed Tables (2007). Chemical compositions and nutritional values of feed ingredients. Product Board Animal Feed, CVB, The Hague. True ileal indispensable amino
acid (IAA) digestibility coefficients are based on predicted human values obtained from pig data.
2
For the sake of example, calculation is shown for four amino acids, where possible all IAA should be included in the calculation.
3
Digestible IAA reference ratio (Digestible IAA in 1 g protein of whole milk powder /mg of the same dietary indispensable amino acid in 1g of the reference protein)
4
DIAAS for whole milk powder (Lowest value of the “digestible IAA reference ratio” expressed as % for each reference pattern; for infants WMP has a calculated DIAAS of 69; for
children 122 and for older children, adolescents and adults 143).
5
This is the weighted average of the digestibility coefficients for methionine and cysteine.
Lys=lysine, SAA=sulphur amino acids (methionine + cysteine), Thr = threonine, Trp = tryptophan).
57
Best Sources of Protein
• A well-balanced diet can meet daily protein needs
• Best source of protein are animal products e.g. eggs, lean meats,
fishes etc
• Plant proteins such as soy, grains, vegetables supply substantial
amount of proteins
• Most people consume adequate protein from their diet and do not
need protein supplements
58
[Reference only]
59
Negative Effects of Eating Too Little Protein
• Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)

• Without adequate protein:
• Cells on the lining of the GI tract are not sufficiently
replaced thus affects digestion and absorption of food - as a
result, allows intestinal bacteria to enter blood circulation
and lead to septicemia
• Immune system is compromised due to malnutrition and
cannot fight infection
• More prevalent in infants and children: 2.9 million deaths,
occurred in children under 5 in 2017
60
Types of PEM: Kwashiorkor
• This is primarily due to insufficient intake of proteins, as the diet of a weaning
child mainly consists of carbohydrates
• Found in children 1-5 years of age
• Symptoms range from:
• Stunted growth, edema in legs, feet, and stomach
• Muscle tone and strength diminish
• Discoloration of hair, skin
• Anemia, apathetic and moonface
• Prone to infection, rapid heart rate, excess fluid in lungs, pneumonia,
septicemia, and water and electrolyte imbalances
61
Marasmus
• Results from a severe deficiency in
kilocalories
• Children under 1 year age
• General symptoms:
• Growth retardation, muscle wasting, anemia
and weakness
• Look old
• Hair is thin, dry, and lacks shine
• Body temperature and blood pressure are
low
• Prone to dehydration, infections, and
unnecessary blood clotting
62
Marasmus vs Kwashiorkor
Hair Sparse
thinning Infection hair
Ageing Moon face
Dry
skin Swollen No
Ravenously
belly muscle,
hungry
more fat
Decreased
Gross muscle
weight mass
loss &
no fat
Pellagra
Edema
63
Negative Effects of Eating Too MUCH Protein
• High-protein diet
• No health benefits!
• Increase saturated fat intake (when excess meat is eaten)
• Displace whole grains, fruits, and vegetables
• Associated to obesity, diabetes, heart disease, kidney problems,
and osteoporosis etc
• Obesity: increase fat storage
• Heart disease
• High protein diet usually consists of high meat and high in
cholesterol, low in vegetables and fiber may lead to heart
disease
• Greater urinary calcium excretion: does not increase risk of
osteoporosis
64
Kidney Stones
• High protein foods are commonly rich in purines (DNA)
• Purines breaks down to uric acid increases the acidity of the blood
65
Kidney Stones
High meat eaters (>100 grams a day),

moderate meat eaters (50-99 grams a day),
low meat eaters (<50 grams a day), fish
eaters, vegetarians, and vegans.
66
Classification of Lipids and their Biological Roles
• Subdivided into four main groups:

