Republic of Yemen

‫ﻮرﻳ ُﺔ ْٱﻟ َﻴ َﻤ ِﻨﻴ ُﺔ‬

ِ ‫ﻬ‬ُ ‫ﻤ‬
ْ ‫ﺠ‬
ُ ْ ‫ا‬ َ (Arabic)
‫ﻟ‬
al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah

Flag Emblem

Motto: ‫ ْٱﻟ َﻮ ْﺣﺪَ ُة‬،‫ٱﻟﺜ ْﻮ َر ُة‬

َ ،‫ ْٱﻟ َﻮ َﻃ ُﻦ‬،ُ ‫ا‬ َ (Arabic)
Allāh, al-Waṭan, ath-Thawrah, al-Waḥdah
“God, Country, Revolution, Unity”
Anthem: United Republic
(Arabic: ‫اﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮرﻳﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‬, romanized: al-
Jumhūrīyah al-Muttaḥidah)
0:00 / 0:00
 Location of Yemen (red)

Capital Sana'a (de jure)

Ataq (provisional)

Largest city Sana'a

Official languages Arabic

Ethnic groups Arab 92.8%

Somalis 3.7%
 Afro-Arab 1.1%
Indo-Pakistani 1%
Other 1.4%
Religion Islam

Demonym(s) Yemeni, Yemenite

Government Unitary presidential

constitutional
republic (de jure)
Unitary provisional
government
republic (de facto)

• President Abdrabbuh Mansur

Hadi (exiled)
• Vice President Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar
• Prime Minister Maeen Abdulmalik
Saeed

• President of the Mahdi al-Mashat

Supreme Political
Council

• Prime Minister of Abdel-Aziz bin

the Supreme Habtour
Political Council

Legislature Parliament (de jure)

Supreme Political
Council (de facto)

• Upper house Shura Council

• Lower house House of

 Representatives
Establishment

• North Yemen
establisheda 30 October 1918

• Yemen Arab 26 September 1962

Republic
established

• South Yemen
independenceb 30 November 1967

• Unification 22 May 1990

• Current constitution 16 May 1991

Area

• Total 527,968 km2
 (203,850 sq mi)
(49th)
• Water (%) negligible

Population

• 2018 estimate 28,498,683[1][2] (48th)

• 2004 census 19,685,000[3]

• Density 44.7/km2
(115.8/sq mi) (160th)

GDP (PPP) 2018 estimate

• Total $73.348 billion[4]

(118th)

• Per capita $2,380[4] (161st)

GDP (nominal) 2018 estimate
• Total $28.524 billion[4]
(103rd)
• Per capita $925[4] (177th)

Gini (2014) 36.7[5]
medium

HDI (2019)  0.463[6]
low · 177th

Currency Yemeni rial (YER)

Time zone UTC+3 (AST)

Driving side right[7]

Calling code +967

ISO 3166 code YE

Internet TLD .ye, .‫اﻟﻴﻤﻦ‬

 a. From the Ottoman Empire.
b. From the United Kingdom.

Yemen (/ˈjɛmən/ ( listen); Arabic: ‫ َا ْﻟ َﻴ َﻤ ُﻦ‬,

romanized: al-Yaman), sometimes
spelled Yaman, officially the Republic of
Yemen (Arabic: ‫ﻮرﻳ ُﺔ ْٱﻟ َﻴ َﻤ ِﻨﻴ ُﺔ‬ َْ
ِ ‫اﻟ ُﺠ ْﻤ ُﻬ‬,
romanized: al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah,
literally "Yemeni Republic"), is a country
at the southern end of the Arabian
Peninsula in Western Asia. It is the
second-largest Arab sovereign state in
the peninsula, occupying 527,970 square
kilometres (203,850 square miles). The
coastline stretches for about 2,000
kilometres (1,200 miles).[8] It is bordered
by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea
to the west, the Gulf of Aden and
Guardafui Channel to the south, and the
Arabian Sea and Oman to the east.
Yemen's territory encompasses more
than 200 islands, including Socotra, one
of the largest islands in the Middle East.
Yemen is a member of the Arab League,
United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement
and the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation. The state is characterized
as failed state[9] with high necessity of
transformation.[10]

Yemen's constitutionally stated capital is

the city of Sana'a, but the city has been
under Houthi rebel control since February
2015. Yemen is a developing country[11]
and in 2019 the United Nations reported
that Yemen is the country with the most
people in need of humanitarian aid with
24.1 million people in need.[12]

In ancient times, Yemen was the home of

the Sabaeans,[13][14][15] a trading state
that flourished for over a thousand years
and included parts of modern-day
Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 275 CE, the region
came under the rule of the later Jewish-
influenced Himyarite Kingdom.[16]
Christianity arrived in the fourth century.
Islam spread quickly in the seventh
century and Yemenite troops were crucial
in the early Islamic conquests.[17]
Administration of Yemen has long been
notoriously difficult.[18] Several dynasties
emerged from the ninth to 16th centuries,
the Rasulid dynasty being the strongest
and most prosperous. The country was
divided between the Ottoman and British
empires in the early twentieth century.
The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of
Yemen was established after World War I
in North Yemen before the creation of the
Yemen Arab Republic in 1962. South
Yemen remained a British protectorate
known as the Aden Protectorate until
1967 when it became an independent
state and later, a Marxist-Leninist state.
The two Yemeni states united to form the
modern Republic of Yemen (al-
Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah) in 1990.
President Ali Abdullah Saleh was the first
president of the new republic until his
resignation in 2012. His rule has been
described as a kleptocracy.[19][20]

Since 2011, Yemen has been in a state of

political crisis starting with street
protests against poverty, unemployment,
corruption, and president Saleh's plan to
amend Yemen's constitution and
eliminate the presidential term limit, in
effect making him president for life.[21]
President Saleh stepped down and the
powers of the presidency were
transferred to Vice President Abdrabbuh
Mansur Hadi, who was formally elected
president on 21 February 2012 in a one-
candidate election. The total absence of
central government during this transition
process exacerbated several clashes on-
going in the country, like the armed
conflict between the Houthi rebels of
Ansar Allah militia and the al-Islah forces,
as well as the al-Qaeda insurgency. In
September 2014, the Houthis took over
Sana'a with the help of the ousted
president Saleh,[22][23][24] later declaring
themselves the national government
after a coup d'état; Saleh was shot dead
by a sniper in Sana'a in December
2017.[25] This resulted in a new civil war
and a Saudi-led military intervention
aimed at restoring Hadi's government.[26]
At least 56,000 civilians and combatants
have been killed in armed violence in
Yemen since January 2016.[27]

