Cambridge AS.

Biology

Practical studies
Part 1
By
Dr. Ahmed Riad
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Units used in Practical studies

Units used for length Unites used for mass

• 1 cm = 10 mm (millimeter) • 1 Kg = 1000 g
• 1 mm = 1000 um (micrometer) • 1 g = 1000 milligram (mg)
• 1 um = 1000 nm (nanometer) • 1 mg = 1000 microgram
• 1 liter = 1/1000 m3
• Milliliter (ml) = 1 cm3
• Decimeter (dm) = 1/10 m
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Magnification of Light Microscope

• Light microscopes use light and lenses to magnify their subjects.
• Magnification of light microscope :- can magnify up to 1500 x
• Magnification = Power of the eye piece lens X Power of the objective lens
• Magnification = Drawing ( image size) ÷ actual size
• Image size = Actual size X Magnification
• Ex:- An ocular lens of 10x and an objective lens of 11x
Magnification = 10 X 11 = 110x.
• Typical high school microscopes offer
magnifications of up to about 430x.
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Magnification of electron microscope

• Can magnify ( 250,000x to 500,000x )

• Resolution
 It is the ability to distinguish between two
separate points, it determines the degree of
details which can be seen by the microscope.
 It is represented by the minimum distance by
which two points can be seen separated.
• Example
• The maximum resolution of a light
microscope is 0.2 um.
• This means that if the distance between two
points is smaller than 0.2 um, the two
points can be seen as one point.
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Use of Light microscope
1. Turn the microscope's nosepiece until the low power objective clicks into position above the hole in the stage.
2. Adjust the mirror until light (e. g. From a bench lamp but not direct sunlight) is seen Io pass up through the
microscope.
3. Place the prepared slide so that the e specimen is in the center of the hole in the stage.
4. With your eyes level with the stage, use the coarse adjustment knob to lower the
objective to a position about 5 mm from the slide.
(Note in some microscopes the stage moves instead of the objective.)
5. Look down the microscope through the eyepiece and slowly raise
the objective until the specimen comes into focus.
6. Use the fine adjustment knob to make slight changes in the Focus.
7. Change from low to high power by turning the nosepiece.
8. If in difficulty or problems , review the below table or ask your teacher to help .

Problem Suggested solution

Specimen cant be found Check that specimen is in the center of the stage hole
Image is very dark Adjust mirror to improve lighting
Image is half light and half Rotate nose piece to click objective into place
dark
Image is blurred 1. Polish eye piece /objective lens with tissues ,
2. Dry and clean coverslip then remove it
Many dark circles ( air Remove coverslip and remount by lowering it more
bubbles ) are present slowly onto specimen
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Magnification of the Electron microscope

• Resolution of electron microscope :- In practice 0.5 nm, in theory 0.2 nm
• Why electron microscope has a better resolution than that of the light microscope
• The limit of the resolution is about one half the wavelength of the radiation used to view the specimen,
therefore electron microscope has a higher resolution power as the wave length of the electron beam used in
electron microscope is shorter than the visible light beam which is used in electron microscope.
• Why very small structures in a cell can be seen by the electron microscope and can not be seen by the light
microscope
• Because electron microscope has a better resolution than that of the light microscope.
• Disadvantages of using electron microscope
1. Sample is dead.
2. Object is not seen coloured.
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Eye piece Graticule and stage micrometer

• Usually divided into 10 main divisions each divided into smaller
10 divisions ( Usually it is with 100 divisions )
• So you will see it graduated as from 1-10 or 1-100
 It is placed in the eyepiece lens unit.
 The eye piece graticule remains constant no matter what
magnification the cells are viewed at

• You can look at the sample to determine its diameter in graticule

units
• Stage micrometer
• Used to calibrate the eye piece graticule or (eyepiece reticle), this
means that it is used to determine the size of the graticule unit.
• How to measure the size of a specimen
• Put the graticule in the eyepiece unit, look at the specimen to
determine its size in graticule units.
• Remove the slide containing the specimen and put the stage
micrometer to determine the size of each graticule unit in um.
• Example
• If 100 eye piece graticule divisions measure 0.25 mm,
therefore each graticule unit is equal to 0.25 mm divided
by 100 i.e. it is 2.5 um.
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6