• Fatty acids
• Glycerides
• Non-glyceride lipids
• Complex lipids
Glycerides: Glycerols Containing Lipids
• Most abundant lipids - great importance
• Triglycerides:
• Most common type of fat (three fatty acids attached to a
glycerol) in the body
• Able to provide energy
Glycerides: Glycerols Containing Lipids
• Phospholipids
• Found in cell membranes (lecithin, phosphatidylcholine), ciphalins
(phosphatidylethanolamine) phosphatidylserine,
phosphatidylinositol
• Glycolipids
• Found in cell membranes
• Galactocerbroside forms myelin sheath of nerve cells
Nonglycerides: Sphingolipids, Sterols, Waxes
• Sphingolipids
• Enriched in cell membrane
• Involve in cell recognition and cell
signaling
• Steroids/Sterols
• e.g. Bile salts, sex hormones
• Cholesterol: many hormones like
testosterones, progesterone are
synthesis from cholesterol
• Vitamin D is a derivative of
cholesterol
• Waxes
• Sebum – the secretion of sebaceous
glands in our skin is a mixture of
waxes and triglycerides
Complex Lipids
• Lipoproteins (L):
• Chylomicrons: Carry dietary
triglycerides from the intestine to
other tissues
• Very low density (VLDL): carry
triglycerides to adipose and other
tissues for storage
• High density (HDL): transport
cholesterol from peripheral
tissues to the liver
• Low density (LDL): carry
cholesterol to peripheral tissues
and help to regulate blood
cholesterol level
Complex Lipids: Lipoproteins Important for
Lipid Transport
• Lipids are insoluble in plasma - an

aqueous environment
• In order to be transported they are
combined with specific proteins to
form lipid-protein complexes called
lipoproteins
• Two pathways:
• Exogenous - lipoproteins are
formed in intestinal cells after
lipids are absorbed
• Endogenous - lipoproteins are
formed mainly in the liver for
transport to tissues
Fatty Acids
• Divided into saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
• Monounsaturated
• Polyunsaturated
• Contains between 12-24 carbon atoms Fatty Acids 115
Lipids
Saturated fats
Unsaturated fats
animal fats (butter, lard)
Monounsaturated fats Polyunsaturated fats
Omega-9 fatty acids Omega-3 fatty acids Omega-6 fatty acids

Olive oil Fish Sunflower oil
Almonds Algae Corn oil
Peanuts Shellfish Safflower oil
Avocados Soybean Borage oil
Flaxseed Evening primrose oil
Walnut Fungal oil
Canola
gure 1 Classiﬁcation of lipids and fatty acids.

Four major biological roles of fatty acids
• For components of cell membrane

- Glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids
• Act as energy stores
- Triglycerides
• Modify several proteins
- Lipoproteins
• Serve as hormones and intracellular second messengers
- Prostaglandins
- Diacylglycerols (DAG)
Essential Fatty Acids
• What are essential fatty acids?
- Fatty acids can not be synthesized within the human body and must be obtain
from the diet
Two types:
• Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty
acid (w-6 PUFAs)
- Linoleic acids
(LA, C18:2 w6)
• Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acid (w-3 PUFAs)
- Alpha-linolenic acid
(ALA, C18:3w3)
- Eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA, C20:5w3)
- Docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA, C22:6w3)
Functions of Essential Fatty Acids
• Part of the cell membrane
• Required for proper growth and development and function
of the brain and nervous system
• Production of hormone-like substances called eicosanoids
- Leukotrienes, prostaglandins and thromboxane
- These are responsible for regulating blood pressure,
metabolism, immune and inflammatory responses
Eicosanoids (prostaglandins & leukotrienes)
w-6 PUFA series: w-3 PUFA series:
• Vasoconstrictive • Vasodilatory
• Immunosuppressive • Immunostimulant
• Pro-inflammatory • Anti-inflammatory
• Pro-aggregatory • Anti-aggregatory
• Pro-arrhythmic • Anti-arrhythmic
Biological Functions of Lipids
• Provide and store energy
- A major energy source – most energy rich compound
- Provides 9 kcal of energy per gram
• Energy storage:
- Lipids are stored as triglycerides in adipose tissues
- Humans and other mammals store their fat as triglycerides
in adipose cells
- Compared to carbohydrate which stores alone allow
maintenance of metabolism for ~24 h while stored lipids
allow survival for weeks
• Structural functions
- Forms biological cell membranes
- Phosphoglycerides, sphingoglycolipids and cholesterol are
structural components of cell membranes
• Fat-soluble vitamins
- Helps in absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, E, D, K)
- Precursor of vitamin D
• Important signalling molecules
- Precursor for steroid hormones mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids
- Sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone, prostaglandins etc
• Emulsifier
- Bile salts
• Insulation
- Electrical insulation of nerve
and thermal insulator
• Mechanical protection
- Protects tissues and organs (e.g.
kidneys)
• Waterproofing and buoyancy
- Helps floating on water
Lipid Metabolism: Energy Production and Storage
• It is the breakdown of lipids (lipolysis)

