Yemen - Wikipedia

25/05/2022, 13:12 Yemen - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 15°20′54″N 44°12′23″E
Yemen
Yemen (/ˈjɛmən/ ( listen); Arabic: ‫ٱْلَيَم ن‬, romanized: al-
Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen (Arabic: Republic of Yemen
‫ٱْلُج ْم ُه وِر َّيُة ٱْلَيَم ِن َّيُة‬, romanized: al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah, ‫ٱْلُج ْم ُه وِر َّيُة ٱْلَيَم ِن َّيُة‬ (Arabic)
lit. 'the Yemeni Republic'), is a country in Western Asia, al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah

on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders
Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the northeast
and shares maritime borders with Eritrea, Djibouti, and
Somalia. It is the second-largest Arab sovereign state in
the peninsula, occupying 555,000 square kilometres
(214,000 square miles). The coastline stretches for Emblem
Flag
about 2,000 kilometres (1,200 miles).[9] Yemen's
constitutionally stated capital, and largest city, is the city Motto: ‫ ٱْلَوْح َدُة‬،‫ ٱلَثْو َرُة‬،‫ ٱْلَوَطُن‬،‫
ٱُهَّلل‬
of Sanaa. As of 2021, the population of the country is Allāh, al-Waṭan, ath-Thawrah, al-Waḥdah
estimated at 30,491,000. "God, Country, Revolution, Unity"

Anthem: ‫
الجمهورية املتحدة‬
In ancient times, Yemen was the home of the al-Jumhūrīyah al-Muttaḥidah
Sabaeans,[10][11][12] a trading state that included parts of "United Republic"
modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. Later in 275 CE, the
Himyarite Kingdom was influenced by Judaism.[13] 0:49
Christianity arrived in the fourth century. Islam spread

quickly in the seventh century and Yemenite troops were
crucial in the early Islamic conquests.[14] Several
dynasties emerged in the 9th to 16th centuries, such as
the Rasulid dynasty.[15] The country was divided
between the Ottoman and British empires in the 1800s.
The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was
established after World War I before the creation of the
Yemen Arab Republic in 1962. South Yemen remained a
British protectorate as the Aden Protectorate until 1967
when it became an independent state and later, a
Marxist-Leninist state. The two Yemeni states united to
form the modern Republic of Yemen (al-Jumhūrīyah al-
Yamanīyah) in 1990. President Ali Abdullah Saleh was
the first president of the new republic until his Status Yemeni Civil War[n 1]
resignation in 2012 in the wake of the Arab Presidential

Spring.[16][17] Leadership
Council
Since 2011, Yemen has been in a state of political crisis recognized by
starting with street protests against poverty, United Nations

unemployment, corruption, and president Saleh's plan Capital Sanaa[n 2]
to amend Yemen's constitution and eliminate the and largest city

presidential term limit.[18] President Saleh stepped Capital-in-exile Aden[n 3]
down and the powers of the presidency were transferred
to Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi. Since then, the country has Official languages Arabic[2]
been in a civil war (alongside the Saudi Arabian-led Ethnic groups 92.8% Arab
military intervention aimed at restoring Hadi's 3.7% Somalis
government) with several proto-state entities claiming 1.1% Afro-Arab
to govern Yemen: the Cabinet of Yemen/Presidential
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen 1/56
Leadership Council, Supreme Political Council, and the 2.4% Other

Southern Transitional Council.[19][20][21][22][23] At least
Religion 99% Islam
56,000 civilians and combatants have been killed in

1% includes Hindus,
armed violence in Yemen since January 2016.[24] The Christians and
war has resulted in a famine affecting 17 million others
people.[25] The lack of safe drinking water, caused by
Demonym(s) Yemeni
depleted aquifers and the destruction of the country's

Yemenite
water infrastructure, has also caused the largest, fastest-
spreading cholera outbreak in modern history, with the Government Unitary provisional
number of suspected cases exceeding 994,751.[26][27] government
Over 2,226 people have died since the outbreak began to • Chairman Rashad al-Alimi
spread rapidly at the end of April 2017.[27][28] The (disputed)[n 4]
ongoing humanitarian crisis and conflict has received • Prime Minister Maeen Abdulmalik
widespread criticism for having a dramatic worsening Saeed
effect on Yemen's humanitarian situation, that some say (disputed)[n 5]
has reached the level of a "humanitarian disaster"[29] Legislature Parliament
and some have even labelled it as a genocide.[30][31][32] • Upper house Shura Council
It has worsened the country's already-poor human • Lower house House of
rights situation. Representatives
Establishment
Yemen is a member of the Arab League, the United
Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement and the • Mutawakkilite
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. It belongs to the Kingdom of 30 October 1918

Yemen
least developed country group,[33] referring to its
establisheda
numerous "severe structural impediments to sustainable
• Yemen Arab 26 September 1962
development".[34] In 2019, the United Nations reported Republic
that Yemen is the country with the most people in need established
of humanitarian aid, about 24 million people, or 85% of • South Yemen
its population.[35] As of 2020, the country is placed the independenceb 30 November 1967
highest in the Fragile State Index,[36] the second worst • Unification 22 May 1990
in Global Hunger Index, surpassed only by the Central • Current 16 May 1991
African Republic,[36] and has the lowest Human constitution
Development Index out of all non-African countries. Area
• Total 555,000[3] km2
(214,000 sq mi)
(49th)
Contents • Water (%) negligible
Etymology Population
History • 2021 estimate 30,491,000 (48th)
Ancient history • 2004 census 19,685,000[4]
Middle Ages • Density 44.7/km2
(115.8/sq mi)
Advent of Islam and the three dynasties (160th)
Sulayhid Dynasty (1047–1138)
GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
Ayyubid conquest (1171–1260)
• Total $65.603 billion[5]
Rasulid Dynasty (1229–1454) (111th)
Tahiride Dynasty (1454–1517) • Per capita $2,078[5] (213th)
Modern history
GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
The Zaydis and Ottomans
• Total $28.134 billion[5]
Great Britain and the Nine Regions (111th)
Ottoman return • Per capita $891[5] (195th)
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen
Gini (2014) 36.7[6]
Colonial Aden medium

Two states HDI (2019) 0.470[7]
Unification and civil war low · 179th

Contemporary Yemen Currency Yemeni rial (YER)
Social hierarchy
Time zone UTC+3 (AST)
Al-Qaeda
Revolution and aftermath Driving side right[8]
Geography Calling code +967

Regions and climate ISO 3166 code YE
Biodiversity Internet TLD .ye, .‫اليمن‬
Environmental issues
Politics a. From the Ottoman Empire.
Foreign relations b. From the United Kingdom.
Military
Human rights
Human trafficking
Administrative divisions
Economy
Agriculture
Industry
Export and import
State budget
International aid
Water supply and sanitation
Demographics
Ethnic groups
Languages
Religion
Culture
Media
Theatre
Sport
World Heritage sites
Education
Health
See also
Notes
References
External links
Etymology
The term Yamnat was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions on the title of one of the kings
of the second Himyarite kingdom known as Shammar Yahrʽish II. The term probably referred to
the southwestern coastline of the Arabian peninsula and the southern coastline between Aden and
Hadramout.[37][38] The historical Yemen included much greater territory than the current nation,
stretching from northern 'Asir in southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar in southern Oman.[39][40]
One etymology derives Yemen from ymnt, meaning "South", and significantly plays on the notion
of the land to the right (𐩬𐩣𐩺).[41]
Other sorces claim that Yemen is related to yamn or yumn, meaning "felicity" or "blessed", as
much of the country is fertile.[42][43] The Romans called it Arabia Felix ("happy" or "fortunate"
Arabia"), as opposed to Arabia Deserta ("deserted Arabia").
Latin and Greek writers referred to
ancient Yemen as "India", which arose from the Persians calling the Abyssinians whom they came
into contact with in South Arabia by the name of the dark-skinned people who lived next to them,
viz. the Indians.[44][45]
History
Ancient history
With its long sea border between eastern and western

civilizations, Yemen has long existed at a crossroads of cultures
with a strategic location in terms of trade on the west of the
Arabian Peninsula. Large settlements for their era existed in
the mountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000 BCE.[46]
Ruins of the Great Dam of Marib
The Sabaean Kingdom came into existence in at least the 11th
century BCE.[47] The four major kingdoms or tribal
confederations in South Arabia were Saba, Hadramout, Qataban, and Ma'in. Saba’ (Arabic:
‫[)َس ـَبـأ‬48][49] is thought to be biblical Sheba and was the most prominent federation.[50] The
Sabaean rulers adopted the title Mukarrib generally thought to mean unifier,[51] or a priest-
king,[52] or the head of the confederation of South Arabian kingdoms, the "king of the kings".[53]
The role of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the kingdom and preside over them
all.[54] The Sabaeans built the Great Dam of Marib around 940 BCE.[55] The dam was built to
withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley.
Between 700 and 680 BCE, the Kingdom of Awsan dominated Aden and its surroundings and
challenged the Sabaean supremacy in the Arabian South. Sabaean Mukarrib Karib'il Watar I
conquered the entire realm of Awsan,[56] and expanded Sabaean rule and territory to include much
of South Arabia.[57] Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying
the entire peninsula. Instead, they established various colonies to control trade routes.[58]
Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in northern Ethiopia,

where the South Arabian alphabet, religion and pantheon, and
the South Arabian style of art and architecture were
introduced.[59][60][61] The Sabaean created a sense of identity
through their religion. They worshipped El-Maqah and
believed that they were his children.[62] For centuries, the
Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across the Bab-el-Mandeb,
a strait separating the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of
Africa and the Red Sea from the Indian Ocean.[63]
A funerary stela featuring a musical
scene, first century CE By the third century BCE, Qataban, Hadramout, and Ma'in
became independent from Saba and established themselves in
the Yemeni arena. Minaean rule stretched as far as Dedan,[64]
with their capital at Baraqish. The Sabaeans regained their control over Ma'in after the collapse of
Qataban in 50 BCE. By the time of the Roman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BCE, the Sabaeans
were once again the dominating power in Southern Arabia.[65] Aelius Gallus was ordered to lead a
military campaign to establish Roman dominance over the Sabaeans.[66]
The Romans had a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about Arabia Felix or Yemen.
The Roman army of 10,000 men was defeated before Marib.[67] Strabo's close relationship with
Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify his friend's defeat in his writings. It took the Romans six
months to reach Marib and 60 days to return to Egypt. The Romans blamed their Nabataean guide
and executed him for treachery.[68] No direct mention in Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman
expedition has yet been found.
After the Roman expedition – perhaps earlier – the country fell into chaos, and two clans, namely
Hamdan and Himyar, claimed kingship, assuming the title King of Sheba and Dhu Raydan.[69]
Dhu Raydan, i.e., Himyarites, allied themselves with Aksum in Ethiopia against the Sabaeans.[70]
The chief of Bakil and king of Saba and Dhu Raydan, El Sharih Yahdhib, launched successful
campaigns against the Himyarites and Habashat, i.e., Aksum, El Sharih took pride in his
campaigns and added the title Yahdhib to his name, which means "suppressor"; he used to kill his
enemies by cutting them to pieces.[71] Sana'a came into prominence during his reign, as he built the
Ghumdan Palace as his place of residence.
The Himyarite annexed Sana'a from Hamdan around 100 CE.[72]

Hashdi tribesmen rebelled against them and regained Sana'a around
180 AD.[73] Shammar Yahri'sh had not conquered Hadramout, Najran,
and Tihama until 275 CE, thus unifying Yemen and consolidating
Himyarite rule.[74][75] The Himyarites rejected polytheism and
adhered to a consensual form of monotheism called Rahmanism.[76]
In 354 CE, Roman Emperor Constantius II sent an embassy headed by