The conflict has resulted in a famine

affecting 17 million people.[28] The lack
of safe drinking water, caused by
depleted aquifers and the destruction of
the country's water infrastructure, has
also caused the largest, fastest-
spreading cholera outbreak in modern
history, with the number of suspected
cases exceeding 994,751.[29][30] Over
2,226 people have died since the
outbreak began to spread rapidly at the
end of April 2017.[30][31]

Etymology
The term Yamnat was mentioned in Old
South Arabian inscriptions on the title of
one of the kings of the second Himyarite
kingdom known as Shammar Yahrʽish II.
The term probably referred to the
southwestern coastline of the Arabian
peninsula and the southern coastline
between Aden and Hadramout.[32][33] The
historical Yemen included much greater
territory than the current nation,
stretching from northern 'Asir in
southwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar in
southern Oman.[34][35]

One etymology derives Yemen from

ymnt, meaning "South", and significantly
plays on the notion of the land to the
right ( ).[36]

Other sources claim that Yemen is

related to yamn or yumn, meaning
"felicity" or "blessed", as much of the
country is fertile.[37][38] The Romans
called it Arabia Felix ("fertile Arabia"), as
opposed to Arabia Deserta ("deserted
Arabia"). Latin and Greek writers referred
to ancient Yemen as "India", which arose
from the Persians calling the Abyssinians
whom they came into contact with in
South Arabia by the name of the dark-
skinned people who lived next to them,
viz. the Indians.[39][40]

History

Ancient history …

Ruins of the Great Dam of Marib

A funerary stela featuring a musical scene, first
century CE

Himyarite King Dhamar'ali Yahbur II

A Sabaean gravestone of a woman holding a
stylized sheaf of wheat, a symbol of fertility in
ancient Yemen

With its long sea border between eastern

and western civilizations, Yemen has
long existed at a crossroads of cultures
with a strategic location in terms of trade
on the west of the Arabian Peninsula.
Large settlements for their era existed in
the mountains of northern Yemen as
early as 5000 BCE.[41]

The Sabaean Kingdom came into

existence from at least the 11th century
BCE.[42] The four major kingdoms or
tribal confederations in South Arabia
were: Saba, Hadramout, Qataban, and
Ma'in. Saba’ (Arabic: ‫[) َﺳـ َﺒـﺄ‬43][44] is thought
to be biblical Sheba, and was the most
prominent federation.[45] The Sabaean
rulers adopted the title Mukarrib
generally thought to mean unifier,[46] or a
priest-king,[47] or the head of
confederation of South Arabian
kingdoms, the "king of the kings".[48] The
role of the Mukarrib was to bring the
various tribes under the kingdom and
preside over them all.[49] The Sabaeans
built the Great Dam of Marib around 940
BCE.[50] The dam was built to withstand
the seasonal flash floods surging down
the valley.

Between 700 and 680 BCE, the Kingdom

of Awsan dominated Aden and its
surroundings and challenged the
Sabaean supremacy in the Arabian
South. Sabaean Mukarrib Karib'il Watar I
conquered the entire realm of Awsan,[51]
and expanded Sabaean rule and territory
to include much of South Arabia.[52] Lack
of water in the Arabian Peninsula
prevented the Sabaeans from unifying
the entire peninsula. Instead, they
established various colonies to control
trade routes.[53]

Evidence of Sabaean influence is found

in northern Ethiopia, where the South
Arabian alphabet, religion and pantheon,
and the South Arabian style of art and
architecture were introduced.[54][55][56]
The Sabaean created a sense of identity
through their religion. They worshipped
El-Maqah and believed that they were his
children.[57] For centuries, the Sabaeans
controlled outbound trade across the
Bab-el-Mandeb, a strait separating the
Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of
Africa and the Red Sea from the Indian
Ocean.[58]

By the third century BCE, Qataban,

Hadramout, and Ma'in became
independent from Saba and established
themselves in the Yemeni arena.
Minaean rule stretched as far as
Dedan,[59] with their capital at Baraqish.
The Sabaeans regained their control over
Ma'in after the collapse of Qataban in 50
BCE. By the time of the Roman
expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BCE, the
Sabaeans were once again the
dominating power in Southern Arabia.[60]
Aelius Gallus was ordered to lead a
military campaign to establish Roman
dominance over the Sabaeans.[61]
The Romans had a vague and
contradictory geographical knowledge
about Arabia Felix or Yemen. The Roman
army of 10,000 men was defeated before
Marib.[62] Strabo's close relationship with
Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify
his friend's defeat in his writings. It took
the Romans six months to reach Marib
and 60 days to return to Egypt. The
Romans blamed their Nabataean guide
and executed him for treachery.[63] No
direct mention in Sabaean inscriptions of
the Roman expedition has yet been
found.

After the Roman expedition – perhaps

earlier – the country fell into chaos, and
two clans, namely Hamdan and Himyar,
claimed kingship, assuming the title King
of Sheba and Dhu Raydan.[64] Dhu
Raydan, i.e., Himyarites, allied
themselves with Aksum in Ethiopia
against the Sabaeans.[65] The chief of
Bakil and king of Saba and Dhu Raydan,
El Sharih Yahdhib, launched successful
campaigns against the Himyarites and
Habashat, i.e., Aksum, El Sharih took
pride in his campaigns and added the
title Yahdhib to his name, which means
"suppressor"; he used to kill his enemies
by cutting them to pieces.[66] Sana'a
came into prominence during his reign,
as he built the Ghumdan Palace as his
place of residence.

The Himyarite annexed Sana'a from

Hamdan around 100 CE.[67] Hashdi
tribesmen rebelled against them and
regained Sana'a around 180 AD.[68]
Shammar Yahri'sh had not conquered
Hadramout, Najran, and Tihama until 275
CE, thus unifying Yemen and
consolidating Himyarite rule.[69][70] The
Himyarites rejected polytheism and
adhered to a consensual form of
monotheism called Rahmanism.[71]

In 354 CE, Roman Emperor Constantius II

sent an embassy headed by Theophilos
the Indian to convert the Himyarites to
Christianity.[72] According to
Philostorgius, the mission was resisted
by local Jews.[73] Several inscriptions
have been found in Hebrew and Sabaean
praising the ruling house in Jewish terms
for "...helping and empowering the
People of Israel."[74]

According to Islamic traditions, King

As'ad the Perfect mounted a military
expedition to support the Jews of
Yathrib.[75] Abu Kariba As'ad, as known
from the inscriptions, led a military
campaign to central Arabia or Najd to
support the vassal Kingdom of Kindah
against the Lakhmids.[76] However, no
direct reference to Judaism or Yathrib
was discovered from his lengthy reign.
Abu Kariba died in 445 CE, having
reigned for almost 50 years.[77] By 515
AD, Himyar became increasingly divided
along religious lines and a bitter conflict
between different factions paved the way
for an Aksumite intervention. The last
Himyarite king Ma'adikarib Ya'fur was
supported by Aksum against his Jewish
rivals. Ma'adikarib was Christian and
launched a campaign against the
Lakhmids in southern Iraq, with the
support of other Arab allies of
Byzantium.[78] The Lakhmids were a
Bulwark of Persia, which was intolerant
to a proselytizing religion like
Christianity.[79]

