Problem Solving

Problem Solving and Reasoning
ARMANDO C. MANZANO
Outline
1 Mathematical Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Counterexamples
Deductive Reasoning
2 Problem Solving with Patterns
Sequence
Difference Table
3 Problem Solving Strategies
History
Polya's Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy
4 Recreational Problems using Mathematics
Magic Squares
KenKen Puzzles
Tower of Hanoi
AUGUST 29, 2018 2 / 45
P r o b l e m S olving a n d R ea s o n i n g
What is a problem?
Generally, it is a situation you want
to change!
A problem is a situation that
conforms the learner, that requires
resolution, and for which the path of the
answer is not immediately known.
There is an obstacle that prevents one
from setting a clear path to the answer.
Problem Solving has been defined
as higher-order cognitive process
that requires the modulation and
control of more routine or
fundamental skills" (Goldstein
& Levin, 1987).
MMW by Joseph G. Taban , UNP

M a t h e m a t i c a l R ea s o n i n g
Mathematical Reasoning
Mathematical Reasoning refers to the ability of a person to ana-

lyze problem situations and construct logical arguments to justify his
process or hypothesis, to create both conceptual foundations and con-
nections, in order for him to be able to process available information.
There are two types of mathematical reasoning:

Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
AUGUST 29, 2018 5 / 45

ARMANDO C. MANZANO P r o b l e m S olving a n d R ea s o n i n g
M a t h e m a t i c a l R ea s o n i n g I ndu ct iv e R ea s o n i n g
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching

a general conclusion by examining specific
examples.
The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning

is often called a conjecture, since it may or may
not be correct.
AUGUST 29, 2018 6 / 45

Exercises:
Here is a sequence of numbers: 3, 6, 9, 12, .... What is the 5th
number?
What is the 6th and 7th term in the sequence: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ...?
Consider the following procedure:
❑ Pick a nonnegative integer.
❑ Multiply the number by 8.
❑ Add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract
3.
Complete the procedure for several different numbers. Use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the
relationship between the size of the resulting number and the
size of the original number.
AUGUST 29, 2018 7 / 45

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number.

Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide
the sum by 3, and subtract 5. Complete the procedure
for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning
to make a conjecture about the relationship between the
size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.
AUGUST 29, 2018 8 / 45

Scientist often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei

(1564-1642) used inductive reasoning to discover the time required for a
pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of the pendulum,
depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he
measured the periods of the pendulums in "heartbeats". The following table
shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths. For the sake of
convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.
ARMANDO C. MANZANO P r o b l e m S olving a n d R ea s o n i n g AUGUST 29, 2018 9 / 45

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning

may be incorrect.
As an illustration, consider the circles shown.

For each circle, all possible line segments have
been drawn to connect each dot on the circle
with all the other dots on the circle. For each
circle, count the number of regions formed by
the line segments that connect the dots on the
ARMANDO C. MANZANO P r o b l e m S olving a n d R ea s o n i n g AUGUST 29, 2018 10 / 45
Your results should agree with the results in the following table.
AUGUST 29, 2018 11 / 45

M a t h e m a t i c a l R ea s o n i n g C o u n t er ex a mp l es
Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If

you can fid one case for which a statement is not true, called a
counterexample, then the statement is a false statement.
AUGUST 29, 2018 12 / 45

M a t h e m a t i c a l R ea s o n i n g C o u n t er ex a mp l es
Exercise: Verify that each of the following statements is false statement

by finding a counterexample. For all real number x :
1. x > 0
2. x 2 > x
3. x −1 < x
x
4. x = 1
5. x 2 + 16 = x + 4
x+3
6. 3
=x+1
AUGUST 29, 2018 13 / 45

M a t h e m a t i c a l R ea s o n i n g D ed u c t i v e R ea s o n i n g
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by

applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
Example:
If a number is divisible by 2, then it must be even.
12 is divisible by 2.
Therefore, 12 is an even number.
All math teachers know how to play sudoku.
Resty is a math teacher.
Therefore, Resty knows how to play sudoku.
AUGUST 29, 2018 14 / 45

If a student is a DOST scholar, he receives a monthly allowance.