Theophilos the Indian to convert the Himyarites to Christianity.[77]
According to Philostorgius, the mission was resisted by local Jews.[78]
Several inscriptions have been found in Hebrew and Sabaean praising
the ruling house in Jewish terms for "...helping and empowering the
Himyarite King Dhamar'ali
People of Israel."[79]
Yahbur II
According to Islamic traditions, King As'ad the Perfect mounted a
military expedition to support the Jews of Yathrib.[80] Abu Kariba
As'ad, as known from the inscriptions, led a military campaign to
central Arabia or Najd to support the vassal Kingdom of Kinda against
the Lakhmids.[81] However, no direct reference to Judaism or Yathrib
was discovered from his lengthy reign. Abu Kariba died in 445 CE,
having reigned for almost 50 years.[82] By 515 AD, Himyar became
increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict between
different factions paved the way for an Aksumite intervention. The last
Himyarite king Ma'adikarib Ya'fur was supported by Aksum against
his Jewish rivals. Ma'adikarib was Christian and launched a campaign
against the Lakhmids in southern Iraq, with the support of other Arab
allies of Byzantium.[83] The Lakhmids were a Bulwark of Persia, which A Sabaean gravestone of a
was intolerant to a proselytizing religion like Christianity.[84] woman holding a stylized
sheaf of wheat, a symbol of
After the death of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur around 521 CE, a Himyarite fertility in ancient Yemen
Jewish warlord named Yousef Asar Yathar rose to power with the
honorary title of Yathar (meaning, "to avenge"). Yemenite Christians,
aided by Aksum and Byzantium, systematically persecuted Jews and burned down several
synagogues across the land. Yousef avenged his people with great cruelty.[85] He marched toward
the port city of Mocha, killing 14,000 and capturing 11,000.[83] Then he settled a camp in Bab-el-
Mandeb to prevent aid flowing from Aksum. At the same time, Yousef sent an army under the
command of another Jewish warlord, Sharahil Yaqbul, to Najran. Sharahil had reinforcements
from the Bedouins of the Kinda and Madh'hij tribes, eventually wiping out the Christian
community in Najran.[86]
Yousef or Dhu Nuwas (the one with sidelocks) as known in Arabic literature, believed that
Christians in Yemen were a fifth column.[87] Christian sources portray Dhu Nuwas (Yousef Asar) as
a Jewish zealot, while Islamic traditions say that he threw 20,000 Christians into pits filled with
flaming oil.[85][78] Dhu Nuwas left two inscriptions, neither of them making any reference to fiery
pits. Byzantium had to act or lose all credibility as a protector of eastern Christianity. It is reported
that Byzantium Emperor Justin I sent a letter to the Aksumite King Kaleb, pressuring him to
"...attack the abominable Hebrew."[83] A tripartite military alliance of Byzantine, Aksumite, and
Arab Christians successfully defeated Yousef around 525–527 CE and a client Christian king was
installed on the Himyarite throne.[88]
Esimiphaios was a local Christian lord, mentioned in an inscription celebrating the burning of an
ancient Sabaean palace in Marib to build a church on its ruins.[89] Three new churches were built
in Najran alone.[89] Many tribes did not recognize Esimiphaios's authority. Esimiphaios was
displaced in 531 by a warrior named Abraha, who refused to leave Yemen and declared himself an
independent king of Himyar.[90]
Emperor Justinian I sent an embassy to Yemen. He wanted the officially Christian Himyarites to
use their influence on the tribes in inner Arabia to launch military operations against Persia.
Justinian I bestowed the "dignity of king" upon the Arab sheikhs of Kindah and Ghassan in central
and northern Arabia.[90] From early on, Roman and Byzantine policy was to develop close links
with the powers of the coast of the Red Sea. They were successful in converting Aksum and
influencing their culture. The results concerning to Yemen were rather disappointing.[90]
A Kendite prince called Yazid bin Kabshat rebelled against Abraha and his Arab Christian allies. A
truce was reached once the Great Dam of Marib had suffered a breach.[91] Abraha died around
570CE; Sources regarding his death are available from the Qur'an and Hadith. The Sasanid Empire
annexed Aden around 570 CE. Under their rule, most of Yemen enjoyed great autonomy except for
Aden and Sana'a. This era marked the collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization since the
greater part of the country was under several independent clans until the arrival of Islam in 630
CE.[92]
Middle Ages
Advent of Islam and the three dynasties
Muhammad sent his cousin Ali to Sana'a and its surroundings around 630 CE. At the time, Yemen
was the most advanced region in Arabia.[93] The Banu Hamdan confederation was among the first
to accept Islam. Muhammad sent Muadh ibn Jabal, as well to Al-Janad, in present-day Taiz, and
dispatched letters to various tribal leaders. The reason behind this was the division among the
tribes and the absence of a strong central authority in Yemen during the days of the prophet.[94]
Major tribes, including Himyar, sent delegations to Medina during the "year of delegations"
around 630–631 CE. Several Yemenis accepted Islam before the year 630, such as Ammar ibn
Yasir, Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami, Miqdad ibn Aswad, Abu Musa Ashaari, and Sharhabeel ibn Hasana. A
man named 'Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al-Ansi expelled the remaining Persians and claimed he was a
prophet of Rahman. He was assassinated by a Yemeni of Persian origin called Fayruz al-Daylami.
Christians, who were mainly staying in Najran along with Jews,

agreed to pay jizyah (Arabic: ‫)ِج ـْزَيـة‬, although some Jews
converted to Islam, such as Wahb ibn Munabbih and Ka'ab al-
Ahbar.
Yemen was stable during the Rashidun Caliphate. Yemeni

tribes played a pivotal role in the Islamic expansion of Egypt,
Iraq, Persia, the Levant, Anatolia, North Africa, Sicily, and
Andalusia.[95][96][97] Yemeni tribes who settled in Syria,
contributed significantly to the solidification of Umayyad rule, The interior of the Great Mosque of
especially during the reign of Marwan I. Powerful Yemenite Sana'a, the oldest mosque in
tribes such as Kinda were on his side during the Battle of Marj Yemen
Rahit.[98][99]
Several emirates led by people of Yemeni descent were established in North Africa and Andalusia.
Effective control over entire Yemen was not achieved by the Umayyad Caliphate. Imam Abdullah
ibn Yahya Al-Kindi was elected in 745 CE to lead the Ibāḍī movement in Hadramawt and Oman.
He expelled the Umayyad governor from Sana'a and captured Mecca and Medina in 746.[100] Al-
Kindi, known by his nickname "Talib al-Haqq" (seeker of truth), established the first Ibadi state in
the history of Islam but was killed in Taif around 749.[100]
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad founded the Ziyadid dynasty in Tihama around 818 CE. The
state stretched from Haly (in present-day Saudi Arabia) to Aden. They nominally recognized the
Abbasid Caliphate but were ruling independently from their capital in Zabid.[101] The history of
this dynasty is obscure. They never exercised control over the highlands and Hadramawt, and did
not control more than a coastal strip of Yemen (Tihama) bordering the Red Sea.[102] A Himyarite
clan called the Yufirids established their rule over the highlands from Saada to Taiz, while
Hadramawt was an Ibadi stronghold and rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids in Baghdad.[101] By
virtue of its location, the Ziyadid dynasty of Zabid developed a special relationship with Abyssinia.
The chief of the Dahlak islands exported slaves, as well as amber and leopard hides, to the then
ruler of Yemen.[103]
The first Zaidi imam, Yahya ibn al-Husayn, arrived in Yemen in 893 CE. He was the founder of the
Zaidi imamate in 897. He was a religious cleric and judge who was invited to come to Saada from
Medina to arbitrate tribal disputes.[104] Imam Yahya persuaded local tribesmen to follow his
teachings. The sect slowly spread across the highlands, as the tribes of Hashid and Bakil, later
known as "the twin wings of the imamate," accepted his authority.[105]
Yahya established his influence in Saada and Najran. He also tried to capture Sana'a from the
Yufirids in 901 CE but failed miserably. In 904, the Isma'ilis under Ibn Hawshab and Ali ibn al-
Fadl al-Jayshani invaded Sana'a. The Yufirid emir As'ad ibn Ibrahim retreated to Al-Jawf, and
between 904 and 913, Sana'a was conquered no less than 20 times by Isma'ilis and Yufirids.[106]
As'ad ibn Ibrahim regained Sana'a in 915. Yemen was in turmoil as Sana'a became a battlefield for
the three dynasties, as well as independent tribes.
The Yufirid emir Abdullah ibn Qahtan attacked and burned Zabid in 989, severely weakening the
Ziyadid dynasty.[107] The Ziyadid monarchs lost effective power after 989, or even earlier than that.
Meanwhile, a succession of slaves held power in Zabid and continued to govern in the name of
their masters, eventually establishing their own dynasty around 1022 or 1050 according to
different sources.[108] Although they were recognized by the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, they
ruled no more than Zabid and four districts to its north.[109] The rise of the Isma'ili Sulayhid
dynasty in the Yemeni highlands reduced their history to a series of intrigues.
Sulayhid Dynasty (1047–1138)

The Sulayhid dynasty was founded in the northern highlands

around 1040; at the time, Yemen was ruled by different local
dynasties. In 1060, Ali ibn Muhammad Al-Sulayhi conquered
Zabid and killed its ruler Al-Najah, founder of the Najahid
dynasty. His sons were forced to flee to Dahlak.[110]
Hadramawt fell into Sulayhid hands after their capture of Aden
in 1162.[111]
By 1063, Ali had subjugated Greater Yemen.[112] He then

marched toward Hejaz and occupied Makkah.[113] Ali was Jibla became the capital of the
married to Asma bint Shihab, who governed Yemen with her dynasty. Featured is the Queen
husband.[114] The Khutba during Friday prayers was Arwa Mosque.
proclaimed in both her husband's name and hers. No other
Arab woman had this honor since the advent of Islam.[114]
Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons on his way to Mecca in

1084. His son Ahmed Al-Mukarram led an army to Zabid and
killed 8,000 of its inhabitants.[115] He later installed the
Zurayids to govern Aden. al-Mukarram, who had been afflicted
with facial paralysis resulting from war injuries, retired in 1087
and handed over power to his wife Arwa al-Sulayhi.[116] Queen
Arwa moved the seat of the Sulayhid dynasty from Sana'a to Queen Arwa al-Sulaihi Palace
Jibla, a small town in central Yemen near Ibb. Jibla was
strategically near the Sulayhid dynasty source of wealth, the
agricultural central highlands. It was also within easy reach of the southern portion of the country,
especially Aden. She sent Ismaili missionaries to India, where a significant Ismaili community was
formed that exists to this day.[117] Queen Arwa continued to rule securely until her death in
1138.[117]
Arwa al-Sulayhi is still remembered as a great and much-loved sovereign, as attested in Yemeni
historiography, literature, and popular lore, where she is referred to as Balqis al-sughra ("the
junior queen of Sheba").[118] Although the Sulayhids were Ismaili, they never tried to impose their
beliefs on the public.[119] Shortly after Queen Arwa's death, the country was split between five
competing petty dynasties along religious lines.[120] The Ayyubid dynasty overthrew the Fatimid
Caliphate in Egypt. A few years after their rise to power, Saladin dispatched his brother Turan Shah
to conquer Yemen in 1174.[121]
Ayyubid conquest (1171–1260)
Turan Shah conquered Zabid from the Mahdids in May 1174, then marched toward Aden in June
and captured it from the Zurayids.[122] The Hamdanid sultans of Sana'a resisted the Ayyubid in
1175, and the Ayyubids did not manage to secure Sana'a until 1189.[123] The Ayyubid rule was
stable in southern and central Yemen, where they succeeded in eliminating the ministates of that
region, while Ismaili and Zaidi tribesmen continued to hold out in several fortresses.[123]
The Ayyubids failed to capture the Zaydis stronghold in northern Yemen.[124] In 1191, Zaydis of
Shibam Kawkaban rebelled and killed 700 Ayyubid soldiers.[125] Imam Abdullah bin Hamza
proclaimed the imamate in 1197 and fought al-Mu'izz Ismail, the Ayyubid Sultan of Yemen. Imam
Abdullah was defeated at first but was able to conquer Sana'a and Dhamar in 1198,[126] and al-
Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in 1202.[127]
Abdullah bin Hamza carried on the struggle against the Ayyubid until his death in 1217. After his
demise, the Zaidi community was split between two rival imams. The Zaydis were dispersed and a
truce was signed with the Ayyubid in 1219.[128] The Ayyubid army was defeated in Dhamar in
1226.[128] Ayyubid Sultan Mas'ud Yusuf left for Mecca in 1228, never to return.[129] Other sources
suggest that he was forced to leave for Egypt instead in 1223.[130]
Rasulid Dynasty (1229–1454)
The Rasulid Dynasty was established in 1229 by Umar ibn