After the death of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur

around 521 CE, a Himyarite Jewish
warlord named Yousef Asar Yathar rose
to power with the honorary title of Yathar
(meaning, "to avenge"). Yemenite
Christians, aided by Aksum and
Byzantium, systematically persecuted
Jews and burned down several
synagogues across the land. Yousef
avenged his people with great cruelty.[80]
He marched toward the port city of
Mocha, killing 14,000 and capturing
11,000.[78] Then he settled a camp in
Bab-el-Mandeb to prevent aid flowing
from Aksum. At the same time, Yousef
sent an army under the command of
another Jewish warlord, Sharahil Yaqbul,
to Najran. Sharahil had reinforcements
from the Bedouins of the Kindah and
Madh'hij tribes, eventually wiping out the
Christian community in Najran.[81]

Yousef or Dhu Nuwas (the one with

sidelocks) as known in Arabic literature,
believed that Christians in Yemen were a
fifth column.[82] Christian sources portray
Dhu Nuwas (Yousef Asar) as a Jewish
zealot, while Islamic traditions say that
he threw 20,000 Christians into pits filled
with flaming oil.[80] This history, however,
is shrouded in legend.[73] Dhu Nuwas left
two inscriptions, neither of them making
any reference to fiery pits. Byzantium had
to act or lose all credibility as protector
of eastern Christianity. It is reported that
Byzantium Emperor Justin I sent a letter
to the Aksumite King Kaleb, pressuring
him to "...attack the abominable
Hebrew."[78] A tripartite military alliance
of Byzantine, Aksumite, and Arab
Christians successfully defeated Yousef
around 525–527 CE, and a client
Christian king was installed on the
Himyarite throne.[83]

Esimiphaios was a local Christian lord,

mentioned in an inscription celebrating
the burning of an ancient Sabaean palace
in Marib to build a church on its ruins.[84]
Three new churches were built in Najran
alone.[84] Many tribes did not recognize
Esimiphaios's authority. Esimiphaios was
displaced in 531 by a warrior named
Abraha, who refused to leave Yemen and
declared himself an independent king of
Himyar.[85]

Emperor Justinian I sent an embassy to

Yemen. He wanted the officially Christian
Himyarites to use their influence on the
tribes in inner Arabia to launch military
operations against Persia. Justinian I
bestowed the "dignity of king" upon the
Arab sheikhs of Kindah and Ghassan in
central and northern Arabia.[85] From
early on, Roman and Byzantine policy
was to develop close links with the
powers of the coast of the Red Sea. They
were successful in converting Aksum
and influencing their culture. The results
with regard to Yemen were rather
disappointing.[85]

A Kendite prince called Yazid bin Kabshat

rebelled against Abraha and his Arab
Christian allies. A truce was reached
once the Great Dam of Marib had
suffered a breach.[86] Abraha died around
555–565; no reliable sources regarding
his death are available. The Sasanid
empire annexed Aden around 570 CE.
Under their rule, most of Yemen enjoyed
great autonomy except for Aden and
Sana'a. This era marked the collapse of
ancient South Arabian civilization, since
the greater part of the country was under
several independent clans until the arrival
of Islam in 630 CE.[87]

Middle Ages …

Advent of Islam and the three

dynasties
…
The interior of the Great Mosque of Sana'a, the
oldest mosque in Yemen

Muhammed sent his cousin Ali to Sana'a

and its surroundings around 630 CE. At
the time, Yemen was the most advanced
region in Arabia.[88] The Banu Hamdan
confederation was among the first to
accept Islam. Muhammed sent Muadh
ibn Jabal, as well to Al-Janad, in present-
day Taiz, and dispatched letters to
various tribal leaders. The reason behind
this was the division among the tribes
and the absence of a strong central
authority in Yemen during the days of the
prophet.[89]

Major tribes, including Himyar, sent

delegations to Medina during the "year of
delegations" around 630–631 CE. Several
Yemenis accepted Islam before the year
630, such as Ammar ibn Yasir, Al-Ala'a Al-
Hadrami, Miqdad ibn Aswad, Abu Musa
Ashaari, and Sharhabeel ibn Hasana. A
man named 'Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al-Ansi
expelled the remaining Persians and
claimed he was a prophet of Rahman. He
was assassinated by a Yemeni of Persian
origin called Fayruz al-Daylami.
Christians, who were mainly staying in
Najran along with Jews, agreed to pay
jizyah (Arabic: ‫) ِﺟ ْـﺰ َﻳـﺔ‬, although some
Jews converted to Islam, such as Wahb
ibn Munabbih and Ka'ab al-Ahbar.

Yemen was stable during the Rashidun

Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played a pivotal
role in the Islamic expansion of Egypt,
Iraq, Persia, the Levant, Anatolia, North
Africa, Sicily, and Andalusia.[90][91][92]
Yemeni tribes who settled in Syria,
contributed significantly to the
solidification of Umayyad rule, especially
during the reign of Marwan I. Powerful
Yemenite tribes such as Kindah were on
his side during the Battle of Marj
Rahit.[93][94]

Several emirates led by people of Yemeni

descent were established in North Africa
and Andalusia. Effective control over
entire Yemen was not achieved by the
Umayyad Caliphate. Imam Abdullah ibn
Yahya Al-Kindi was elected in 745 CE to
lead the Ibāḍī movement in Hadramawt
and Oman. He expelled the Umayyad
governor from Sana'a and captured
Mecca and Medina in 746.[95] Al-Kindi,
known by his nickname "Talib al-Haqq"
(seeker of truth), established the first
Ibadi state in the history of Islam, but
was killed in Taif around 749.[95]

Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad

founded the Ziyadid dynasty in Tihama
around 818 CE. The state stretched from
Haly (in present-day Saudi Arabia) to
Aden. They nominally recognized the
Abbasid Caliphate, but were in fact ruling
independently from their capital in
Zabid.[96] The history of this dynasty is
obscure. They never exercised control
over the highlands and Hadramawt, and
did not control more than a coastal strip
of the Yemen (Tihama) bordering the Red
Sea.[97] A Himyarite clan called the
Yufirids established their rule over the
highlands from Saada to Taiz, while
Hadramawt was an Ibadi stronghold and
rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids in
Baghdad.[96] By virtue of its location, the
Ziyadid dynasty of Zabid developed a
special relationship with Abyssinia. The
chief of the Dahlak islands exported
slaves, as well as amber and leopard
hides, to the then ruler of Yemen.[98]

The first Zaidi imam, Yahya ibn al-

Husayn, arrived in Yemen in 893 CE. He
was the founder of the Zaidi imamate in
897. He was a religious cleric and judge
who was invited to come to Saada from
Medina to arbitrate tribal disputes.[99]
Imam Yahya persuaded local tribesmen
to follow his teachings. The sect slowly
spread across the highlands, as the
tribes of Hashid and Bakil, later known as
"the twin wings of the imamate,"
accepted his authority.[100]

Yahya established his influence in Saada

and Najran. He also tried to capture
Sana'a from the Yufirids in 901 CE, but
failed miserably. In 904, the Qarmatians
invaded Sana'a. The Yufirid emir As'ad
ibn Ibrahim retreated to Al-Jawf, and
between 904 and 913, Sana'a was
conquered no less than 20 times by
Qarmatians and Yufirids.[101] As'ad ibn
Ibrahim regained Sana'a in 915. Yemen
was in turmoil as Sana'a became a
battlefield for the three dynasties, as well
as independent tribes.