Uncertainty
• It is equal to half of the smallest division of the apparatues used such as ruler, syringe or pipette.
• If the smallest division of a syringe is 0.2 cm3 the uncertainty is 0.1 cm3.
• Uncertainty in measurements using a ruler About + 0.5 mm
• Why there is uncertainty
 Ruler made with incorrect intervals.
 Thickness of ruler lines.
 Difficult to focus both ruler and specimen at the same time.
 User not viewing at right angles
• Why there is uncertainity in case of using graticule and stage micrometer in measurements (e.g. measuring vascular bundle in a
TS of a stem)
 Difficult to line up the scales.
 Difficult to determine accurately where the edges of the bundle.
 Depth of focus affects the readings.
• Why there is uncertainty in case of measuring lumen of an artery
 Lumen may be irregular.
 Scale line may not lie on edge of lumen.
 Thickness of line of stage micrometer may cause difficulty in determining the matched graticule units.
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Drawing specimen
Important directions … Before drawing diagrams
1. Use single pencil lines without sketching or shading. Do not use ink
or coloured pencil.
2. Notice the difference between label a diagram and annotate a 1-5
diagram. (annotate a diagram means add brief description or
explanation)
3. Draw what you see only, do not draw what you cannot see even
things expected to be present.
4. Take care of the approximate ratio between the parts needed to be
drawn. Example: the approximate
ratio between the size of chloroplasts and nucleus.
5. Never label on the actual drawing, keep labels away from diagrams,
avoid crossing label lines and arrange labels in parallel vertical lines.
6. Write suitable headings for your diagram, e.g. TS in trachea of a
young mammal.
7. If drawing using the low power is required, draw a map of the main
regions without the individual cells (this is known as Plan diagram ).
8. If drawing using the high power is required, draw
small number of cells of each type. 6-7
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Drawing specimen
Important directions … Before drawing diagrams ;- ( cont. )
9. Keep the thickness constant
10. The structures should be drawn growing connected internally to each other without any separating lines
11. Lines should meet exactly
12. In animal tissues , do not draw ruled lines or right angles

9 11

12
10
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Plan diagram
• A plan diagram shows the distribution of tissues in a section.
• It also shows the proportions of the different tissues.
• Although called a low power plan diagram you may use high power
to identify the different tissues and to be sure you are putting
the boundaries of those tissues in the right place.
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Plan diagram
You do not draw any cells in a lower power plan diagram.
• When you make a plan diagram, follow these simple rules
1. Make the drawing fill most of the space provided
2. Leave space around the drawing for labels and annotations (if required by the question)
3. Use a sharp HB pencil (never use a pen)
4. Use thin, single, unbroken lines (often called ‘clear and continuous lines')
5. Show the outlines of the tissues
6. Make the proportions of tissues in the diagram the same as in the section
7. Do not include drawings of cells
8. Do not use any shading or colouring
• Add labels and annotations (notes) Io your drawing only if you are asked
for these in the question.
• Use a pencil and a ruler Io draw straight lines from the drawing to your. Labels and notes.
• Write labels and notes in pencil in case you make a mistake and need to change them.
• You may leave your labels and notes in pencil-do not write over them in ink.
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6

High power drawings

1. Cells should be reasonable in size so you can show any detail inside them.
2. Cell walls are drawn as double lines , parallel smooth and close to each
other

• When you make a high power drawing. Follow these simple rules
1. Make the drawing fill most of the space provided leave space
around the drawing for labels and annotations (if required by the
question)
2. Use a sharp HB pencil (never use a pen)
3. Use clear, continuous lines (see above)
4. Draw only what is asked in the question. eg. Three cell types or
one named cell and all cells adjoining it
5. Show the outlines of the cell
6. The proportions of cells in the drawing must be the same as in the
section you are
7. Plant cell walls should be shown as double lines with a middle
lamella between the cells the proportions of cell walls should be
drawn carefully.
8. Show any details of the contents of cells-draw what you see not
what you know should be present
9. Do not use any shading or colouring
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6
Types of Plant tissue
1-.Epidermis (Piliferous layer)

• It is the outermost tissue covering the whole

plant surfaces in root stem and leaf.
• Junction between 2 cells called " interlamclla".
• Nucleus always change its place, so in each cell
draw nucleus in different place
• Don’t forget to Draw cuticle.