Rasul, who was appointed deputy governor by the Ayyubids in
1223. When the last Ayyubid ruler left Yemen in 1229, Umar
stayed in the country as caretaker. He subsequently declared
himself an independent king by assuming the title "al-Malik Al-
Mansur" (the king assisted by Allah).[130] Umar established the
Rasulid dynasty on a firm foundation and expanded its
territory to include the area from Dhofar to Mecca[131]
Umar first established himself at Zabid, then moved into the

mountainous interior, taking the important highland centre Al-Qahyra (Cairo) Castle's Garden
Sana'a. However, the Rasulid capitals were Zabid and Taiz. He in Taiz, the capital of Yemen during
was assassinated by his nephew in 1249.[129] Omar's son Yousef the Rasulid's era
defeated the faction led by his father's assassins and crushed
several counter-attacks by the Zaydi imams who still held on in
the northern highland. Mainly because of the victories he scored over his rivals, he assumed the
honorific title "al-Muzaffar" (the victorious).[132]
After the fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258, al-Muzaffar Yusuf I appropriated the title of
caliph.[132] He chose the city of Taiz to become the political capital of the kingdom because of its
strategic location and proximity to Aden.[133] al-Muzaffar Yusuf I died in 1296, having reigned for
47 years.[132] When the news of his death reached the Zaydi imam Al-Mutawakkil al-Mutahhar bin
Yahya, he commented,[132]
The greatest king of Yemen, the Muawiyah of the time, has died. His pens used to break
our lances and swords to pieces.
The Rasulid state nurtured Yemen's commercial links with India and the Far East.[134] They
profited greatly by the Red Sea transit trade via Aden and Zabid.[129] The economy also boomed
due to the agricultural development programs instituted by the kings who promoted massive
cultivation of palms.[129] The Rasulid kings enjoyed the support of the population of Tihama and
southern Yemen, while they had to buy the loyalty of Yemen's restive northern highland tribes.[129]
The Rasulid sultans built numerous Madrasas to solidify the Shafi'i school of thought, which is still
the dominant school of jurisprudence amongst Yemenis today.[135] Under their rule, Taiz and
Zabid became major international centres of Islamic learning.[136] The kings themselves were
educated men in their own right, who not only had important libraries but also wrote treatises on a
wide array of subjects, ranging from astrology and medicine to agriculture and genealogy.[133]
The dynasty is regarded as the greatest native Yemeni state since the fall of the pre-Islamic
Himyarite Kingdom.[137] They were of Turkic descent.[138] They claimed an ancient Yemenite
origin to justify their rule. The Rasulids were not the first dynasty to create a fictitious genealogy
for political purposes, nor were they doing anything out of the
ordinary in the tribal context of Arabia.[139] By claiming
descent from a solid Yemenite tribe, the Rasulids brought
Yemen to a vital sense of unity in an otherwise chaotic regional
milieu.[139]
They had a difficult relationship with the Mamluks of Egypt

because the latter considered them a vassal state.[133] Their
competition centred over the Hejaz and the right to provide
kiswa of the Ka'aba in Mecca.[133] The dynasty became
increasingly threatened by disgruntled family members over
the problem of succession, combined by periodic tribal revolts,
as they were locked in a war of attrition with the Zaydi imams
in the northern highlands.[136] During the last 12 years of A 13th-century book illustration
Rasulid rule, the country was torn between several contenders produced in Baghdad by al-Wasiti
for the kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulid provided an showing a slave-market in the town
opportunity for the Banu Taher clan to take over and establish of Zabid in Yemen.
themselves as the new rulers of Yemen in 1454 CE.[135]
Tahiride Dynasty (1454–1517)
The Tahirids were a local clan based in Rada'a. While they were
not as impressive as their predecessors, they were still keen
builders. They built schools, mosques, and irrigation channels,
as well as water cisterns and bridges in Zabid, Aden, Rada'a,
and Juban. Their best-known monument is the Amiriya
Madrasa in Rada' District, which was built in 1504.
Portuguese Viceroy Afonso de
The Tahiride were too weak either to contain the Zaydi imams
Albuquerque failed twice to conquer
or to defend themselves against foreign attacks.
Aden, though the Portuguese
Empire managed to rule Socotra
Realizing how rich the Tahiride realm was, they decided to
until 1511.
conquer it.[140] The Mamluk army, with the support of forces
loyal to Zaydi Imam Al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din,
conquered the entire realm of the Tahiride but failed to capture
Aden in 1517. The Mamluk victory was short-lived. The Ottoman Empire conquered Egypt, hanging
the last Mamluk Sultan in Cairo.[140] The Ottomans had not decided to conquer Yemen until 1538.
The Zaydi highland tribes emerged as national heroes[141] by offering stiff, vigorous resistance to
the Turkish occupation.[142] The Mamluks of Egypt tried to attach Yemen to Egypt and the
Portuguese led by Afonso de Albuquerque, occupied the island of Socotra and made an
unsuccessful attack on Aden in 1513.[143]
Modern history
The Zaydis and Ottomans
The Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen: The Islamic holy cities of
Mecca and Medina, and the trade route with India in spices and textiles—both threatened, and the
latter virtually eclipsed, by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the
early 16th century.[144] Hadım Suleiman Pasha, The Ottoman governor of Egypt, was ordered to
command a fleet of 90 ships to conquer Yemen. The country was in a state of incessant anarchy
and discord as Hadım Suleiman Pasha described it by saying:[145]
Yemen is a land with no lord, an empty province. It

would be not only possible but easy to capture, and
should it be captured, it would be master of the
lands of India and send every year a great amount of
gold and jewels to Constantinople.
Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din ruled over the

northern highlands including Sana'a, while Aden was held by Al Bakiriyya Ottoman Mosque in
the last Tahiride Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod. Hadım Suleiman Sana'a, was built in 1597
Pasha stormed Aden in 1538, killing its ruler, and extended
Ottoman authority to include Zabid in 1539 and eventually
Tihama in its entirety.[146] Zabid became the administrative
headquarters of Yemen Eyalet.[146] The Ottoman governors did
not exercise much control over the highlands. They held sway
mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly around
Zabid, Mocha, and Aden.[147] Of 80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen
from Egypt between 1539 and 1547, only 7,000 survived.[148]
The Ottoman accountant-general in Egypt remarked:[148]
Ottoman soldiers and Yemeni locals

We have seen no foundry like Yemen for our
soldiers. Each time we have sent an expeditionary
force there, it has melted away like salt dissolved in
water.
The Ottomans sent yet another expeditionary force to Zabid in 1547, while Imam al-Mutawakkil
Yahya Sharaf ad-Din was ruling the highlands independently. Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya chose
his son Ali to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other son al-Mutahhar ibn Yahya.[149] Al-
Mutahhar was lame, so he was not qualified for the imamate.[149] He urged Oais Pasha, the
Ottoman colonial governor in Zabid, to attack his father.[150] Indeed, Ottoman troops supported by
tribal forces loyal to Imam al-Mutahhar stormed Taiz and marched north toward Sana'a in August
1547. The Turks officially made Imam al-Mutahhar a Sanjak-bey with authority over 'Amran.
Imam al-Mutahhar assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured Sana'a, but the
Ottomans, led by Özdemir Pasha, forced al-Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress in Thula. Özdemir
Pasha effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560. He was considered a
competent ruler given Yemen's notorious lawlessness, garrisoning the main cities, building new
fortresses, and rendering secure the main routes.[151] Özdemir died in Sana'a in 1561 and was
succeeded by Mahmud Pasha.
Unlike Özdemir's brief but able leadership, Mahmud Pasha was described by other Ottoman
officials as a corrupt and unscrupulous governor. He used his authority to take over several castles,
some of which belonged to the former Rasulid kings.[149] Mahmud Pasha killed a Sunni scholar
from Ibb.[152] The Ottoman historian claimed that this incident was celebrated by the Zaydi Shia
community in the northern highlands.[152] Disregarding the delicate balance of power in Yemen by
acting tactlessly, he alienated different groups within Yemeni society, causing them to forget their
rivalries and unite against the Turks.[151] Mahmud Pasha was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564.
By 1565, Yemen was split into two provinces, the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha
and Tihama under Murad Pasha. Imam al-Mutahhar launched a propaganda campaign in which he
claimed that the prophet Mohammed came to him in a dream and advised him to wage jihad
against the Ottomans.[153] Al-Mutahhar led the tribes to capture Sana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567.
When Murad tried to relieve Sana'a, highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered all of
them.[154] Over 80 battles were fought. The last decisive encounter took place in Dhamar around
1568, in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and his head sent to al-Mutahhar in Sana'a.[154][155] By
1568, only Zabid remained under the possession of the Turks.[155]
Ruins of Thula fortress in 'Amran, where al-Mutahhar ibn Yahya barricaded himself against Ottoman
attacks
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Syria, was ordered by Selim II to suppress the
Yemeni rebels.[156] However, the Turkish army in Egypt was reluctant to go to Yemen due to their
knowledge of the hegemony of the northern Yemenis.[156] Mustafa Pasha sent a letter with two
Turkish shawishes hoping to persuade al-Mutahhar to give an apology and confirm that Mustafa
Pasha did not promote any act of aggression against the Ottoman army, and state that the
"ignorant Arabian" according to the Turks, acted on their own.[157] Imam al-Mutahhar refused the
Ottoman offer. When Mustafa Pasha sent an expeditionary force under the command of Uthman
Pasha, it was defeated with great casualties.[158] Sultan Selim II was infuriated by Mustafa's
hesitation to go to Yemen. He executed a number of sanjak-beys in Egypt and ordered Sinan Pasha
to lead the entire Turkish army in Egypt to reconquer Yemen.[159] Sinan Pasha was a prominent
Ottoman general of Albanian origin.[155] He reconquered Aden, Taiz, and Ibb, and besieged
Shibam Kawkaban in 1570 for seven months. The siege was lifted once a truce was reached.[160]
Imam al-Mutahhar was pushed back, but could not be entirely overcome.[161] After al-Mutahhar's
demise in 1572, the Zaydi community was not united under an imam; the Turks took advantage of
their disunity and conquered Sana'a, Sa'dah, and Najran in 1583.[162] Imam al-Nasir Hassan was
arrested in 1585 and exiled to Constantinople, thereby putting an end to the Yemeni rebellion.[155]
The Zaydi tribesmen in the northern highlands particularly those of Hashid and Bakil, were ever
the Turkish bugbear in all Arabia.[163] The Ottomans who justified their presence in Yemen as a
triumph for Islam, accused the Zaydis of being infidels.[164] Hassan Pasha was appointed governor
of Yemen and enjoyed a period of relative peace from 1585 to 1597. Pupils of al-Mansur al-Qasim
suggested he should claim the imamate and fight the Turks. He declined at first, but the promotion
of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence at the expense of Zaydi Islam infuriated al-Mansur al-Qasim.
He proclaimed the imamate in September 1597, which was the same year the Ottoman authorities
inaugurated al-Bakiriyya Mosque.[162] By 1608, Imam al-Mansur (the victorious) regained control
over the highlands and signed a truce for 10 years with the Ottomans.[165] Imam al-Mansur al-
Qasim died in 1620. His son Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad succeeded him and confirmed the truce with
the Ottomans. In 1627, the Ottomans lost Aden and Lahej. 'Abdin Pasha was ordered to suppress
the rebels, but failed, and had to retreat to Mocha.[162] Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad expelled the
Ottomans from Sana'a in 1628, only Zabid and Mocha remained under Ottoman possession. Al-
Mu'ayyad Muhammad captured Zabid in 1634 and allowed the Ottomans to leave Mocha
peacefully.[166] The reason behind Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad's success was the possession of
firearms by the tribes and their unity behind him.[167]
In 1632, Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force

of 1,000 men to conquer Mecca.[168] The army entered the city
in triumph and killed its governor.[168] The Ottomans were not
ready to lose Mecca after Yemen, so they sent an army from
Egypt to fight the Yemenites.[168] Seeing that the Turkish army
was too numerous to overcome, the Yemeni army retreated to a
valley outside Mecca.[169] Ottoman troops attacked the
Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them with water.
This plan proceeded successfully, causing the Yemenis over Mocha was Yemen's busiest port in
200 casualties, most from thirst. [169] The tribesmen eventually the 17th and 18th centuries
surrendered and returned to Yemen. [170] Al-Mu'ayyad
Muhammad died in 1644. He was succeeded by Al-Mutawakkil
Isma'il, another son of al-Mansur al-Qasim, who conquered Yemen in its entirety, from Asir in the
north to Dhofar in the east.[171][172][173][174] During his reign, and during the reign of his successor,
Al-Mahdi Ahmad (1676–1681), the imamate implemented some of the harshest discriminatory
laws (ghiyar) against the Jews of Yemen, which culminated in the expulsion of all Jews (Exile of
Mawza) to a hot and arid region in the Tihama coastal plain. The Qasimid state was the strongest
Zaydi state to ever exist. See Yemeni Zaidi State for more information.
During that period, Yemen was the sole coffee producer in the world.[175] The country established
diplomatic relations with the Safavid dynasty of Persia, Ottomans of Hejaz, Mughal Empire in
India, and Ethiopia, as well. Fasilides of Ethiopia sent three diplomatic missions to Yemen, but the
relations did not develop into a political alliance, as Fasilides had hoped, due to the rise of powerful
feudalists in his country.[176] In the first half of the 18th century, the Europeans broke Yemen's
monopoly on coffee by smuggling coffee trees and cultivating them in their own colonies in the
East Indies, East Africa, the West Indies, and Latin America.[177] The imamate did not follow a
cohesive mechanism for succession, and family quarrels and tribal insubordination led to the
political decline of the Qasimi dynasty in the 18th century.[178] In 1728 or 1731, the chief
representative of Lahej declared himself an independent sultan in defiance of the Qasimid dynasty
and conquered Aden, thus establishing the Sultanate of Lahej. The rising power of the fervently
Islamist Wahhabi movement on the Arabian Peninsula cost the Zaidi state its coastal possessions
after 1803. The imam was able to regain them temporarily in 1818, but new intervention by the
Ottoman viceroy of Egypt in 1833 again wrested the coast from the ruler in Sana'a. After 1835, the
imamate changed hands with great frequency and some imams were assassinated. After 1849, the
Zaidi polity descended into chaos that lasted for decades.[179]
Great Britain and the Nine Regions
The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route to India. It took 700
tons of coal for a round-trip from Suez to Bombay. East India Company officials decided on Aden.
The British Empire tried to reach an agreement with the Zaydi imam of Sana'a, permitting them a
foothold in Mocha, and when unable to secure their position, they extracted a similar agreement
from the Sultan of Lahej, enabling them to consolidate a position in Aden.[180] An incident played
into British hands when, while passing Aden for trading purposes, one of their sailing ships sank
and Arab tribesmen boarded it and plundered its contents. The British India government
dispatched a warship under the command of Captain Stafford Bettesworth Haines to demand
compensation.[180]
Haines bombarded Aden from his warship in January 1839. The ruler of Lahej, who was in Aden at
the time, ordered his guards to defend the port, but they failed in the face of overwhelming military
and naval power. The British managed to occupy Aden and agreed to compensate the sultan with
an annual payment of 6,000 riyals.[180] The British evicted the Sultan of Lahej from Aden and
forced him to accept their "protection."[180] In November 1839, 5,000 tribesmen tried to retake the
town but were repulsed and 200 were killed. The British
realised that Aden's prosperity depended on their relations
with the neighbouring tribes, which required that they rest on a
firm and satisfactory basis.[181]
The British government concluded "protection and friendship"