The Yufirid emir Abdullah ibn Qahtan

attacked and burned Zabid in 989,
severely weakening the Ziyadid
dynasty.[102] The Ziyadid monarchs lost
effective power after 989, or even earlier
than that. Meanwhile, a succession of
slaves held power in Zabid and continued
to govern in the name of their masters,
eventually establishing their own dynasty
around 1022 or 1050 according to
different sources.[103] Although they were
recognized by the Abbasid Caliphate in
Baghdad, they ruled no more than Zabid
and four districts to its north.[104] The rise
of the Ismaili Shia Sulayhid dynasty in the
Yemeni highlands reduced their history to
a series of intrigues.

Sulayhid Dynasty (1047–1138) …

 Jibla became
the capital of
the dynasty.
Featured is the
Queen Arwa
Mosque.

Queen Arwa al-

Sulaihi Palace
The Sulayhid dynasty was founded in the
northern highlands around 1040; at the
time, Yemen was ruled by different local
dynasties. In 1060, Ali ibn Muhammad Al-
Sulayhi conquered Zabid and killed its
ruler Al-Najah, founder of the Najahid
dynasty. His sons were forced to flee to
Dahlak.[105] Hadramawt fell into Sulayhid
hands after their capture of Aden in
1162.[106]

By 1063, Ali had subjugated Greater

Yemen.[107] He then marched toward
Hejaz and occupied Makkah.[108] Ali was
married to Asma bint Shihab, who
governed Yemen with her husband.[109]
The Khutba during Friday prayers was
proclaimed in both her husband's name
and hers. No other Arab woman had this
honor since the advent of Islam.[109]

Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons

on his way to Mecca in 1084. His son
Ahmed Al-Mukarram led an army to
Zabid and killed 8,000 of its
inhabitants.[110] He later installed the
Zurayids to govern Aden. al-Mukarram,
who had been afflicted with facial
paralysis resulting from war injuries,
retired in 1087 and handed over power to
his wife Arwa al-Sulayhi.[111] Queen Arwa
moved the seat of the Sulayhid dynasty
from Sana'a to Jibla, a small town in
central Yemen near Ibb. Jibla was
strategically near the Sulayhid dynasty
source of wealth, the agricultural central
highlands. It was also within easy reach
of the southern portion of the country,
especially Aden. She sent Ismaili
missionaries to India, where a significant
Ismaili community was formed that
exists to this day.[112] Queen Arwa
continued to rule securely until her death
in 1138.[112]

Arwa al-Sulayhi is still remembered as a

great and much loved sovereign, as
attested in Yemeni historiography,
literature, and popular lore, where she is
referred to as Balqis al-sughra ("the junior
queen of Sheba").[113] Although the
Sulayhids were Ismaili, they never tried to
impose their beliefs on the public.[114]
Shortly after Queen Arwa's death, the
country was split between five
competing petty dynasties along
religious lines.[115] The Ayyubid dynasty
overthrew the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt.
A few years after their rise to power,
Saladin dispatched his brother Turan
Shah to conquer Yemen in 1174.[116]

Ayyubid conquest (1171–1260) …

Turan Shah conquered Zabid from the

Mahdids in May 1174, then marched
toward Aden in June and captured it
from the Zurayids.[117] The Hamdanid
sultans of Sana'a resisted the Ayyubid in
1175, and the Ayyubids did not manage
to definitely secure Sana'a until 1189.[118]
The Ayyubid rule was stable in southern
and central Yemen, where they
succeeded in eliminating the ministates
of that region, while Ismaili and Zaidi
tribesmen continued to hold out in a
number of fortresses.[118]

The Ayyubids failed to capture the Zaydis

stronghold in northern Yemen.[119] In
1191, Zaydis of Shibam Kawkaban
rebelled and killed 700 Ayyubid
soldiers.[120] Imam Abdullah bin Hamza
proclaimed the imamate in 1197 and
fought al-Mu'izz Ismail, the Ayyubid
Sultan of Yemen. Imam Abdullah was
defeated at first, but was able to conquer
Sana'a and Dhamar in 1198,[121] and al-
Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in
1202.[122]

Abdullah bin Hamza carried on the

struggle against the Ayyubid until his
death in 1217. After his demise, the Zaidi
community was split between two rival
imams. The Zaydis were dispersed and a
truce was signed with the Ayyubid in
1219.[123] The Ayyubid army was
defeated in Dhamar in 1226.[123] Ayyubid
Sultan Mas'ud Yusuf left for Mecca in
1228, never to return.[124] Other sources
suggest that he was forced to leave for
Egypt instead in 1123.[125]

Rasulid Dynasty (1229–1454) …

Al-Qahyra (Cairo) Castle's Garden in Taiz, the capital

of Yemen during the Rasulid's era

The Rasulid Dynasty was established in

1229 by Umar ibn Rasul, who was
appointed deputy governor by the
Ayyubids in 1223. When the last Ayyubid
ruler left Yemen in 1229, Umar stayed in
the country as caretaker. He
subsequently declared himself an
independent king by assuming the title
"al-Malik Al-Mansur" (the king assisted by
Allah).[125] Umar established the Rasulid
dynasty on a firm foundation and
expanded its territory to include the area
from Dhofar to Mecca[126]

Umar first established himself at Zabid,

then moved into the mountainous
interior, taking the important highland
centre Sana'a. However, the Rasulid
capitals were Zabid and Taiz. He was
assassinated by his nephew in 1249.[124]
Omar's son Yousef defeated the faction
led by his father's assassins and crushed
several counter-attacks by the Zaydi
imams who still held on in the northern
highland. Mainly because of the victories
he scored over his rivals, he assumed the
honorific title "al-Muzaffar" (the
victorious).[127]