If a student receives a monthly allowance, his/her parents will be
happy.
Therefore, if a student is a DOST scholar, his/her parents will be
happy.
∠A and ∠B are supplementary angles. If m∠A =

100o , then m∠B = 80o .
AUGUST 29, 2018 15 / 45

Logic Puzzles
Logic Puzzles can be solved by deductive reasoning and a chart that

enables us to display the given information in a visual manner.
Exercise: Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian has a
different occupation (editor, banker, chef, and dentist). From the following
clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
The banker lives next door to Brian.
AUGUST 29, 2018 16 / 45

Editor Banker Chef Dentist
sean x 1 x x
maria 1 x x x
sarah x x 1 x
brian x x x 1
Solution:
AUGUST 29, 2018 18 / 45

Armando C. Manzan0 P r o b l e m S olving a n d R ea s o n i n g
Exercise: Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as the
new class o f f i cers (president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) of the
sophomore class at Summit College. From the following clues, determine
which position each holds:
Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.
Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
AUGUST 29, 2018 19 / 45

Proofs
Proof is an evidence; some may call it an argument that establishes a

fact or the veracity of something holds.
This definition tells us that in order to claim that a statement or argument

is true or valid, there has to be some evidences verified by science.
AUGUST 29, 2018 20 / 45

Direct Proofs
In mathematics and logic, a direct
proof is a way of showing the
truthfulness or the falsehood of a given
statement by a straightforward
combination of established facts,
usually axioms, lemmas, corollaries,
and theorems without making any
further assumptions.
AUGUST 29, 2018 21 / 45
Proof by Contradiction
In mathematics, proof by contradiction is a

form of proof, and more specifically a form of
indirect proof, that establishes the truth or
validity of a proposition. It starts by assuming
that the negation of the conclusion is true,
and then shows that such an assumption leads
to a contradiction.
AUGUST 29, 2018 22 / 45

Mathematical Induction
Principle of Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction is a technique for proving a statement S(n)
that is asserted about every natural number n. The method of proof is
by proving the following.
Basis Step: S(1) is true.
Inductive Step: If S(k) (called the inductive hypothesis) is
true, then S(k + 1) is also true.
then the statement will be true for every natural number n.
AUGUST 29, 2018 23 / 45

P r o b l e m S olving w i t h P a t t e r n s S eq u e n c e
Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that

are separated by commas are the terms of the
sequence. It is customary to use the subscript an to
designate the nth term of a sequence.
AUGUST 29, 2018 24 / 45

P r o b l e m S olving w i t h P a t t e r n s D i er en c e T able
Difference Table
We often construct difference table to determine the formula or

rule that generates the terms of a sequence. Difference table shows
the difference between successive terms of the sequence.
Examples: Use difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ...
AUGUST 29, 2018 25 / 45

P r o b l e m S olving w i t h P a t t e r n s D i er en c e T able
Solutions:
AUGUST 29, 2018 26 / 45

P r o b l e m S olving S t r a t eg i es H is t or y
Problem Solving Strategies
Ancient mathematicians who were

interested in problem-solving are Euclid,
Rene Descartes, and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz.
One of the foremost recent
mathematicians to make a study of
problem solving was George Polya
(1887-1985).
AUGUST 29, 2018 27 / 45
P r o b l e m S olving S t r a t eg i es P olya ' s F o u r - S t ep P r o b l e m S olving S t r a t eg y
AUGUST 29, 2018 28 / 45

Polya's Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy
Understand the problem.

Devise a plan.
Carry out the plan.
Review the solution.
AUGUST 29, 2018 29 / 45

Understand the Problem

Can you restate the problem in your own words?
Can you determine what is known about these types of
problems?
Is there missing information that, if known, would allow
you to solve the problem?
Is there extraneous information that is not needed
to solve the problem?
What is the goal?
AUGUST 29, 2018 30 / 45

Devise a Plan
Make a list of the known information.
Make a list of information that is needed.
Draw a diagram.
Make an organized list that shows all possibilities.
Make a table or a chart.
Work backwards.
Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
Look for a pattern.
Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
Perform an experiment.
Guess at a solution and then check your result.
AUGUST 29, 2018 31 / 45