• Annotation
a) Epidermal cells are barrel-shaped cells.
b) Fitted together.
c) Thin cellulose cell wall.
d) Covered with waxy cuticle to
decrease transpiration.

• Function
a) Protection.
b) Decrease transpiration by waxy cuticle.
c) Support.
By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6

Points must be taken in consideration when drawing

lower and upper epidermal cells.
o Draw cell wall as clear single or
double but very close lines.
o Stomata guard cells must be
shown and labeled.
o Less stomata in the upper
epidermis.
o Cells of upper and lower epidermis
are drawn to the same scale.
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Modified epidermal cells
a. Root hair cell :-
Annotations
1. Barrel shaped cells with hairy cytoplasmic projection to
increase surface area for absorption
2. Thin cellulose cell wall
3. No cuticle.
Function :-
Absorption of food and minerals.
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Types of Plant tissue
b- Guard cells
Annotations
1. Kidney shape
2. Unequal thickness of cellulose cell wall
3. Has chloroplast
Function;-
1.-Control transpiration.
2.-Control gases exchange.
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Types of Plant tissue
2- Parenchyma
(package or storage tissue)
• Have thin cell walls, large vacuole with
inter-cellular spaces.
• Forms pith ( inner cortex )
• Adaptation of parenchyma ( annotation )
1. Have intercellular spaces to allow gases
exchange.
2. Have thin cellulose cell wall to facilitate
diffusion of gases and dissolved solutes and to
allow expansion of turgid cells.
3. Have large sap vacuole to store minerals and
some wastes also for support via turgidity.
4. Have peripheral cytoplasm which is site of
metabolic activity, may store starch grains.
5. Have air spaces between cells for exchange of
gases.
6. Are variable in size to be suitable in packing for
support.
Function
1. Support and storage ( inform of starch granules )
2. Allow gases exchange
By Dr . Ahmed Riad
Modified Parenchyma Chlorenchyma ( Mesophyll)
Palisade mesophyll
1. Elongated in shape.
2. Larger in size.
3. Larger number of
chloroplasts per cell.
4. Cells are packed together
with less intercellular
spaces.
5. Large, clear vacuole.
6. Cells are arranged in one
row.
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Spongy mesophyll
1. Nearly rounded in shape.
2. Smaller in size.
3. Smaller number of
chloroplasts per cell.
4. Cells are arranged loosely
with larger intercellular
spaces.
5. Smaller vacuole.
6. Cells are arranged in
many rows.
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3- Supportive tissues

A- Collenchyma cells
• Small polygonal cells with thick
cellulose cell wall at corners ( due to
deposition of cellulose )
• Thus has NO inter-cellular spaces.
Adaptation of collenchyma
1. Has thickening of cellulose at its
corners for mechanical support.
2. Has large sap vacuole for support
via turgidity.
Found around Midrib in leaves
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3-Supportive tissue
B-Sclerenchyma ( Thicker Hollow cells )
• Small empty mostly hexagonal Dead cells with
lignified walls.
• No cytoplasm or nucleus.
• Adaptation of sclerenchyma
• Lignified with secondary cell wall for
mechanical support.
• Has fine pits for lateral transport between cells.
• Tracheids have tapering inter digiting end walls
for extra support and resistance to bending.
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3-Supportive tissue
• C -Meristematic tissue
Annotation
• Small cubic cells with thin cellulosic cell wall
and dense cytoplasm.
• Function

1. -Responsible for division in plants

2. -Responsible for growth and tissue repair.