and involves hydrolysis of triglycerides
into glycerol and free fatty acids
• Glycerol
- Breakdowns into pyruvic acid which
goes into the TCA/Krebs/citric acid
cycle
• Fatty acids
- Undergo beta-oxidation to become 2
carbon acetyl (Acetyl CoA) which
enters into the Krebs cycle
• Lipids are the best fuel:
- A 16C fatty acids can produce 8 acetic
acids which can produce 129 ATPs as
compared to glucose which produces 32
ATPs
Ketogenesis
• Fatty acids undergo beta-oxidation to produce ketone bodies in a
process called ketogenesis
• Occurs during starvation/low glycogen/low glucose reserve
conditions
• Bad health effects of too much ketone bodies:
- Affects blood pH as they are acidic
- Problem with diabetes (acidosis can lead to death)
Formation of Ketone Bodies in Liver
• Generally, ketone bodies includes acetone, acetoacetate and β-
hydroxbutyrate (which in fact is a carboxylic acid)
LIVER
Blood Cytosol Mitochondria
ATP
CAT II
ATPs
CAT I
FFA Acyl CoA Acyl CoA
AMP Carnitine β-oxidation
ATPs
TCA cycle
BRAIN
Which one is Ketogenic?
Why Ketogenic?
88
Negative Health Effects of Lipids (Fats)
Excess Fat intake contributes to many diseases:

• Obesity
- High fat diet = high calorie diet
- Promotes weight gain
• Cancer
- Colon cancer associated with high cholesterol
- Depressed immune function
• Heart Disease
- High cholesterol
- Raise blood pressure
What is recommended?
Health problems with PUFA deficiency
TRANS FAT - are bad fats
• Found in fried foods, packaged

cookies, chips, candy, cooking
oils etc
• Health problems
- Increase bad cholesterol
- Inflammation
- Risks of of heart disease
- Cancer etc
Putting It All Together- Macronutrients RDA
ü Majority of daily kilocalories should come from carbohydrate-rich
foods
ü Fat intake should be no more than about one-third of daily
kilocalories
ü Protein should provide the rest of the daily kilocalories
Summary
94
Summary
95
Water
• Water is found in every cell, in the spaces around the cells, in the fluid
tissues of the body, and in body cavities
• Water carries dissolved nutrients throughout our body and assists in all of
its functions such as: digesting foods, removing wastes, regulating
temperature, and cushioning sensitive parts of our body
• Chemical reactions of living things take place in water
• You may be able to survive weeks without food but wouldn’t last more
than a few days without water
- Blood pressure rises
- Heart begins to malfunction
- Kidneys shut down
• Human body ~ 65% water (even dense tissue like bone is 33% water)
• Food provides ~ 20% of total water intake
• Remaining 80% from water and other beverages
• Men should consume roughly 3.0 liters (~ 13 cups) total beverages daily and
women consume 2.2 liters (~ 9 cups)
96
Functions of Water in the Body
Lubrication: Structural:
Transportation:
Joints Cell shape
Nutrients Digestive tract Cell membrane
Wastes Food (saliva) Cushions organs
Hormones Mucous membranes
Enzymes
Platelets
Blood cells
Your body loses between
64 (~2L) and 80 (~2.4L)
H2O ounces of fluid each day.
Regulation of body How does this happen?
temperature
Through normal body
Able to absorb and “store” functions:
heat
Perspiration
Releases that heat and Urination
cools the body as
perspiration evaporates. Bowel movements
Normal exhalation
97
Water in the Body…
• When minerals are dissolved, they break apart
into ions. The ions formed in body fluids are
called electrolytes. These ions play a central
role in water balance in the body
• Electrolyte replacement is not necessary for
most people, but is recommended for:
- Individuals who exercise for more than one
hour at a time
- Individuals who are physically active in hot or
humid climates
• High fluid intake is associated with a lower risk
of kidney stones, colon cancer and bladder
cancer
• Did you know: Dehydration is the number-one
cause of daytime fatigue!
98
There’s Some Good News…
• Healthy individuals can stay hydrated by consuming water
and also juices, milk, coffee, tea, and even soft drinks!
• Some fluid is even absorbed from the moisture content of
foods!
99
… And Some Bad News…
• Many beverages' people consume also provide additional