Carry out the Plan
Work carefully.
Keep an accurate and neat record of
all your attempts.
Realize that some of your initial plans
will not work and that you may have
to devise another plan or modify your
existing plan.
AUGUST 29, 2018 32 / 45
Michael Howard D. Morada P r o b l e m S olving a n d R ea s o n i n g
Review the solution
Ensure that the solution is consistent with

the facts of the problem. Interpret the
solution in the context of the problem.
Ask yourself whether there are
generalizations of the solution that could
apply to other problems.
AUGUST 29, 2018 33 / 45

R ecr ea t i o na l P r o b l ems u s ing M a t h e m a t i c s M a g i c S q u a r es
Recreational Problems using Mathematics
Soduko
Magic Square
A magic square is a square array of numbers consisting of the

distinct positive integers 1, 2, 3, ... arranged such that the sum
of the n numbers in any horizontal, vertical, and main diagonal
line is always the same number.
AUGUST 29, 2018 34 / 45

R ecr ea t i o na l P r o b l ems u s ing M a t h e m a t i c s K e n K e n P u z z l es
KenKen Puzzles
KenKen Puzzle is an arithmetic- based logic puzzle that is sim-
ilar to Soduko puzzles but requires you to perform arithmeic to
solve the puzzle.
Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle
For a 3 by 3 puzzle, ll in each box (square) of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, or 3.
For a 4 by 4 puzzle, ll in each square of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4.
For a n by n puzzle, ll in each square of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, ..., n.
AUGUST 29, 2018 35 / 45

Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle(continued)
Grids range in size from 3 by 3 up to 9 by 9.

Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
The numbers in each heavily outlined set of square, called
cages, must combine (in some order) to produce the target
number in the top left corner of the cage using mathematical
operation indicated.
Cages with just one number should be filled in with target
number.
A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in
the same row or column.
AUGUST 29, 2018 36 / 45

Solution:
AUGUST 29, 2018 37 / 45


Problem Solving

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problem Solving

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problem Solving and Reasoning

MMW by Joseph G. Taban , UNP

Mathematical Reasoning refers to the ability of a person to ana-

There are two types of mathematical reasoning:

AUGUST 29, 2018 5 / 45

Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching

The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning

AUGUST 29, 2018 6 / 45

AUGUST 29, 2018 7 / 45

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number.

AUGUST 29, 2018 8 / 45

Scientist often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei

ARMANDO C. MANZANO P r o b l e m S olving a n d R ea s o n i n g AUGUST 29, 2018 9 / 45

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning

As an illustration, consider the circles shown.

AUGUST 29, 2018 11 / 45

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If

AUGUST 29, 2018 12 / 45

Exercise: Verify that each of the following statements is false statement

AUGUST 29, 2018 13 / 45

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by

AUGUST 29, 2018 14 / 45

If a student is a DOST scholar, he receives a monthly allowance.

∠A and ∠B are supplementary angles. If m∠A =

AUGUST 29, 2018 15 / 45

Logic Puzzles can be solved by deductive reasoning and a chart that

AUGUST 29, 2018 16 / 45

AUGUST 29, 2018 18 / 45

AUGUST 29, 2018 19 / 45

Proof is an evidence; some may call it an argument that establishes a

This definition tells us that in order to claim that a statement or argument

AUGUST 29, 2018 20 / 45

In mathematics, proof by contradiction is a

AUGUST 29, 2018 22 / 45

Principle of Mathematical Induction

AUGUST 29, 2018 23 / 45

An ordered list of numbers such as

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that

AUGUST 29, 2018 24 / 45

We often construct difference table to determine the formula or

AUGUST 29, 2018 25 / 45

AUGUST 29, 2018 26 / 45

Problem Solving Strategies

Ancient mathematicians who were

AUGUST 29, 2018 28 / 45

Polya's Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy

Understand the problem.

AUGUST 29, 2018 29 / 45

Understand the Problem

AUGUST 29, 2018 30 / 45

AUGUST 29, 2018 31 / 45

Carry out the Plan

Review the solution

Ensure that the solution is consistent with

AUGUST 29, 2018 33 / 45

Recreational Problems using Mathematics

A magic square is a square array of numbers consisting of the

AUGUST 29, 2018 34 / 45

Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle

AUGUST 29, 2018 35 / 45

Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle(continued)

Grids range in size from 3 by 3 up to 9 by 9.

AUGUST 29, 2018 36 / 45