treaties with nine tribes surrounding Aden, whereas they would
remain independent from British interference in their affairs as
long as they do not conclude treaties with foreigners (non-Arab
colonial powers).[182] Aden was declared a free zone in 1850.
With emigrants from India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia,
Aden grew into a world city. In 1850, only 980 Arabs were
The building of the Legislative
registered as original inhabitants of the city.[183] The English
Council of Aden, built by the English
presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The in the 19th century as St. Mary's
Turks asserted to the British that they held sovereignty over the Church, was converted into the
whole of Arabia, including Yemen as the successor of building of the Legislative Council in
Mohammed and the Chief of the Universal Caliphate.[184] the 1960s, and is now a museum
Ottoman return
The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from India
to the Red Sea and Arabia. They returned to the Tihama in 1849 after
an absence of two centuries.[185] Rivalries and disturbances continued
among the Zaydi imams, between them and their deputies, with the
ulema, with the heads of tribes, as well as with those who belonged to
other sects. Some citizens of Sana'a were desperate to return law and
order to Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in Tihama to pacify the
country.[186] Yemeni merchants knew that the return of the Ottomans
would improve their trade, for the Ottomans would become their
customers.[187] An Ottoman expedition force tried to capture Sana'a,
but was defeated and had to evacuate the highlands.[188] The Opening
of the Suez Canal in 1869, strengthened the Ottoman decision to
remain in Yemen.[189] In 1872, military forces were dispatched from The Ottoman Grand Vizier
and Wāli of Yemen Ahmed
Constantinople and moved beyond the Ottoman stronghold in the
Muhtar Pasha
lowlands (Tihama) to conquer Sana'a. By 1873, the Ottomans
succeeded in conquering the northern highlands. Sana'a became the
administrative capital of Yemen Vilayet.
The Ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment of local
lords in the highland regions. They even attempted to secularize the Yemeni society, while
Yemenite Jews came to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms.[190] The Ottomans
appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and appointing them to administrative
posts. They introduced a series of reforms to enhance the country's economic welfare. However,
corruption was widespread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen. This was because only the
worst of the officials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so.[191]
The Ottomans had reasserted control over the highlands for a temporary duration.[185] The so-
called Tanzimat reforms were considered heretic by the Zaydi tribes. In 1876, the Hashid and Bakil
tribes rebelled against the Ottomans; the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the
uprising.[192]
The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbed Ottoman efforts
to pacify the land. Ahmed Izzet Pasha proposed that the Ottoman army evacuate the highlands and
confine itself to Tihama, and not unnecessarily burden itself with continuing military operation
against the Zaydi tribes.[191]

The hit-and-run tactics of the northern highlands tribesmen wore out
the Ottoman military. They resented the Turkish Tanzimat and defied all attempts to impose a
central government upon them.[189] The northern tribes united under the leadership of the House
of Hamidaddin in 1890. Imam Yahya Hamidaddin led a rebellion against the Turks in 1904; the
rebels disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern.[193] The revolts between 1904 and 1911 were
especially damaging to the Ottomans, costing them as many as 10,000 soldiers and as much as
500,000 pounds per year.[194] The Ottomans signed a treaty with imam Yahya Hamidaddin in
1911. Under the treaty, Imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the Zaydi northern
highlands. The Ottomans continued to rule Shafi'i areas in the mid-south until their departure in
1918.
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen
Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil was ruling the

northern highlands independently from 1911. After the Ottoman
departure in 1918, he sought to recapture the lands of his Qasimid
ancestors. He dreamed of Greater Yemen stretching from Asir to
Dhofar. These schemes brought him into conflict with the de facto
rulers in the territories claimed, namely the Idrisids, Ibn Saud, and the
British government in Aden.[195] The Zaydi imam did not recognize
the Anglo-Ottoman border agreement of 1905 on the grounds that it
was made between two foreign powers occupying Yemen.[196] The
border treaty effectively divided Yemen into north and south.[197] In
1915, the British signed a treaty with the Idrisids guaranteeing their
security and independence if they would fight against the Turks.[198]
Imam Yahya Hamid Ed-
In 1919, Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din moved southward to "liberate" the
Din's house near Sana'a
nine British protectorates. The British responded by moving quickly
towards Tihama and occupying al-Hudaydah. Then they handed it
over to their Idrisi allies.[199] Imam Yahya attacked the southern
protectorates again in 1922. The British bombed Yahya's tribal forces using aircraft to which the
tribes had no effective counter.[200]
In 1925, Imam Yahya captured al-Hudaydah from the Idrisids.[201] He continued to follow and
attack the Idrisids until Asir fell under the control of the imam's forces, forcing the Idrisi to request
an agreement that would enable them to administer the region in the name of the imam.[201] Imam
Yahya refused the offer on the grounds that the Idrisis were of Moroccan descent. According to
Imam Yahya, the Idrisis, along with the British, were nothing but recent intruders and should be
driven out of Yemen permanently.[202] In 1927, Imam Yahya's forces were about 50 km (30 mi)
away from Aden, Taiz, and Ibb, and were bombed by the British for five days; the imam had to pull
back.[200] Small Bedouin forces, mainly from the Madh'hij confederation of Marib, attacked
Shabwah but were bombed by the British and had to retreat.
The Italian Empire was the first to recognize Imam Yahya as the King of Yemen in 1926. This
created a great deal of anxiety for the British, who interpreted it as recognition of Imam Yahya's
claim to sovereignty over Greater Yemen, which included the Aden protectorate and Asir.[203] The
Idrisis turned to Ibn Saud seeking his protection from Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din. However,
in 1932, the Idrisis broke their accord with Ibn Saud and went back to Imam Yahya seeking help
against Ibn Saud himself, who had begun liquidating their authority and expressed his desire to
annex those territories into his own Saudi domain.[204][205] Imam Yahya demanded the return of
all Idrisi dominion.[204] That same year, a group of Hejazi liberals fled to Yemen and plotted to
expel Ibn Saud from the former Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz, which had been conquered by the
Saudis seven years earlier. Ibn Saud appealed to Britain for aid.[206] The British government sent
arms and aeroplanes .[206] The British were anxious that Ibn Saud's financial difficulties may
encourage the Italian Empire to bail him out.[204]

Ibn Saud suppressed the Asiri rebellion in 1933,
after which the Idrisids fled to Sana'a.[206] Negotiations between the Imam Yahya Hamid ed-Din
and Ibn Saud proved fruitless. After the 1934 Saudi-Yemeni war, Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire
in May 1934.[206] Imam Yahya agreed to release Saudi hostages and the surrender of the Idrisis to
Saudi custody. Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of Najran, Asir, and Jazan for 20 years.[207]
and signed another treaty with the British government in 1934. The imam recognized the British
sovereignty over Aden protectorate for 40 years.[208] Out of fear for Hudaydah, Yahya did submit
to these demands. According to Bernard Reich, Professor of Political Science and International
Affairs at George Washington University, Yahya could have done better by reorganizing the Zaydi
tribes of the northern highlands as his ancestors did against the Turks and British intruders and
turn the lands they captured into another graveyard.[209]
Colonial Aden
Starting in 1890, hundreds of Yemeni people from Hajz, Al-Baetha,

and Taiz migrated to Aden to work at ports, and as labourers. This
helped the population of Aden once again become predominantly Arab
after, having been declared a free zone, it had become mostly
foreigners. During World War II, Aden had increasing economic
growth and became the second-busiest port in the world after New
York City.[210] After the rise of labour unions, a rift was apparent
between the sectors of workers and the first signs of resistance to the
occupation started in 1943.[210] Muhammad Ali Luqman founded the
first Arabic club and school in Aden, and was the first to start working
towards a union.[211]
The Colony of Aden was divided into an eastern colony and a western
colony. Those were further divided into 23 sultanates and emirates,
and several independent tribes that had no relationships with the Queen Elizabeth II holding
sultanates. The deal between the sultanates and Britain detailed a sword, prepared to knight
protection and complete control of foreign relations by the British. The subjects in Aden in 1954
Sultanate of Lahej was the only one in which the sultan was referred to
as His Highness.[212] The Federation of South Arabia was created by
the British to counter Arab nationalism by giving more freedom to the rulers of the nations.[213]
The North Yemen Civil War inspired many in the south to rise against the British rule. The
National Liberation Front (NLF) of Yemen was formed with the leadership of Qahtan Muhammad
Al-Shaabi. The NLF hoped to destroy all the sultanates and eventually unite with the Yemen Arab
Republic. Most of the support for the NLF came from Radfan and Yafa, so the British launched
Operation Nutcracker, which completely burned Radfan in January 1964.[214]
Two states
Arab nationalism made an impact in some circles who opposed the lack of modernization efforts in
the Mutawakkilite monarchy. This became apparent when Imam Ahmad bin Yahya died in
1962. He was succeeded by his son, but army officers attempted to seize power, sparking the North
Yemen Civil War.[215] The Hamidaddin royalists were supported by Saudi Arabia, Britain, and
Jordan (mostly with weapons and financial aid, but also with small military forces), whilst the
military rebels were backed by Egypt. Egypt provided the rebels with weapons and financial
assistance, but also sent a large military force to participate in the fighting. Israel covertly supplied
weapons to the royalists to keep the Egyptian military busy in Yemen and make Nasser less likely
to initiate a conflict in the Sinai.
After six years of civil war, the military rebels were victorious
(February 1968) and formed the Yemen Arab Republic.[216]
The revolution in the north

coincided with the Aden
Emergency, which hastened
the end of British rule in the
south. On 30 November
1967, the state of South
Yemen was formed,
comprising Aden and the
former Protectorate of
Egyptian military intervention in
South Arabia. This socialist
North Yemen, 1962 British Army's counter-insurgency
state was later officially
known as the People's campaign in the British-controlled
Democratic Republic of Yemen and a programme of territories of South Arabia, 1967
nationalisation was begun.[217]
Relations between the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful and hostile. The South was
supported by the Eastern bloc. The North, however, was not able to get the same connections. In
1972, the two states fought a war. The war was resolved with a ceasefire and negotiations brokered
by the Arab League, where it was declared that unification would eventually occur. In 1978, Ali
Abdullah Saleh was named as president of the Yemen Arab Republic.[218]
After the war, the North
complained about the South's help from foreign countries. This included Saudi Arabia.[219]
In 1979, fresh fighting between the two states resumed and efforts were renewed to bring about
unification.[218]
Thousands were killed in 1986 in the South Yemen Civil War. President Ali Nasser Muhammad
fled to the north and was later sentenced to death for treason. A new government formed.[218]
Unification and civil war
In 1990, the two governments reached a full agreement on the