After the fall of Baghdad to the Mongols

in 1258, al-Muzaffar Yusuf I appropriated
the title of caliph.[127] He chose the city
of Taiz to become the political capital of
the kingdom because of its strategic
location and proximity to Aden.[128] al-
Muzaffar Yusuf I died in 1296, having
reigned for 47 years.[127] When the news
of his death reached the Zaydi imam Al-
Mutawakkil al-Mutahhar bin Yahya, he
commented,[127]

The greatest king of Yemen, the

Muawiyah of the time, has
died. His pens used to break
our lances and swords to
pieces.
A 13th-century slave market in Yemen

The Rasulid state nurtured Yemen's

commercial links with India and the Far
East.[129] They profited greatly by the Red
Sea transit trade via Aden and Zabid.[124]
The economy also boomed due to the
agricultural development programs
instituted by the kings who promoted
massive cultivation of palms.[124] The
Rasulid kings enjoyed the support of the
population of Tihama and southern
Yemen, while they had to buy the loyalty
of Yemen's restive northern highland
tribes.[124]

The Rasulid sultans built numerous

Madrasas to solidify the Shafi'i school of
thought, which is still the dominant
school of jurisprudence amongst
Yemenis today.[130] Under their rule, Taiz
and Zabid became major international
centres of Islamic learning.[131] The kings
themselves were learned men in their
own right, who not only had important
libraries, but who also wrote treatises on
a wide array of subjects, ranging from
astrology and medicine to agriculture
and genealogy.[128]

The dynasty is regarded as the greatest

native Yemeni state since the fall of pre-
Islamic Himyarite Kingdom.[132] They
were of Turkic descent.[133] They claimed
an ancient Yemenite origin to justify their
rule. The Rasulids were not the first
dynasty to create a fictitious genealogy
for political purposes, nor were they
doing anything out of the ordinary in the
tribal context of Arabia.[134] By claiming
descent from a solid Yemenite tribe, the
Rasulids brought Yemen to a vital sense
of unity in an otherwise chaotic regional
milieu.[134]

They had a difficult relationship with the

Mamluks of Egypt because the latter
considered them a vassal state.[128] Their
competition centred over the Hejaz and
the right to provide kiswa of the Ka'aba in
Mecca.[128] The dynasty became
increasingly threatened by disgruntled
family members over the problem of
succession, combined by periodic tribal
revolts, as they were locked in a war of
attrition with the Zaydi imams in the
northern highlands.[131] During the last 12
years of Rasulid rule, the country was
torn between several contenders for the
kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulid
provided an opportunity for the Banu
Taher clan to take over and establish
themselves as the new rulers of Yemen
in 1454 CE.[130]
Tahiride Dynasty (1454–1517) …

The Tahirids were a local clan based in

Rada'a. While they were not as
impressive as their predecessors, they
were still keen builders. They built
schools, mosques, and irrigation
channels, as well as water cisterns and
bridges in Zabid, Aden, Rada'a, and
Juban. Their best-known monument is
the Amiriya Madrasa in Rada' District,
which was built in 1504.
The Tahiride were too weak either to
contain the Zaydi imams or to defend
themselves against foreign attacks. The
Mamluks of Egypt tried to attach Yemen
to Egypt and the Portuguese led by
Afonso de Albuquerque, occupied
Socotra and made an unsuccessful
attack on Aden in 1513.[135]

The Portuguese posed an immediate

threat to the Indian Ocean trade. The
Mamluks of Egypt, therefore, sent an
army under the command of Hussein Al-
Kurdi to fight the intruders.[136] The
Mamluk sultan of Egypt sailed to Zabid in
1515 and began diplomatic talks with
Tahiride Sultan 'Amir bin Abdulwahab for
money that would be needed for jihād
(Arabic: ‫ ِﺟ َـﻬـﺎد‬, 'struggle') against the
Portuguese. Instead of confronting the
Portuguese, the Mamluks, who were
running out of food and water, landed
their fleet on the Yemen coastline and
started to harass Tihama villagers for
what they needed.[137]

Realizing how rich the Tahiride realm

was, they decided to conquer it.[137] The
Mamluk army, with the support of forces
loyal to Zaydi Imam Al-Mutawakkil Yahya
Sharaf ad-Din, conquered the entire realm
of the Tahiride, but failed to capture Aden
in 1517. The Mamluk victory was short-
lived. The Ottoman Empire conquered
Egypt, hanging the last Mamluk Sultan in
Cairo.[137] The Ottomans had not decided
to conquer Yemen until 1538. The Zaydi
highland tribes emerged as national
heroes[138] by offering a stiff, vigorous
resistance to the Turkish occupation.[139]
Modern history …

The Zaydis and Ottomans …

Al Bakiriyya Ottoman Mosque in Sana'a, was built in

1597

The Ottomans had two fundamental

interests to safeguard in Yemen: The
Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina,
and the trade route with India in spices
and textiles—both threatened, and the
latter virtually eclipsed, by the arrival of
the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and
the Red Sea in the early 16th century.[140]
Hadım Suleiman Pasha, The Ottoman
governor of Egypt, was ordered to
command a fleet of 90 ships to conquer
Yemen. The country was in a state of
incessant anarchy and discord as Hadım
Suleiman Pasha described it by
saying:[141]
 Yemen is a land with no lord,
an empty province. It would be
not only possible but easy to
capture, and should it be
captured, it would be master of
the lands of India and send
every year a great amount of
gold and jewels to
Constantinople.

Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din

ruled over the northern highlands
including Sana'a, while Aden was held by
the last Tahiride Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod.
Hadım Suleiman Pasha stormed Aden in
1538, killing its ruler, and extended
Ottoman authority to include Zabid in
1539 and eventually Tihama in its
entirety.[142] Zabid became the
administrative headquarters of Yemen
Eyalet.[142] The Ottoman governors did
not exercise much control over the
highlands. They held sway mainly in the
southern coastal region, particularly
around Zabid, Mocha, and Aden.[143] Of
80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen from
Egypt between 1539 and 1547, only
7,000 survived.[144] The Ottoman
accountant-general in Egypt
remarked:[144]

We have seen no foundry like

Yemen for our soldiers. Each
time we have sent an
expeditionary force there, it
has melted away like salt
dissolved in water.
The Ottomans sent yet another
expeditionary force to Zabid in 1547,
while Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf
ad-Din was ruling the highlands
independently. Imam al-Mutawakkil
Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him,
a decision that infuriated his other son al-
Mutahhar ibn Yahya.[145] Al-Mutahhar
was lame, so was not qualified for the
imamate.[145] He urged Oais Pasha, the
Ottoman colonial governor in Zabid, to
attack his father.[146] Indeed, Ottoman
troops supported by tribal forces loyal to
Imam al-Mutahhar stormed Taiz and
marched north toward Sana'a in August
1547. The Turks officially made Imam al-
Mutahhar a Sanjak-bey with authority
over 'Amran. Imam al-Mutahhar
assassinated the Ottoman colonial
governor and recaptured Sana'a, but the
Ottomans, led by Özdemir Pasha, forced
al-Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress in
Thula. Özdemir Pasha effectively put
Yemen under Ottoman rule between
1552 and 1560. He was considered a
competent ruler given Yemen's notorious
lawlessness, garrisoning the main cities,
building new fortresses, and rendering
secure the main routes.[147] Özdemir died
in Sana'a in 1561, and was succeeded by
Mahmud Pasha.