• Found

1. Root tip and shoot tip.

2. In cambium ( between xylem and phloem}
3. Inside pericycle.
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By Dr . Ahmed Riad 002/ 010 919 80 182 - 012 86 96 888 6

4- Vascular tissue ( Xylem – Phloem – Cambium )

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4- Vascular tissue ( Xylem – Phloem – Cambium )

A-Xylem
• Large empty hexagonal cells with lignified cell wall
• Walls of xylem is lignified
• Has 4 types ( Spiral – Annular – Reticular – Pitted )
• Function
• Conduct water & minerals
• Plant Support by their lignified walls and inter
digiting fibers
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4- Vascular tissue ( Xylem – Phloem – Cambium )

A-Xylem
1. Primary xylem is formed from the
embryo and the resultant merislems.
Secondary xylem develops later, during
secondary thickening. Xylem
is made up of four main elements:
vessels ,tracheids ,fibres and
paranchyma.
2. Vessels These cells have one or more
perforations at each end so that water can
move easily from cell. Cell
walls may be simple or perforated by
bordered pits.
3. Tracheids These cells have no open ends
and the pits occur in pairs so that the
water can pass easily through the thin pit
membrane.
4. Fibres These are long cells whose
secondary walls are commonly lignified.
Pits are frequent. Fibres are primarily
used for support.
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4- Vascular tissue ( Xylem – Phloem – Cambium )

B - Phloem
Consist of sieve tube , companion cell and parenchyma
Companion cells carry out metabolism for sieve cell tubes
Function
Transport organic materials ( translocation )
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4- Vascular tissue ( Xylem – Phloem – Cambium )

B - Phloem
1. Primary phloem develops from the procambium and
secondary phloem from the vascular cambium. Phloem is
made up of four main components: sieve tubes, companion
cells, sclerenchyma and parenchyma.

2. Sieve tubes These are the most highly specialized phloem

cells. Modified pits called sieve plates form on adjacent
cells, most are in a vertical series but some lateral sieve
plates do occur. As the phloem ages callose blocks the sieve
plate and the sieve tube dies

3. Companion cells These form from sieve tubes early in their

development and contain a nucleus whereas the sieve tube
does not; when the sieve tube dies so does the associated
companion cell. The walls between the two are thin and
densely pitted.
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Plan diagram
T.S. in a dicot. root
It consists of the following layers:

1-Epidermis (Piliferous layer)

One row of cells, contains root hair cells to increase surface

area for absorption of water and minerals.

2-Cortex

Its outermost layer is known as exodermis while its innermost

layer is known as endodermis.

Endodermis

Acts as barrier for apoplast pathway and allows symplast

pathway amd therefore cell membranes of endodermis select
ions to be absorbed.

(This takes place as it is covered with a strip of suberin known

as Casprian strip)
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The rest of cortex T.S. in a dicot. root

Composed of parenchyma with intercellular air spaces
Functions
1- Food store.
2- Diffusion of gases.
3- Formation of root nodules when invaded by nodular
bacteria (Rhizobium bacteria)
3-Pericycle
Parenchyma cells, used to develop lateral roots.
4-Cambium

- Present in some species, consists of meristematic cells

( cell which are able to divide).
- Used to develop new xylem and new phloem.
5-Xylem
• Consists of xylem vessels, fibers and parenchyma cells.
• Used in support and transport.
6-Phloem
• Formed of sieve tubes and companion cells.
• Used in translocation.
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T.S. in a dicot. root

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T.S. in a dicot. stem
Plan diagram
Detailed structure of part of stem
It consists of the following layers:
1-Epidermis
- One cell thick layer.
- May have uni-cellular or multi-cellular
hairs.
a- To reduce water loss.
b- To reflect light to reduce overheating.
- Protect the inner tissues even against
invasion by pathogens.
- Provides support by turgid parenchyma.
- May be covered by waxy cuticle to reduce
water loss.
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T.S. in a dicot. stem

2-Cortex
• Contains outer collenchyma and inner prenchyma.
• Collenchym
• Provide support.
• Being living tissues, cells can extend as the plant grows.

• Parenchym
• May store food mainly as starch.
• May provide support when turgid.
• Contain intercellular spaces for diffusion of gases.
• The inner cortex forms pith.
3-Vascular bundles
• Formed of sclerenchyma, phloem, xylem and cambium.
• Longitudinal section
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T.S. in a dicot. Stem as seen under microscope

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Tissue distribution in a dicotyledonous root

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Tissue distribution in an herbaceous stem

The tissue location provides
mechanical
• s support and transport.
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Leaf structure
Is adapted for photosynthesis
and for gas exchange

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Tissue distribution in a dicotyledonous root

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