joint governing of Yemen, and the countries were merged on 22
May 1990, with Saleh as president.[218] The President of South
Yemen, Ali Salim al-Beidh, became vice president.[218] A
unified parliament was formed and a unity constitution was
agreed upon.[218] In the 1993 parliamentary election, the first
held after unification, the General People's Congress won 122 of
Yemen Arab Republic (in orange)
301 seats.[220]: 309
and South Yemen (in blue) before
1990
After the invasion of Kuwait crisis in 1990, Yemen's president
opposed military intervention from non-Arab states.[221] As a
member of the United Nations Security Council for 1990 and
1991, Yemen abstained on a number of UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwait[222] and
voted against the "...use of force resolution." The vote outraged the U.S.[223] Saudi Arabia expelled
800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to punish Yemen for its opposition to the intervention.[224]
In the absence of strong state institutions, elite politics in Yemen constituted a de facto form of
collaborative governance, where competing tribal, regional, religious, and political interests agreed
to hold themselves in check through tacit acceptance of the balance it produced.[225] The informal
political settlement was held together by a power-sharing deal among three men: President Saleh,
who controlled the state; major general Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar, who controlled the largest share of
the Republic of Yemen Armed Forces; and Abdullah ibn Husayn al-Ahmar, figurehead of the
Islamist al-Islah party and Saudi Arabia's chosen broker of transnational patronage payments to
various political players,[226]

including tribal sheikhs.[227][228][229][230] The Saudi payments have
been intended to facilitate the tribes' autonomy from the Yemeni government and to give the Saudi
government a mechanism with which to weigh in on Yemen's political decision-making.[231]
Following food riots in major towns in 1992, a new coalition government made up of the ruling
parties from both the former Yemeni states was formed in 1993. However, Vice President al-Beidh
withdrew to Aden in August 1993 and said he would not return to the government until his
grievances were addressed. These included northern violence against his Yemeni Socialist Party, as
well as the economic marginalization of the south.[232] Negotiations to end the political deadlock
dragged on into 1994. The government of Prime Minister Haydar Abu Bakr Al-Attas became
ineffective due to political infighting.[233]
An accord between northern and southern leaders was signed in Amman, Jordan on 20 February
1994, but this could not stop the civil war.[234] During these tensions, both the northern and
southern armies (which had never integrated) gathered on their respective frontiers.[235] The May
– July 1994 civil war in Yemen resulted in the defeat of the southern armed forces and the flight
into exile of many Yemeni Socialist Party leaders and other southern secessionists. Saudi Arabia
actively aided the south during the 1994 civil war.[236]
Contemporary Yemen
Ali Abdullah Saleh became Yemen's first directly elected

president in the 1999 presidential election, winning 96.2 per
cent of the vote.[220]: 310 The only other candidate, Najeeb
Qahtan Al-Sha'abi, was the son of Qahtan Muhammad al-
Sha'abi, a former president of South Yemen. Though a member
of Saleh's General People's Congress (GPC) party, Najeeb ran
as an independent.[238]
In October 2000, 17 U.S. personnel died after a suicide attack

Prayers during Ramadan in Sana'a
on the U.S. naval vessel USS Cole in Aden, which was
subsequently blamed on al-Qaeda. After the September 11
attacks on the United States, President Saleh assured U.S.
President George W. Bush that Yemen was a partner in his War
on Terror. In 2001, violence surrounded a referendum, which
apparently supported extending Saleh's rule and powers.
The Shia insurgency in Yemen began in June 2004 when

dissident cleric Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi, head of the Zaidi
Shia sect, launched an uprising against the Yemeni "Sana'a risks becoming the first
government. The Yemeni government alleged that the Houthis capital in the world to run out of a
were seeking to overthrow it and to implement Shī'ite religious viable water supply as Yemen's
law. The rebels counter that they are "defending their streams and natural aquifers run
community against discrimination" and government dry," says The Guardian.[237]
aggression.[239]
In 2005, at least 36 people were killed in clashes across the country between police and protesters
over rising fuel prices.
In the 2006 presidential election, held on 20 September, Saleh won with 77.2% of the vote. His
main rival, Faisal bin Shamlan, received 21.8%.[240][241] Saleh was sworn in for another term on 27
September.[242]
A suicide bomber killed eight Spanish tourists and two Yemenis in the province of Marib in July
2007. A series of bomb attacks occurred on police, official, diplomatic, foreign business, and
tourism targets in 2008. Car bombings outside the U.S. embassy in Sana'a killed 18 people,
including six of the assailants in September 2008. In 2008, an opposition rally in Sana'a
demanding electoral reform was met with police gunfire.[243]
Social hierarchy
There is a system of social stratification in Yemen that was officially abolished at the creation of the
Republic of Yemen in 1962 but, in practice, this system has not disappeared and Yemeni society is
still organized around hierarchical ranks. The difference between ranks is manifested by descent
and occupation and is consolidated by marriages between people of the same ranks.
There are five status groups. At the top of hierarchy, there are the religious elites, also called sada.
These are then followed by the strata of judges (quad). The third hierarchical status is the qaba’il,
who are the peasants who belong to tribes and who live mainly from agriculture and trading. The
fourth group is called the mazayanah. This group is composed of people who had no land and
provide different kinds of services such as butchers and craftsmen. Finally, at the bottom of the
hierarchy are the slaves (a’bid) and even further below them Al-Akhdam, which means
servants.[244]
Al-Qaeda
In January 2009, the Saudi Arabian and Yemeni al-Qaeda branches merged to form Al-Qaeda in
the Arabian Peninsula, which is based in Yemen, and many of its members were Saudi nationals
who had been released from Guantanamo Bay.[245] Saleh released 176 al-Qaeda suspects on
condition of good behaviour, but terrorist activities continued.
The Yemeni army launched a fresh offensive against the Shia insurgents in 2009, assisted by Saudi
forces. Tens of thousands of people were displaced by the fighting. A new ceasefire was agreed
upon in February 2010. However, by the end of the year, Yemen claimed that 3,000 soldiers had
been killed in renewed fighting. The Shia rebels accused Saudi Arabia of providing support to salafi
groups to suppress Zaidism in Yemen.[246]
On orders from U.S. President Barack Obama, U.S. warplanes fired cruise missiles at what officials
in Washington claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in the provinces of Sana'a and Abyan on 17
December 2009.[247] Instead of hitting Al-Qaeda operatives, it hit a village, killing 55 civilians.[248]
Officials in Yemen said that the attacks claimed the lives of more than 60 civilians, 28 of them
children. Another airstrike was carried out on 24 December.[249]
The U.S. launched a series of drone attacks in Yemen to curb a perceived growing terror threat due
to political chaos in Yemen.[250] Since December 2009, U.S. strikes in Yemen have been carried
out by the U.S. military with intelligence support from the CIA.[251] The drone strikes are protested
by human-rights groups who say they kill innocent civilians, and that the U.S. military and CIA
drone strikes lack sufficient congressional oversight, including the choice of human targets
suspected of being threats to America.[252] Controversy over U.S. policy for drone attacks
mushroomed after a September 2011 drone strike in Yemen killed Anwar al-Awlaki and Samir
Khan, both U.S. citizens.[253] Another drone strike in October 2011 killed Anwar's teenage son,
Abdulrahman al-Awlaki.
In 2010, the Obama administration policy allowed targeting of people whose names are not known.
The U.S. government increased military aid to $140 million in 2010.[254] U.S. drone strikes
continued after the ousting of President Saleh.[255]
As of 2015, Shi'a Houthis are fighting against the Islamic State,[256] Al Qaeda,[257] and Saudi
Arabia.[258] The U.S. supports the Saudi-led military intervention in Yemen against the
Houthis,[259] but many in US SOCOM reportedly favor Houthis, as they have been an effective
force to roll back al-Qaeda and recently ISIL in Yemen.[260] The Guardian reported that "The only
groups poised to benefit from the war dragging on are the jihadis of Islamic State (ISIL) and Al-
Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), the latter's most powerful franchise, who are likely to gain
influence amid the chaos. ISIL has claimed recent, bloody suicide bombings in Houthi mosques
and Sana'a when it once had no known presence in the country, while AQAP has continued to seize
territory in eastern Yemen unhindered by American drone strikes."[261] In February 2016 Al-Qaeda
forces and Saudi-led coalition forces were both seen fighting Houthi rebels in the same battle.[262]
Revolution and aftermath
The 2011 Yemeni revolution followed other Arab Spring mass

protests in early 2011. The uprising was initially against
unemployment, economic conditions, and corruption, as well
as against the government's proposals to modify the
constitution of Yemen so that Saleh's son could inherit the
presidency.
In March 2011, police snipers opened fire on a pro-democracy

Tens of thousands of protesters
camp in Sana'a, killing more than 50 people. In May, dozens
marching to Sana'a University,
were killed in clashes between troops and tribal fighters in
joined for the first time by opposition
Sana'a. By this point, Saleh began to lose international support.
parties, during the 2011–2012
In October 2011, Yemeni human rights activist Tawakul
Yemeni revolution
Karman won the Nobel Peace Prize, and the UN Security
Council condemned the violence and called for a transfer of
power. On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew to Riyadh, in
neighbouring Saudi Arabia, to sign the Gulf Co-operation
Council plan for political transition, which he had previously
spurned. Upon signing the document, he agreed to legally
transfer the office and powers of the presidency to his deputy,
Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi.
Hadi took office for a two-year term upon winning the

Saudi-led air strike on Sana'a, 12
uncontested presidential elections in February 2012.[263] A
June 2015
unity government – including a prime minister from the
opposition – was formed. Al-Hadi would oversee the drafting
of a new constitution, followed by parliamentary and
presidential elections in 2014. Saleh returned in February 2012. In the face of objections from
thousands of street protesters, parliament granted him full immunity from prosecution. Saleh's
son, General Ahmed Ali Abdullah Saleh, continues to exercise a strong hold on sections of the
military and security forces.
AQAP claimed responsibility for a February 2012 suicide attack on the presidential palace that
killed 26 Republican Guards on the day that President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was also behind a
suicide bombing that killed 96 soldiers in Sana'a three months later. In September 2012, a car
bomb attack in Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after a local al-Qaeda leader Said al-Shihri was
reported killed in the south.
By 2012, there has been a "small contingent of U.S. special-operations troops" – in addition to CIA
and "unofficially acknowledged" U.S. military presence – in response to increasing terror attacks
by AQAP on Yemeni citizens.[264] Many analysts have pointed out the former Yemeni government
country.[265]
role in cultivating terrorist activity in the Following the election of the new president,
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, the Yemeni military was able to push Ansar al-Sharia back and recapture
the Shabwah Governorate.
The central government in Sana'a remained weak,

staving off challenges from southern separatists and
Shia rebels as well as AQAP. The Shia insurgency
intensified after Hadi took power, escalating in
September 2014 as anti-government forces led by
Abdul-Malik al-Houthi swept into the capital and
forced Hadi to agree to a "unity" government.[266] The
Houthis then refused to participate in the
government,[267] although they continued to apply
pressure on Hadi and his ministers, even shelling the
Controlled by Houthis president's private residence and placing him under
Controlled by Saudi-backed Hadi loyalists house arrest,[268] until the government's mass
Controlled by al-Qaeda and Islamic State resignation in January 2015.[269] The following month,
of Iraq and the Levant-affiliated Ansar al- the Houthis dissolved parliament and declared that a
Sharia Revolutionary Committee under Mohammed Ali al-
Controlled by the UAE-backed Southern Houthi was the interim authority in Yemen. Abdul-
Transitional Council Malik al-Houthi, a cousin of the new acting president,
called the takeover a "glorious revolution." However,
the "constitutional declaration" of 6 February 2015 was
widely rejected by opposition politicians and foreign governments, including the United
Nations.[22]
Hadi managed to flee from Sana'a to Aden, his hometown and stronghold in the south, on 21
February 2015. He promptly gave a televised speech rescinding his resignation, condemning the
coup, and calling for recognition as the constitutional president of Yemen.[270] The following
month, Hadi declared Aden Yemen's "temporary" capital.[271][272] The Houthis, however, rebuffed
an initiative by the Gulf Cooperation Council and continued to move south toward Aden. All U.S.
personnel were evacuated and President Hadi was forced to flee the country to Saudi Arabia. On 26
March 2015, Saudi Arabia announced Operation Decisive Storm and began airstrikes and
announced its intentions to lead a military coalition against the Houthis, whom they claimed were
being aided by Iran, and began a force buildup along the Yemeni border. The coalition included the
United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Jordan, Morocco, Sudan, Egypt, and Pakistan. The
United States announced that it was assisting with intelligence, targeting, and logistics. Saudi
Arabia and Egypt would not rule out ground operations. After Hadi troops took control of Aden
from Houthis, jihadist groups became active in the city, and some terrorist incidents were linked to
them such as Missionaries of Charity attack in Aden on 4 March 2016. Since February 2018, Aden
has been seized by the UAE-backed separatist Southern Transitional Council.[273]
Yemen has been suffering from a famine since 2016 as a result of the Civil War. More than 50,000
children in Yemen died from starvation in 2017.[274][275] The famine is being compounded by an
outbreak of cholera that has affected more than one million people.[276] The Saudi Arabian-led
intervention in Yemen and blockade of Yemen have contributed to the famine and cholera
epidemic.[277][278]
On 4 December 2017, deposed strongman and former president Ali Abdullah Saleh, accused of
treason, was assassinated by Houthis whilst attempting to flee clashes near rebel-held Sana'a
between Houthi and pro-Saleh forces.
Geography
Yemen is in Western Asia, in the southern part of the Arabian