Unlike Özdemir's brief but able

leadership, Mahmud Pasha was
described by other Ottoman officials as a
corrupt and unscrupulous governor. He
used his authority to take over a number
of castles, some of which belonged to
the former Rasulid kings.[145] Mahmud
Pasha killed a Sunni scholar from Ibb.[148]
The Ottoman historian claimed that this
incident was celebrated by the Zaydi Shia
community in the northern highlands.[148]
Disregarding the delicate balance of
power in Yemen by acting tactlessly, he
alienated different groups within Yemeni
society, causing them to forget their
rivalries and unite against the Turks.[147]
Mahmud Pasha was displaced by Ridvan
Pasha in 1564. By 1565, Yemen was split
into two provinces, the highlands under
the command of Ridvan Pasha and
Tihama under Murad Pasha. Imam al-
Mutahhar launched a propaganda
campaign in which he claimed that
prophet Mohammed came to him in a
dream and advised him to wage jihad
against the Ottomans.[149] Al-Mutahhar
led the tribes to capture Sana'a from
Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried
to relieve Sana'a, highland tribesmen
ambushed his unit and slaughtered all of
them.[150] Over 80 battles were fought.
The last decisive encounter took place in
Dhamar around 1568, in which Murad
Pasha was beheaded and his head sent
to al-Mutahhar in Sana'a.[150][151] By 1568,
only Zabid remained under the
possession of the Turks.[151]

Ruins of Thula fortress in 'Amran, where al-

Mutahhar ibn Yahya barricaded himself against
Ottoman attacks
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, the Ottoman
governor of Syria, was ordered by Selim II
to suppress the Yemeni rebels.[152]
However, the Turkish army in Egypt was
reluctant to go to Yemen due to their
knowledge of the hegemony of the
northern Yemenis.[152] Mustafa Pasha
sent a letter with two Turkish shawishes
hoping to persuade al-Mutahhar to give
an apology and confirm that Mustafa
Pasha did not promote any act of
aggression against the Ottoman army,
and state that the "ignorant Arabian"
according to the Turks, acted on their
own.[153] Imam al-Mutahhar refused the
Ottoman offer. When Mustafa Pasha sent
an expeditionary force under the
command of Uthman Pasha, it was
defeated with great casualties.[154] Sultan
Selim II was infuriated by Mustafa's
hesitation to go Yemen. He executed a
number of sanjak-beys in Egypt and
ordered Sinan Pasha to lead the entire
Turkish army in Egypt to reconquer
Yemen.[155] Sinan Pasha was a
prominent Ottoman general of Albanian
origin.[151] He reconquered Aden, Taiz,
and Ibb, and besieged Shibam Kawkaban
in 1570 for seven months. The siege was
lifted once a truce was reached.[156]
Imam al-Mutahhar was pushed back, but
could not be entirely overcome.[157] After
al-Mutahhar's demise in 1572, the Zaydi
community was not united under an
imam; the Turks took advantage of their
disunity and conquered Sana'a, Sa'dah,
and Najran in 1583.[158] Imam al-Nasir
Hassan was arrested in 1585 and exiled
to Constantinople, thereby putting an end
to the Yemeni rebellion.[151]

The Zaydi tribesmen in the northern

highlands particularly those of Hashid
and Bakil, were ever the Turkish bugbear
in all Arabia.[159] The Ottomans who
justified their presence in Yemen as a
triumph for Islam, accused the Zaydis of
being infidels.[160] Hassan Pasha was
appointed governor of Yemen and
enjoyed a period of relative peace from
1585 to 1597. Pupils of al-Mansur al-
Qasim suggested he should claim the
imamate and fight the Turks. He declined
at first, but the promotion of the Hanafi
school of jurisprudence at the expense of
Zaydi Islam infuriated al-Mansur al-
Qasim. He proclaimed the imamate in
September 1597, which was the same
year the Ottoman authorities inaugurated
al-Bakiriyya Mosque.[158] By 1608, Imam
al-Mansur (the victorious) regained
control over the highlands and signed a
truce for 10 years with the Ottomans.[161]
Imam al-Mansur al-Qasim died in 1620.
His son Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
succeeded him and confirmed the truce
with the Ottomans. In 1627, the
Ottomans lost Aden and Lahej. 'Abdin
Pasha was ordered to suppress the
rebels, but failed, and had to retreat to
Mocha.[158] Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
expelled the Ottomans from Sana'a in
1628, only Zabid and Mocha remained
under Ottoman possession. Al-Mu'ayyad
Muhammad captured Zabid in 1634 and
allowed the Ottomans to leave Mocha
peacefully.[162] The reason behind Al-
Mu'ayyad Muhammad's success was the
possession of firearms by the tribes and
their unity behind him.[163]

Mocha was Yemen's busiest port in the 17th and

18th centuries

In 1632, Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an

expeditionary force of 1,000 men to
conquer Mecca.[164] The army entered
the city in triumph and killed its
governor.[164] The Ottomans were not
ready to lose Mecca after Yemen, so they
sent an army from Egypt to fight the
Yemenites.[164] Seeing that the Turkish
army was too numerous to overcome, the
Yemeni army retreated to a valley outside
Mecca.[165] Ottoman troops attacked the
Yemenis by hiding at the wells that
supplied them with water. This plan
proceeded successfully, causing the
Yemenis over 200 casualties, most from
thirst.[165] The tribesmen eventually
surrendered and returned to Yemen.[166]
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad died in 1644.
He was succeeded by Al-Mutawakkil
Isma'il, another son of al-Mansur al-
Qasim, who conquered Yemen in its
entirety, from Asir in the north to Dhofar
in the east.[167][168][169][170] During his
reign, and during the reign of his
successor, Al-Mahdi Ahmad (1676–
1681), the imamate implemented some
of the harshest discriminatory laws
(ghiyar) against the Jews of Yemen,
which culminated in the expulsion of all
Jews (Exile of Mawza) to a hot and arid
region in the Tihama coastal plain. The
Qasimid state was the strongest Zaydi
state to ever exist.