calories, sodium and fat
• Even “diet” soft drinks and teas aren’t perfect: chemical
sweeteners may actually stimulate a person’s appetite!
100
Healthy Beverage Options
• A 220 ml glass of water contains no calories, fat, sugar

or sodium
• A 220 ml glass of skim milk contains just 90 calories, no
fat and a number of beneficial vitamins and minerals
• A 220 ml glass of 100% orange juice contains 110
calories, no fat, vitamin C, potassium and folate
101
What About Soft Drinks?
• 220 ml of soft drink contains about 100 calories, no fat, 27

grams of sugar and no other vitamins or minerals
• A can of soft drink contains 354 ml, a bottle contains 600 ml,
and a large fountain drink from a fast-food restaurant may
contain up to 1.3L or more!
• It takes roughly 4 grams of sugar to equal one teaspoon… how
many teaspoons are in your favorite beverage?
102

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BIOL1201 2.introduction Macromolecules JL 2021

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Macronutrients (Carbohydrate,

Protein, Lipids) and Water

Students will learn:

• The major nutritional role of carbohydrates is to

• Carbohydrate have different functions in living things:

• Glucose - energy source for cell respiration

• Glycolysis generates energy for the cell and creates pyruvate

- The net ATP production in glycolysis is 2 molecules of

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Glycogenesis = glucose makes glycogen (anabolism)

High blood glucose:

Low blood glucose:

Health problem with high sugary foods in presence of

Change in Visceral Fat Volume (%)

and serve as prebiotic -1.0

Risk of Type 2 Diabetes (%)

- Promotes regularity and softer, larger

Change from Baseline

(formation of pockets in lower colon) based

Daily fiber intake

Adults (50 years or

Per Slice Per 100g

• Too much fiber (>60 g/day) will:

• Essential amino acids

• Non-essential amino acids

• Conditionally essential amino acids

• Excessive dietary proteins are broken down in a process called

• The amino acid pool acts as a reservoir for:

I. DIET Proteolysis of Proteolysis of Controlled

II. LYSOSOMAL DEGRADATION

1. Lysosomes degrade proteins taken up by endocytosis, or proteins 37

Glutamate + oxaloacetate a-ketoglutarate + aspartate pyridoxal phosphate

ii. Oxidative deamination:

iii. Non oxidative deamination:

• Depends on its nutritive value, caloric intake and physiological

• Protein intake recommendations:

“The question of how much protein must be supplied in the diet

• It is recommended that a healthy

• In general, animal protein

• High quality protein:

“Protein quality describes characteristics of a protein in relation to its ability to

• Any factor that alters digestibility and AA availability would in turn

Limiting Amino Acid

Table 2.2G.1 Limiting amino acids in some common plant foods1

Fibre and Anti-Nutritional Factors

• It is a common misconception that all proteins

• Humans consume proteins

DF = (NI – NFΔ) / NI where

• Complete proteins can often have PDCAAS values of ≥ 1.00

Protein Source PDCAAS

- Faecal digestibility may overestimate due to microbial degradation; sampling from

A B C D E F G H I J CxG DxH ExI FxJ

• Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)

High meat eaters (>100 grams a day),

• Subdivided into four main groups:

• Lipids are insoluble in plasma - an

Monounsaturated fats Polyunsaturated fats

Omega-9 fatty acids Omega-3 fatty acids Omega-6 fatty acids

gure 1 Classiﬁcation of lipids and fatty acids.

• For components of cell membrane

• It is the breakdown of lipids (lipolysis)

Excess Fat intake contributes to many diseases:

• Found in fried foods, packaged