Peninsula,[279] It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the
Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel to
the south, and Oman to the east. between latitudes 12 and 19°N
and longitudes 42 and 55°E. Yemen is at 15°N 48°E, and is
527,970 km2 (203,850 sq mi) in size.
A number of Red Sea islands, including the Hanish Islands,

Kamaran, and Perim, as well as Socotra in the Arabian Sea, A topographic map of Yemen
belong to Yemen; the largest of these is Socotra. Many of the
islands are volcanic; for example Jabal al-Tair had a volcanic
eruption in 2007, and before that in 1883. Although mainland Yemen is in the southern Arabian
Peninsula and thus part of Asia, and its Hanish Islands and Perim in the Red Sea are associated
with Asia, the archipelago of Socotra, which lies east of the horn of Somalia and is much closer to
Africa than to Asia, is geographically and biogeographically associated with Africa.[280] Socotra
faces the Guardafui Channel and the Somali Sea.[281]
Regions and climate
Yemen can be divided geographically into four main regions:

the coastal plains in the west, the western highlands, the
eastern highlands, and the Rub' al Khali in the east. The
Tihāmah ("hot lands" or "hot earth") form a very arid and flat
coastal plain along Yemen's entire Red Sea coastline. Despite
the aridity, the presence of many lagoons makes this region Yemen's Köppen climate
very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for malaria classification map[282] is based on
mosquitos. Extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes are present. native vegetation, temperature,
The evaporation in the Tihamah is so great that streams from precipitation and their seasonality.
the highlands never reach the sea, but they do contribute to BWh Hot desert
extensive groundwater reserves. Today, these are heavily
BWk Cold desert
exploited for agricultural use. Near the village of Madar about
BSh Hot semi-arid
50 km (30 mi) north of Sana'a, dinosaur footprints were found,
BSk Cold semi-arid
indicating that the area was once a muddy flat. The Tihamah
ends abruptly at the escarpment of the western highlands. This CWb Subtropical highland
area, now heavily terraced to meet the demand for food,
receives the highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly increasing from
100 mm (3.9 in) per year to about 760 mm (29.9 in) in Taiz and over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in Ibb.
Temperatures are warm in the day but fall dramatically at night. Perennial streams occur in the
highlands, but these never reach the sea because of high evaporation in the Tihamah.
The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 m (6,562 ft) in elevation. This area
is drier than the western highlands because of rain-shadow influences, but still receives sufficient
rain in wet years for extensive cropping. Water storage allows for irrigation and the growing of
wheat and barley. Sana'a is in this region. The highest point in Yemen and Arabia is Jabal An-Nabi
Shu'ayb, at about 3,666 m (12,028 ft).[279][283]
Yemen's portion of the Rub al Khali desert in the east is much lower, generally below 1,000 m
(3,281 ft), and receives almost no rain. It is populated only by Bedouin herders of camels. The
growing scarcity of water is a source of increasing international concern. See Water supply and
sanitation in Yemen.
Biodiversity
Yemen contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula

coastal fog desert, Socotra Island xeric shrublands,
Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna, Southwestern Arabian
montane woodlands, Arabian Desert, and Red Sea Nubo-
Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert.[284]
The flora of Yemen is a mixture of the tropical African,

Sudanian plant geographical region and the Saharo-Arabian
region. The Sudanian element—characterized by relatively
Dracaena cinnabari at Socotra
high rainfall—dominates the western mountains and parts of
Island
the highland plains. The Saharo-Arabian element dominates in
the coastal plains, eastern mountain, and the eastern and
northern desert plains. A high percentage of Yemen plants
belong to tropical African plants of Sudanian regions. Among
the Sudanian element species, the following may be
mentioned: Ficus spp., Acacia mellifera, Grewia villosa,
Commiphora spp., Rosa abyssinica, Cadaba farinosa and
others.[285] Among the Saharo-Arabian species, these may be
mentioned: Panicum turgidum, Aerva javanica, Zygophyllum A South Arabian relief from the fifth
century BC, in Walters Art Museum.
simplex, Fagonia indica, Salsola spp., Acacia tortilis, A.
On the left side of this relief, a lion
hamulos, A. ehrenbergiana, Phoenix dactylifera, Hyphaene
attacks a gazelle, while a rabbit tries
thebaica, Capparis decidua, Salvadora persica, Balanites
to jump away from the gazelle's
aegyptiaca, and many others. Many of the Saharo-Arabian
forelegs. On the right, a leopard
species are endemic to the extensive sandy coastal plain (the
jumps down from rocks onto the
Tihamah).[286] The characteristic genera of the Irano-Turanian
back of an ibex; a small rodent flees
in the eastern and northern east of the country are: Calligonum the hoofs of the ibex. Birds in the
spp., Cymbopogon jwarancusa, and Tamarix spp. and of the branches of acacia trees observe
Mediterranean regions are: Teucrium, Lavandula, Juniperus, the two scenes.
Brassica, and Diplotaxis spp.
Among the fauna, the Arabian leopard, which would inhabit

the mountains, is considered rare here.[287]
Environmental issues
Environmental issues in Yemen are abundant and are divided
into the categories of land and water. In the aspect of water,
Yemen has limited natural fresh water resources and
inadequate supplies of potable water. As for the land, two main
issues of Yemen are overgrazing and desertification. Yemen has
signed several international agreements: Climate Change-
Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species,
Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the
Sea, and Ozone Layer Protection.[288] Shibam Wadi Hadhramaut Yemen
Politics
Yemen is a republic with a bicameral legislature. Under the 1991 constitution, an elected president,
an elected 301-seat Assembly of Representatives, and an appointed 111-member Shura Council
share power. The President is the head of state, and the Prime Minister is the head of government.
In Sana'a, a Supreme Political Council (not recognized internationally) forms the government.
The 1991 constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from at least two
candidates endorsed by at least 15 members of the Parliament. The prime minister, in turn, is
appointed by the president and must be approved by two-thirds of the Parliament. The presidential
term of office is seven years, and the parliamentary term of elected office is six years. Suffrage is
universal for people age 18 and older, but only Muslims may hold elected office.[289]
President Ali Abdullah Saleh became the first elected president in reunified Yemen in 1999 (though
he had been President of unified Yemen since 1990 and president of North Yemen since 1978). He
was re-elected to office in September 2006. Saleh's victory was marked by an election that
international observers judged was "partly free," though the election was accompanied by violence,
violations of press freedoms, and allegations of fraud.[290]
Parliamentary elections were held in
April 2003, and the General People's Congress maintained an absolute majority. Saleh remained
almost uncontested in his seat of power until 2011, when local frustration at his refusal to hold
another round of elections, as combined with the impact of the 2011 Arab Spring, resulted in mass
protests.[263] In 2012, he was forced to resign from power, though he remained an important actor
in Yemeni politics, allying with the Houthis during their takeover in the mid-2010s.[291]
The constitution calls for an independent judiciary. The former northern and southern legal codes
have been unified. The legal system includes separate commercial courts and a Supreme Court
based in Sana'a. Sharia is the main source of laws, with many court cases being debated according
to the religious basis of law and many judges being religious scholars as well as legal authorities.
The Prison Authority Organization Act, Republican decree no. 48 (1981), and Prison Act
regulations, provide the legal framework for management of the country's prison system.[292]
Foreign relations
The geography and ruling imams of North Yemen kept the

country isolated from foreign influence before 1962. The
country's relations with Saudi Arabia were defined by the Taif
Agreement of 1934, which delineated the northernmost part of
the border between the two kingdoms and set the framework
for commercial and other intercourse. The Taif Agreement has
been renewed periodically in 20-year increments, and its
validity was reaffirmed in 1995. Relations with the British
Former Yemeni President Ali
colonial authorities in Aden and the south were usually tense. Abdullah Saleh at the Pentagon, 8
June 2004
The Soviet and Chinese Aid Missions established in 1958 and
1959 were the first important non-Muslim presences in North
Yemen. Following the September 1962 revolution, the Yemen Arab Republic became closely allied
with and heavily dependent upon Egypt. Saudi Arabia aided the royalists in their attempt to defeat
the Republicans and did not recognize the Yemen Arab Republic until 1970. At the same time,
Saudi Arabia maintained direct contact with Yemeni tribes, which sometimes strained its official
relations with the Yemeni Government. Saudi Arabia remained hostile to any form of political and
social reform in Yemen[293] and continued to provide financial support for tribal elites.[294]
In February 1989, North Yemen joined Iraq, Jordan, and Egypt in forming the Arab Cooperation
Council (ACC), an organization created partly in response to the founding of the Gulf Cooperation
Council and intended to foster closer economic cooperation and integration among its members.
After unification, the Republic of Yemen was accepted as a member of the ACC in place of its YAR
predecessor. In the wake of the Persian Gulf crisis, the ACC has remained inactive. Yemen is not a
member of the Gulf Cooperation Council mainly for its republican government.[295]
Yemen is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, and the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation, and also participates in the nonaligned movement. The Republic of Yemen accepted
responsibility for all treaties and debts of its predecessors, the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) and the
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY). Yemen has acceded to the Treaty on the Non-
Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
Since the end of the 1994 civil war, tangible progress has been
made on the diplomatic front in restoring normal relations with
Yemen's neighbors. In the summer of 2000, Yemen and Saudi
Arabia signed an International Border Treaty settling a 50-
year-old dispute over the location of the border between the
two countries. Until the signing of the Yemen-Saudi Arabia
peace treaty in July 2000,[296] Yemen's northern border was
undefined; the Arabian Desert prevented any human habitation
there. Yemen settled its dispute with Eritrea over the Hanish Ousted Yemeni President
Islands in 1998. The Saudi – Yemen barrier was constructed by Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi with U.S.
Saudi Arabia against an influx of illegal immigrants and against Secretary of State John Kerry, 7
the smuggling of drugs and weapons.[297] The Independent May 2015
headed an article with "Saudi Arabia, one of the most vocal
critics in the Arab world of Israel's "security fence" in the West
Bank, is quietly emulating the Israeli example by erecting a
barrier along its porous border with Yemen."[298]
In March 2020, the Trump administration and key US allies,

including Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, cut off
tens of millions of dollars for health care programs and other
Protest against Saudi blockade of
aid to the United Nations' appeal for Yemen. As a result of
Yemen, New York City, 2017
funding cuts, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) stated that the UN agencies
were forced to either close or reduce more than 75 per cent of
its programs that year alone, affecting more than 8 million people. Saudi Arabia had been leading a
Western-backed military coalition, including the United Arab Emirates as a key member, which
intervened in Yemen in 2015, in a bid to restore the government ousted from power by the Houthi
movement. The United Nations described the situation in Yemen, where the war killed tens of
thousands of people and left millions on the brink of famine, as the world's worst humanitarian
crisis.[299]
Military
The armed forces of Yemen include the Yemen Army (includes

Republican Guard), Navy (includes Marines), Yemeni Air Force
(Al Quwwat al Jawwiya al Yamaniya; includes Air Defense
Force). A major reorganization of the armed forces continues.
The unified air forces and air defenses are now under one
command. The navy has concentration in Aden. Total armed
forces manning numbers about 401,000 active personnel,
including moreover especially conscripts. The Yemen Arab
Republic and The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen Soldiers of the Yemeni Army in
joined to form the Republic of Yemen on 22 May 1990.[300] The 2011.
supreme commander of the armed forces is the President of the
Republic of Yemen.
The number of military personnel in Yemen is relatively high; in sum, Yemen has the second
largest military force on the Arabian Peninsula after Saudi Arabia. In 2012, total active troops were
estimated as follows: army, 390,000; navy, 7,000; and air force, 5,000. In September 2007, the
government announced the reinstatement of compulsory military service. Yemen's defense budget,
which in 2006 represented approximately 40 percent of the total government budget, is expected
to remain high for the near term, as the military draft takes effect and internal security threats
continue to escalate. By 2012, Yemen had 401,000 active personnel.
Human rights
The government and its security forces, often considered to suffer from rampant corruption,[301]
have been responsible for torture, inhumane treatment, and extrajudicial executions. There are
arbitrary arrests of citizens, especially in the south, as well as arbitrary searches of homes.
Prolonged pretrial detention is a serious problem, and judicial corruption, inefficiency, and
executive interference undermine due process. Freedom of speech, the press, and religion are all
restricted.[302] Journalists critical of the government are often harassed and threatened by the
police.[222] Homosexuality is illegal, punishable by death.[303]
Yemen is ranked last of 135 countries in the 2012 Global Gender Gap Report.[304] Human Rights
Watch reported on discrimination and violence against women as well as on the abolition of the
minimum marriage age of fifteen for women. The onset of puberty (interpreted by some to be as
low as the age of nine) was set as a requirement for marriage instead.[305] Publicity about the case
of ten-year-old Yemeni divorcee Nujood Ali brought the child marriage issue to the fore not only in
Yemen but also worldwide.[306][307][308]
In 2017, the UN Human Rights Council voted to create a team of experts to investigate suspected
breaches of humanitarian law and human rights in Yemen.[309] In December 2021, The Guardian
revealed, Saudi Arabia used "incentives and threats" as part of a pressure campaign to end a UN
inquiry into human rights infringements in the Yemen.[310]
On 30 June 2020, a human rights group revealed the scale of torture and deaths in Yemen's
unofficial detention centres. UAE and Saudi forces were responsible for some of the most shocking
treatment of prisoners, including being hung upside down for hours and sexual torture such as the
burning of genitals.[311]
According to 2020 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) estimates, 6.1 million girls and
women were in need of gender-based violence services. The UNFPA also reported a rise in gender-
based violence cases amid COVID-19 pandemic, increase in rate of child marriages, most acutely
among internally displaced persons (IDPs). One in five girls aged 10 to 19 were married in IDP
camps, compared to 1 in 8 in host communities.[312]
Human trafficking
The United States Department of State 2013 Trafficking in Persons report classified Yemen as a
Tier 3 country,[313] meaning that its government does not fully comply with the minimum
standards against human trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.[314]
Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962,[315] but it is still being practiced.[316]
On 22 June 2020, Human Rights Watch wrote an open letter to the UN Secretary-General on
“Children and Armed Conflict” report to improve the protection of children in Yemen and in
Myanmar.[317] Amnesty said, United Nations Security Council must urgently fix its monitoring and
reporting mechanism for children impacted by armed conflict.[318]
On 14 September 2020, Human Rights Watch demanded an end to the interference caused by
Houthi rebels and other authorities in Yemen aid operations, as millions of lives dependent on the
aid operations were being put at risk.[319]
Administrative divisions
As of the end of 2004, Yemen was divided into

twenty governorates (muhafazat – the latest
being Raymah Governorate, which was created
during 2004) plus one municipality called
"Amanat Al-Asemah" (the latter containing the
constitutional capital, Sana'a).[320] An
additional governorate (Soqatra Governorate)
was created in December 2013 comprising
Socotra Island (bottom-right corner of map),
previously part of Hadramaut Governorate.[321]
The governorates are subdivided into 333 Map of the Federal Regions of Yemen
districts (muderiah), which are subdivided into
2,210 sub-districts, and then into 38,284
villages (as of 2001).
In 2014, a constitutional panel decided to divide the country into six regions—four in the north,
two in the south, and capital Sana'a outside of any region—creating a federalist model of
governance.[322] This federal proposal was a contributing factor toward the Houthis' subsequent
coup d'état against the government.[323][324][325]
1. Saada 12. Raymah

2. Al Jawf 13. Dhamar
3. Hadhramaut 14. Ibb
4. Al Mahrah 15. Dhale
5. Hajjah 16. Al Bayda
6. 'Amran 17. Shabwah
7. Al Mahwit 18. Taiz
8. Amanat Al Asimah
19. Lahij
(Sana'a City) 20. Abyan
9. Sana'a 21. Aden
10. Ma'rib 22. Socotra Governorates of Yemen
11. Al Hudaydah
Economy
Yemen as of 2013 had a GDP (PPP) of US$61.63 billion, with an income per capita of $2,500.
Services are the largest economic sector (61.4% of GDP), followed by the industrial sector (30.9%),
and agriculture (7.7%). Of these, petroleum production represents around 25% of GDP and 63% of
the government's revenue.[326]
Agriculture
Principal agricultural commodities produced in the nation include grain, vegetables, fruits, pulses,
qat, coffee, cotton, dairy products, fish, livestock (sheep, goats, cattle, camels), and poultry.[326]
Most Yemenis are employed in agriculture. However, the role

of agricultural sector is limited due to the relatively low share of
the sector in GDP and the large share of net food-buying
households in Yemen (97%).[327] Sorghum is the most common
crop. Cotton and many fruit trees are also grown, with mangoes
being the most valuable. A big problem in Yemen is the
cultivation of Khat (or qat), a psychoactive plant that releases a
stimulant when chewed, and accounts for up to 40 percent of
the water drawn from the Sana'a Basin each year, and that Historical GDP per capita
figure is rising. Some agricultural practices are drying the development
Sana'a Basin and displaced vital crops, which has resulted in
increasing food prices. Rising food prices, in
turn, pushed an additional six percent of the
country into poverty in 2008 alone.[328] Efforts
are being made by the government and
Dawoodi Bohra community at North Yemen to
replace qat with coffee plantations.[329]
Industry
Yemen's industrial sector is centred on crude oil

production and petroleum refining, food
processing, handicrafts, small-scale production
of cotton textiles and leather goods, aluminum
products, commercial ship repair, cement, and
natural gas production. In 2013, Yemen had an
industrial production growth rate of 4.8%.[326]
It also has large proven reserves of natural
gas.[330] Yemen's first liquified natural gas A proportional representation of Yemen's exports
plant began production in October 2009.
Export and import
As of 2013, exports from Yemen totaled $6.694 billion. The

main export commodities are crude oil, coffee, dried and salted
fish, liquefied natural gas. These products were mainly sent to
China (41%), Thailand (19.2%), India (11.4%), and South Korea
(4.4%). Imports as of 2013 total $10.97 billion. The main
imported commodities are machinery and equipment,
foodstuffs, livestock, and chemicals. These products were A coffee plantation in North Yemen
mainly imported from the EU (48.8%), UAE (9.8%),
Switzerland (8.8%), China (7.4%), and India (5.8%).[326]
State budget
As of 2013, the Yemeni government's budget consisted of $7.769 billion in revenues and $12.31
billion in expenditures. Taxes and other revenues constituted roughly 17.7% of the GDP, with a
budget deficit of 10.3%. The public debt was 47.1% of GDP. Yemen had reserves of foreign
exchange and gold of around $5.538 billion in 2013. Its inflation rate over the same period based
on consumer prices was 11.8%. Yemen's external debt totaled $7.806 billion.[326]
International aid
Beginning in the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union and China

provided large-scale assistance. For example, China and the
United States are involved with the expansion of the Sana'a
International Airport. In the south, pre-independence
economic activity was overwhelmingly concentrated in the port
city of Aden. The seaborne transit trade, which the port relied
upon, collapsed with the temporary closure of the Suez Canal Drilling for oil using a land rig
and Britain's withdrawal from Aden in 1967.
Since the conclusion of the war, the government made an

agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to implement a structural adjustment
program. Phase one of the program included major financial and monetary reforms, including
floating the currency, reducing the budget deficit, and cutting subsidies. Phase two addresses
structural issues, such as civil service reform.
In early 1995, the government of Yemen launched an economic, financial, and administrative
reform program (EFARP) with the support of the World Bank and the IMF, as well as international
donors. These programs had a positive impact on Yemen's economy and led to the reduction of the
budget deficit to less than 3% of gross domestic product during the period 1995–1999 and the
correction of macro-financial imbalances.[331] The real growth rate in the non-oil sector rose by
5.6% from 1995 to 1997.[332]
Water supply and sanitation
A key challenge is severe water scarcity, especially in the Highlands, prompting The Times, in
2009, to write "Yemen could become first nation to run out of water."[333] A second key challenge
is a high level of poverty, making it difficult to recover the costs of service provision. Access to
water supply sanitation is low. Yemen is both the poorest country and the most water-scarce
country in the Arab world. Third, the capacity of sector institutions to plan, build, operate and
maintain infrastructure remains limited. Last but not least the security situation makes it even
more difficult to improve or even maintain existing levels of service.
The average Yemeni has access to only 140 cubic meters of water per year (101 gallons per day) for
all uses, while the Middle Eastern average is 1000 m3/yr, and the internationally defined threshold
for water stress is 1700 cubic meters per year.[334] Yemen's groundwater is the main source of
water in the country but the water tables have dropped severely leaving Yemen without a viable
source of water. For example, in Sana'a, the water table was 30 metres (98 feet) below surface in
the 1970s but had dropped to 1,200 metres (3,900 feet) below surface by 2012. The groundwater
has not been regulated by Yemen's governments.[335]
Even before the revolution, Yemen's water situation had been described as increasingly dire by
experts who worried that Yemen would be the first country to run out of water.[336] Agriculture in
Yemen takes up about 90% of water in Yemen even though it only generates 6% of GDP. A large
portion of Yemenis are dependent on small-scale subsistence agriculture. Half of the agricultural
water in Yemen is used to grow khat, a drug that many Yemenis chew.
Due to the 2015 Yemeni civil war, the situation is increasingly dire. 80% of Yemen's population
struggles to access water to drink and bathe. Bombing has forced many Yemenis to leave their
homes for other areas, and so wells in those areas are under increasing pressure.[337]
Together with partners, UNICEF has advanced its efforts and provided access to safe and sustained
drinking water to 8.8 million people (5.3 million children) in Yemen. It scaled up up its emergency
WASH assistance in Yemen to ensure sustainable WASH services through capacity building of local
WASH authorities, solarisation of water systems and rain water harvesting.[338]
Demographics
Yemen's population is 28 million by 2018 estimates,[339][340] with 46% of the population being
under 15 years old and 2.7% above 65 years. In 1950, it was 4.3 million.[341][342] By 2050, the
population is estimated to increase to about 60 million.[343] Yemen has a high total fertility rate, at
4.45 children per woman. It is the 30th highest in the world.[344] Sana'a's population has increased
rapidly, from roughly 55,000 in 1978[345] to nearly 2 million in the early 21st century.
Ethnic groups
Yemeni ethnic groups are predominantly Arabs,

followed by Afro-Arabs, South Asians and
Europeans.[326] When the former states of North
and South Yemen were established, most resident
minority groups departed.[346] Yemen is a largely
tribal society.[347] In the northern, mountainous
parts of the country, there are 400 Zaidi
tribes.[348] There are also hereditary caste groups
in urban areas such as Al-Akhdam.[349] There are
also Yemenis of Persian origin. According to
Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of
Aden's population in the tenth century.[350][351]
Yemenite Jews once formed a sizable minority in

Yemen with a distinct culture from other Jewish
communities in the world.[352] Most emigrated to
Israel in the mid-20th century, following the Yemen's tribal areas and Shia/Sunni regions. Shia
Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries Muslims predominant in the green area of Yemen's
and Operation Magic Carpet.[353] An estimated West, with the rest of Yemen being Sunni Muslims
100,000 people of Indian origin are concentrated
in the southern part of the country, around Aden,
Mukalla, Shihr, Lahaj, Mokha and Hodeidah.[354]
Most of the prominent Indonesians, Malaysians, and Singaporeans of Arab descent are Hadhrami
people with origins in southern Yemen in the Hadramawt coastal region.[355] Today there are
almost 10,000 Hadramis in Singapore.[356] The Hadramis migrated to Southeast Asia, East Africa
and the Indian subcontinent.[357]
The Maqil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin who migrated westwards via
Egypt. Several groups of Yemeni Arabs turned south to Mauritania, and by the end of the 17th
century, they dominated the entire country. They can also be found throughout Morocco and in
Algeria as well as in other North African countries.[358]
Yemen is the only country in the Arabian Peninsula that is signatory to two international accords
dating back to 1951 and 1967 governing the protection of refugees.[359] Yemen hosted a population
of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 124,600 in 2007. Refugees and asylum
seekers living in Yemen were predominantly from Somalia (110,600), Iraq (11,000), Ethiopia
(2,000),[360] and Syria.[361] Additionally, more than 334,000 Yemenis have been internally
displaced by conflict.[359]
The Yemeni diaspora is largely concentrated in neighbouring Saudi Arabia, where between
800,000 and 1 million Yemenis reside,[362] and the United Kingdom, home to between 70,000 and
80,000 Yemenis.[363]
Languages
Modern Standard Arabic is the official language of Yemen, while Yemeni Arabic is used as the
vernacular. In al Mahrah Governorate in the far east and the island of Socotra, several non-Arabic
languages are spoken.[364][365] Yemeni Sign Language is used by the deaf community.
Yemen is part of the homeland of the South Semitic languages. Mehri is the largest South Semitic
language spoken in the nation, with more than 70,000 speakers. The ethnic group itself is called
Mahra. Soqotri is another South Semitic language, with speakers on the island of Socotra isolated
from the pressures of Arabic on the Yemeni mainland. According to the 1990 census in Yemen, the
number of speakers there was 57,000.[366]
Yemen was also home of the Old South Arabian languages. The Razihi language appears to be the
only remaining Old South Arabian language.
English is the most important foreign language, being widely taught and spoken mostly in the
south, a former British colony.[367] There are a significant number of Russian speakers, originating
from Yemeni-Russian cross-marriages occurring mainly in the 1970s and 1980s. A small Cham-
speaking community is found in the capital city of Sana'a, originating from refugees expatriated
from Vietnam after the Vietnam War in the 1970s.
Religion
Islam is the state religion of Yemen. Religion in Religion in Yemen[368]

Yemen consists primarily of two principal Islamic Sunni Islam 56%
religious groups: About 47% of the Muslim Zaidiyyah (Shia Islam) 42%
population is Shia and 53% is Sunni, according to Ismāʿīlism (Shia Islam) 1.5%
the UNHCR Report. [369] Sunnis are primarily Other religion 0.5%
Shafi'i but also include significant groups of
Malikis and Hanbalis. Shias are primarily Zaydi
and also have significant minorities of Ismaili[370] and Twelver[370][371] Shias.
The Sunnis are predominantly in the south and southeast. The Zaidis/shias are predominantly in
the north and northwest whilst the Ismailis are in the main centres such as Sana'a and Ma'rib.
There are mixed communities in the larger cities. About .05 percent of Yemenis are non-Muslim –
adhering to Christianity, Judaism, or Hinduism or having no religious affiliation.[372][373]
Estimates of the number of Christians in Yemen range from 25,000[374] to 41,000.[375] A 2015
study estimates 400 Christians from a Muslim background reside in the country.[376]
There are approximately 50 Jews left in Yemen. Some 200 Yemenite Jews were brought to Israel
by the Jewish Agency circa 2016.[377]
According to WIN/Gallup International polls, Yemen has the most religious population among
Arab countries and it is one of the most religious populations world-wide.[378]
Culture
Yemen is a culturally rich country with influence from many
civilizations, such as the early civilization of Saba'.[10][11][12]
Media
Radio broadcasting in Yemen began in the 1940s when it was

still divided into the South by the British and the North by the
Imami ruling system.[379] After the unification of Yemen in The National Museum in Sana'a
1990, the Yemeni government reformed its corporations and
founded some additional radio stations that broadcast locally.
However, it drew back after 1994, due to destroyed
infrastructure resulting from the civil war.
Television is the most significant media platform in Yemen.

Given the low literacy rate in the country, television is the main
source of news for Yemenis. There are six free-to-air channels
currently headquartered in Yemen, of which four are state-
owned.[380]
The Yemeni film industry is in its early stages; only two Yemeni Typical Yemeni House
films have been released as of 2008.
Theatre
The history of Yemeni theatre dates back at least a century, to

the early 1900s. Both amateur and professional (government-
sponsored) theatre troupes perform in the country's major
urban centres. Many of Yemen's significant poets and authors,
like Ali Ahmed Ba Kathir, Muhammad al-Sharafi, and Wajdi al- Dance in Sa'dah, northwestern
Ahdal, have written dramatic works; poems, novels, and short Yemen
stories by Yemeni authors like Mohammad Abdul-Wali and
Abdulaziz Al-Maqaleh have also been adapted for the stage.
There have been Yemeni productions of plays by Arab authors such as Tawfiq al-Hakim and
Saadallah Wannous and by Western authors, including Shakespeare, Pirandello, Brecht, and
Tennessee Williams. Historically speaking, the southern port city of Aden is the cradle of Yemeni
theatre; in recent decades the capital, Sana'a, has hosted numerous theatre festivals, often in
conjunction with World Theatre Day.
Sport
Football is the most popular sport in Yemen. The Yemen Football Association is a member of FIFA
and AFC. The Yemeni national football team participates internationally. The country also hosts
many football clubs. They compete in the national and international leagues.
Yemen's mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports, such as biking, rock climbing,
trekking, hiking, and other more challenging sports, including mountain climbing. Mountain
climbing and hiking tours to the Sarawat Mountains, including peaks of 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and
above, particularly that of An-Nabi Shu'ayb,[279][283] are seasonally organized by local and
international alpine agencies.
The coastal areas of Yemen and Socotra Island also provide many opportunities for water sports,
such as surfing, bodyboarding, sailing, swimming, and scuba diving. Socotra Island is home to
some of the best surfing destinations in the world.
Camel jumping is a traditional sport that is becoming increasingly popular among the Zaraniq tribe
on the west coast of Yemen in a desert plain by the Red Sea. Camels are placed side to side and
victory goes to the competitor who leaps, from a running start, over the most camels. The jumpers
train year round for competitions. Tribesmen (women may not compete) tuck their robes around
their waists for freedom of movement while running and leaping.[381]
Yemen's biggest sports event was hosting the 20th Arabian Gulf Cup in Aden and Abyan in the
southern part of the country on 22 November 2010. Many thought Yemen was the strongest
competitor, but it was defeated in the first three matches of the tournament.[382]
Internationally, Naseem Hamed, a world champion boxer, is the most well known Yemeni athlete.
World Heritage sites
Among Yemen's natural and cultural attractions are four World

Heritage sites.[383][384] The Old Walled City of Shibam in Wadi
Hadhramaut, inscribed by UNESCO in 1982, two years after
Yemen joined the World Heritage Committee, is nicknamed
"Manhattan of the Desert" because of its skyscrapers.
Surrounded by a fortified wall made of mud and straw, the
16th-century city is one of the oldest examples of urban
planning based on the principle of vertical construction. High-rise architecture at Shibam,
Wadi Hadramawt‌
The Old City of Sana'a, at an altitude of more than 2,100 metres
(7,000 ft), has been inhabited for over two and a half millennia,
and was inscribed in 1986. Sana'a became a major Islamic centre in the seventh century, and the
103 mosques, 14 hammams (traditional bathhouses), and more than 6,000 houses that survive all
date from before the 11th century.
Close to the Red Sea Coast, the historic town of Zabid, inscribed in 1993, was Yemen's capital from
the 13th to the 15th century, and is an archaeological and historical site. It played an important role
for many centuries because of its university, which was a centre of learning for the whole Arab and
Islamic world. Algebra is said to have been invented there in the early ninth century by the little-
known scholar Al-Jazari.
The latest addition to Yemen's list of World Heritage Sites is the Socotra Archipelago. Mentioned
by Marco Polo in the 13th century, this remote and isolated archipelago consists of four islands and
two rocky islets delineating the southern limit of the Gulf of Aden. The site has a rich biodiversity.
Nowhere else in the world do 37% of Socotra's 825 plants, 90% of its reptiles and 95% of its snails
occur. It is home to 192 bird species, 253 species of coral, 730 species of coastal fish, and 300
species of crab and lobster, as well as a range of Aloes and the Dragon's Blood Tree (Dracaena
cinnabari). The cultural heritage of Socotra includes the unique Soqotri language.
Harbia Al Himiary is a Yemeni woman leading a UNESCO project to restore Yemen's crumbling
heritage.[385]
Education
The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 64%.[386] The government

has committed to reduce illiteracy to less than 10% by
2025.[387] Although Yemen's government provides for
universal, compulsory, free education for children ages six
through 15, the U.S. Department of State reports that
compulsory attendance is not enforced. The government
developed the National Basic Education Development Strategy
in 2003 that aimed at providing education to 95% of Yemeni
children between the ages of six and 14 years and also at
decreasing the gap between males and females in urban and
Literacy rate of the population aged
rural areas.[388]
15 or older (1995–2015) by
UNESCO Institute of Statistics A seven-year project to improve gender equity and the quality
and efficiency of secondary education, focusing on girls in rural
areas, was approved by the World Bank in March 2008.
Following this, Yemen has increased its education spending from 5% of GDP in 1995 to 10% in
2005.[222]
According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the
country are the Yemeni University of Science & Technology (6532nd worldwide), Al Ahgaff
University (8930th) and Sanaa University (11043rd).[389] Yemen was ranked 131st in the Global
Innovation Index in 2021, down from 129th in 2019.[390][391][392][393]
Health
Despite the significant progress Yemen has made to expand
and improve its health care system over the past decade, the
system remains severely underdeveloped. Total expenditures
on health care in 2002 constituted 3.7 percent of gross
domestic product.[394]
In that same year, the per capita expenditure for health care
was very low, as compared with other Middle Eastern countries
—US$58 according to United Nations statistics and US$23
according to the World Health Organization. According to the
World Bank, the number of doctors in Yemen rose by an
average of more than 7 percent between 1995 and 2000, but as A Yemeni doctor examines an infant
of 2004 there were still only three doctors per 10,000 persons. in a USAID-sponsored health care
In 2003 Yemen had only 0.6 hospital beds available per 1,000 clinic
persons.[394]
Health care services are particularly scarce in rural areas. Only 25 percent of rural areas are
covered by health services, as compared with 80 percent of urban areas. Emergency services, such
as ambulance service and blood banks, are non-existent.[394]
See also
List of Yemen-related topics
Outline of Yemen
Index of Yemen-related articles
Notes
1. Conflict between the Presidential Leadership Council, Supreme Political Council, and Southern
Transitional Council
2. Constitutional capital under Supreme Political Council control
3. Claimed by the Presidential Leadership Council as its provisional capital[1]
4. Disputed between Rashad al-Alimi (Presidential Leadership Council) and Mahdi al-Mashat
(Supreme Political Council)
5. Disputed between Maeen Abdulmalik Saeed (Presidential Leadership Council) and Abdel-Aziz
bin Habtour (Supreme Political Council)
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External links
Couto, Diogo do; Observações sobre as principais causas da decadência dos portugueses na
Ásia
Yemen Government Official web site (http://www.yemen.gov.ye/) (in Arabic)
Yemen Government (https://web.archive.org/web/20090329091113/http://yemenparliament.or
g/) official portal (At the Wayback Machine, March 2009) (in Arabic)
Yemen (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/yemen/). The World Factbook.
Central Intelligence Agency.
Yemen (http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=yemen) web
resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Yemen (https://curlie.org/Regional/Middle_East/Yemen) at Curlie
Yemen profile (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14704852) from the BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of Yemen
https://observador.pt/2016/12/16/diogo-do-couto-o-portugues-da-india-ha-500-anos/
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yemen&oldid=1088738208"
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25/05/2022, 13:12 Yemen - Wikipedia

Coordinates: 15°20′54″N 44°12′23″E

lit. 'the Yemeni Republic'), is a country in Western Asia, al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah

estimated at 30,491,000. "God, Country, Revolution, Unity"

Christianity arrived in the fourth century. Islam spread

resignation in 2012 in the wake of the Arab Presidential

starting with street protests against poverty, United Nations

to amend Yemen's constitution and eliminate the and largest city

Leadership Council, Supreme Political Council, and the 2.4% Other

56,000 civilians and combatants have been killed in

depleted aquifers and the destruction of the country's

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. It belongs to the Kingdom of 30 October 1918

Colonial Aden medium

Unification and civil war low · 179th

Geography Calling code +967

With its long sea border between eastern and western

Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in northern Ethiopia,

The Himyarite annexed Sana'a from Hamdan around 100 CE.[72]

In 354 CE, Roman Emperor Constantius II sent an embassy headed by

Advent of Islam and the three dynasties

Christians, who were mainly staying in Najran along with Jews,

Yemen was stable during the Rashidun Caliphate. Yemeni

Sulayhid Dynasty (1047–1138)

The Sulayhid dynasty was founded in the northern highlands

By 1063, Ali had subjugated Greater Yemen.[112] He then

Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons on his way to Mecca in

Ayyubid conquest (1171–1260)

Rasulid Dynasty (1229–1454)

The Rasulid Dynasty was established in 1229 by Umar ibn

Umar first established himself at Zabid, then moved into the

They had a difficult relationship with the Mamluks of Egypt

Tahiride Dynasty (1454–1517)

The Zaydis and Ottomans

Yemen is a land with no lord, an empty province. It

Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din ruled over the

Ottoman soldiers and Yemeni locals

In 1632, Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force

Great Britain and the Nine Regions

The British government concluded "protection and friendship"

against the Zaydi tribes.[191]

Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen

Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil was ruling the

encourage the Italian Empire to bail him out.[204]

Starting in 1890, hundreds of Yemeni people from Hajz, Al-Baetha,

The revolution in the north

Unification and civil war

In 1990, the two governments reached a full agreement on the

various political players,[226]

Ali Abdullah Saleh became Yemen's first directly elected

In October 2000, 17 U.S. personnel died after a suicide attack

The Shia insurgency in Yemen began in June 2004 when

Revolution and aftermath

The 2011 Yemeni revolution followed other Arab Spring mass

In March 2011, police snipers opened fire on a pro-democracy

Hadi took office for a two-year term upon winning the

The central government in Sana'a remained weak,

Yemen is in Western Asia, in the southern part of the Arabian

A number of Red Sea islands, including the Hanish Islands,

Regions and climate

Yemen can be divided geographically into four main regions:

Yemen contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula

The flora of Yemen is a mixture of the tropical African,

Among the fauna, the Arabian leopard, which would inhabit

The geography and ruling imams of North Yemen kept the