During that period, Yemen was the sole

coffee producer in the world.[171] The
country established diplomatic relations
with the Safavid dynasty of Persia,
Ottomans of Hejaz, Mughal Empire in
India, and Ethiopia, as well. Fasilides of
Ethiopia sent three diplomatic missions
to Yemen, but the relations did not
develop into political alliance, as
Fasilides had hoped, due to the rise of
powerful feudalists in his country.[172] In
the first half of the 18th century, the
Europeans broke Yemen's monopoly on
coffee by smuggling coffee trees and
cultivating them in their own colonies in
the East Indies, East Africa, the West
Indies, and Latin America.[173] The
imamate did not follow a cohesive
mechanism for succession, and family
quarrels and tribal insubordination led to
the political decline of the Qasimi
dynasty in the 18th century.[174] In 1728
or 1731, the chief representative of Lahej
declared himself an independent sultan
in defiance of the Qasimid dynasty and
conquered Aden, thus establishing the
Sultanate of Lahej. The rising power of
the fervently Islamist Wahhabi movement
on the Arabian Peninsula cost the Zaidi
state its coastal possessions after 1803.
The imam was able to regain them
temporarily in 1818, but new intervention
by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt in 1833
again wrested the coast from the ruler in
Sana'a. After 1835, the imamate changed
hands with great frequency and some
imams were assassinated. After 1849,
the Zaidi polity descended into chaos
that lasted for decades.[175]

Great Britain and the Nine Regions …

The building of the Legislative Council of Aden, built

by the English in the 19th century as St. Mary's
Church, was converted into the building of the
Legislative Council in the 1960s, and is now a
museum
The British were looking for a coal depot
to service their steamers en route to
India. It took 700 tons of coal for a round-
trip from Suez to Bombay. East India
Company officials decided on Aden. The
British Empire tried to reach an
agreement with the Zaydi imam of
Sana'a, permitting them a foothold in
Mocha, and when unable to secure their
position, they extracted a similar
agreement from the Sultan of Lahej,
enabling them to consolidate a position
in Aden.[176] An incident played into
British hands when, while passing Aden
for trading purposes, one of their sailing
ships sank and Arab tribesmen boarded
it and plundered its contents. The British
India government dispatched a warship
under the command of Captain Stafford
Bettesworth Haines to demand
compensation.[176]

Haines bombarded Aden from his

warship in January 1839. The ruler of
Lahej, who was in Aden at the time,
ordered his guards to defend the port, but
they failed in the face of overwhelming
military and naval power. The British
managed to occupy Aden and agreed to
compensate the sultan with an annual
payment of 6,000 riyals.[176] The British
evicted the Sultan of Lahej from Aden
and forced him to accept their
"protection."[176] In November 1839, 5000
tribesmen tried to retake the town, but
were repulsed and 200 were killed. The
British realised that Aden's prosperity
depended on their relations with the
neighbouring tribes, which required that
they rest on a firm and satisfactory
basis.[177]

The British government concluded

"protection and friendship" treaties with
nine tribes surrounding Aden, whereas
they would remain independent from
British interference in their affairs as long
as they do not conclude treaties with
foreigners (non-Arab colonial
powers).[178] Aden was declared a free
zone in 1850. With emigrants from India,
East Africa, and Southeast Asia, Aden
grew into a world city. In 1850, only 980
Arabs were registered as original
inhabitants of the city.[179] The English
presence in Aden put them at odds with
the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the
British that they held sovereignty over the
whole of Arabia, including Yemen as
successor of Mohammed and the Chief
of the Universal Caliphate.[180]

Ottoman return …
The Ottoman Grand Vizier and Wāli of Yemen
Ahmed Muhtar Pasha

The Ottomans were concerned about the

British expansion from India to the Red
Sea and Arabia. They returned to the
Tihama in 1849 after an absence of two
centuries.[181] Rivalries and disturbances
continued among the Zaydi imams,
between them and their deputies, with
the ulema, with the heads of tribes, as
well as with those who belonged to other
sects. Some citizens of Sana'a were
desperate to return law and order to
Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in
Tihama to pacify the country.[182] Yemeni
merchants knew that the return of the
Ottomans would improve their trade, for
the Ottomans would become their
customers.[183] An Ottoman expedition
force tried to capture Sana'a, but was
defeated and had to evacuate the
highlands.[184] The Opening of the Suez
Canal in 1869, strengthened the Ottoman
decision to remain in Yemen.[185] In 1872,
military forces were dispatched from
Constantinople and moved beyond the
Ottoman stronghold in the lowlands
(Tihama) to conquer Sana'a. By 1873, the
Ottomans succeeded in conquering the
northern highlands. Sana'a became the
administrative capital of Yemen Vilayet.

The Ottomans learned from their

previous experience and worked on the
disempowerment of local lords in the
highland regions. They even attempted to
secularize the Yemeni society, while
Yemenite Jews came to perceive
themselves in Yemeni nationalist
terms.[186] The Ottomans appeased the
tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs
and appointing them to administrative
posts. They introduced a series of
reforms to enhance the country's
economic welfare. However, corruption
was widespread in the Ottoman
administration in Yemen. This was
because only the worst of the officials
were appointed because those who
could avoid serving in Yemen did so.[187]
The Ottomans had reasserted control
over the highlands for temporary
duration.[181] The so-called Tanzimat
reforms were considered heretic by the
Zaydi tribes. In 1876, the Hashid and
Bakil tribes rebelled against the
Ottomans; the Turks had to appease
them with gifts to end the uprising.[188]

The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease

and an endless cycle of violence curbed
Ottoman efforts to pacify the land.
Ahmed Izzet Pasha proposed that the
Ottoman army evacuate the highlands
and confine itself to Tihama, and not
unnecessarily burden itself with
continuing military operation against the
Zaydi tribes.[187] The hit-and-run tactics
of the northern highlands tribesmen wore
out the Ottoman military. They resented
the Turkish Tanzimat and defied all
attempts to impose a central government
upon them.[185] The northern tribes
united under the leadership of the House
of Hamidaddin in 1890. Imam Yahya
Hamidaddin led a rebellion against the
Turks in 1904; the rebels disrupted the
Ottoman ability to govern.[189] The revolts
between 1904 and 1911 were especially
damaging to the Ottomans, costing them
as many as 10,000 soldiers and as much
as 500,000 pounds per year.[190] The
Ottomans signed a treaty with imam
Yahya Hamidaddin in 1911. Under the
treaty, Imam Yahya was recognized as an
autonomous leader of the Zaydi northern
highlands. The Ottomans continued to
rule Shafi'i areas in the mid-south until
their departure in 1918.

Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen …

Imam Yahya Hamid Ed-Din's house near Sana'a

Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din al-

Mutawakkil was ruling the northern
highlands independently from 1911. After
the Ottoman departure in 1918, he
sought to recapture the lands of his
Qasimid ancestors. He dreamed of
Greater Yemen stretching from Asir to
Dhofar. These schemes brought him into
conflict with the de facto rulers in the
territories claimed, namely the Idrisids,
Ibn Saud, and the British government in
Aden.[191] The Zaydi imam did not
recognize the Anglo-Ottoman border
agreement of 1905 on the grounds that it
was made between two foreign powers
occupying Yemen.[192] The border treaty
effectively divided Yemen into north and
south.[193] In 1915, the British signed a
treaty with the Idrisids guaranteeing their
security and independence if they would
fight against the Turks.[194] In 1919,
Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din moved
southward to "liberate" the nine British
protectorates. The British responded by
moving quickly towards Tihama and
occupying al-Hudaydah. Then they
handed it over to their Idrisi allies.[195]
Imam Yahya attacked the southern
protectorates again in 1922. The British
bombed Yahya's tribal forces using
aircraft to which the tribes had no
effective counter.[196]

In 1925, Imam Yahya captured al-

Hudaydah from the Idrisids.[197] He
continued to follow and attack the
Idrisids until Asir fell under the control of
the imam's forces, forcing the Idrisi to
request an agreement that would enable
them to administer the region in the
name of the imam.[197] Imam Yahya
refused the offer on the grounds that the
Idrisis were of Moroccan descent.
According to Imam Yahya, the Idrisis,
along with the British, were nothing but
recent intruders and should be driven out
of Yemen permanently.[198] In 1927,
Imam Yahya's forces were about 50 km
(30 mi) away from Aden, Taiz, and Ibb,
and were bombed by the British for five
days; the imam had to pull back.[196]
Small Bedouin forces, mainly from the
Madh'hij confederation of Marib,
attacked Shabwah but were bombed by
the British and had to retreat.
The Italian Empire was the first to
recognize Imam Yahya as the King of
Yemen in 1926. This created a great deal
of anxiety for the British, who interpreted
it as recognition of Imam Yahya's claim
to sovereignty over Greater Yemen, which
included the Aden protectorate and
Asir.[199] The Idrisis turned to Ibn Saud
seeking his protection from Yahya
Muhammad Hamid ed-Din. However, in
1932, the Idrisis broke their accord with
Ibn Saud and went back to Imam Yahya
seeking help against Ibn Saud himself,
who had begun liquidating their authority
and expressed his desire to annex those
territories into his own Saudi
domain.[200][201] Imam Yahya demanded
the return of all Idrisi dominion.[200] That
same year, a group of Hejazi liberals fled
to Yemen and plotted to expel Ibn Saud
from the former Hashemite Kingdom of
Hejaz, which had been conquered by the
Saudis seven years earlier. Ibn Saud
appealed to Britain for aid.[202] The
British government sent arms and
aeroplanes .[202] The British were anxious
that Ibn Saud's financial difficulties may
encourage the Italian Empire to bail him
out.[200] Ibn Saud suppressed the Asiri
rebellion in 1933, after which the Idrisids
fled to Sana'a.[202] Negotiations between
the Imam Yahya Hamid ed-Din and Ibn
Saud proved fruitless. After a military
confrontation, Ibn Saud announced a
ceasefire in May 1934.[202] Imam Yahya
agreed to release Saudi hostages and the
surrender of the Idrisis to Saudi custody.
Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of
Najran, Asir, and Jazan for 20 years.[203]
and signed another treaty with the British
government in 1934. The imam
recognized the British sovereignty over
Aden protectorate for 40 years.[204] Out
of fear for Hudaydah, Yahya did submit to
these demands. According to Bernard
Reich, Professor of Political Science and
International Affairs at George
Washington University, Yahya could have
done better by reorganizing the Zaydi
tribes of the northern highlands as his
ancestors did against the Turks and
British intruders and turn the lands they
captured into another graveyard.[205]

Colonial Aden …

British colony of Aden: Queen Elizabeth II stamp,

1953
Queen Elizabeth II holding a sword, prepared to
knight subjects in Aden in 1954

Starting in 1890, hundreds of Yemeni

people from Hajz, Al-Baetha, and Taiz
migrated to Aden to work at ports, and as
laborers. This helped the population of
Aden once again become predominantly
Arab after, having been declared a free
zone, it had become mostly foreigners.
During World War II, Aden had increasing
economic growth and became the
second-busiest port in the world after
New York City.[206] After the rise of labour
unions, a rift was apparent between the
sectors of workers and the first signs of
resistance to the occupation started in
1943.[206] Muhammad Ali Luqman
founded the first Arabic club and school
in Aden, and was the first to start
working towards a union.[207]
The Colony of Aden was divided into an
eastern colony and a western colony.
Those were further divided into 23
sultanates and emirates, and several
independent tribes that had no
relationships with the sultanates. The
deal between the sultanates and Britain
detailed protection and complete control
of foreign relations by the British. The
Sultanate of Lahej was the only one in
which the sultan was referred to as His
Highness.[208] The Federation of South
Arabia was created by the British to
counter Arab nationalism by giving more
freedom to the rulers of the nations.[209]

The North Yemen Civil War inspired many

in the south to rise against the British
rule. The National Liberation Front (NLF)
of Yemen was formed with the
leadership of Qahtan Muhammad Al-
Shaabi. The NLF hoped to destroy all the
sultanates and eventually unite with the
Yemen Arab Republic. Most of the
support for the NLF came from Radfan
and Yafa, so the British launched
Operation Nutcracker, which completely
burned Radfan in January 1964.[210]

Two states …

Egyptian military
intervention in
North Yemen,
1962
 North Yemen (in
orange) and
Marxist South
Yemen (in blue)
before 1990

Arab nationalism made an impact in

some circles who opposed the lack of
modernization efforts in the
Mutawakkilite monarchy. This became
apparent when Imam Ahmad bin Yahya
died in 1962. He was succeeded by his
son, but army officers attempted to seize
power, sparking the North Yemen Civil
War.[211] The Hamidaddin royalists were
supported by Saudi Arabia, Britain, and
Jordan (mostly with weapons and
financial aid, but also with small military
forces), whilst the military rebels were
backed by Egypt. Egypt provided the
rebels with weapons and financial
assistance, but also sent a large military
force to participate in the fighting. Israel
covertly supplied weapons to the
royalists to keep the Egyptian military
busy in Yemen and make Nasser less
likely to initiate a conflict in the Sinai.
After six years of civil war, the military
rebels were victorious (February 1968)
and formed the Yemen Arab
Republic.[212]

The revolution in the north coincided with

the Aden Emergency, which hastened the
end of British rule in the south. On 30
November 1967, the state of South
Yemen was formed, comprising Aden
and the former Protectorate of South
Arabia. This socialist state was later
officially known as the People's
Democratic Republic of Yemen and a
programme of nationalisation was
begun.[213]

British Army's counter-insurgency campaign in the

British-controlled territories of South Arabia, 1967

Relations between the two Yemeni states

fluctuated between peaceful and hostile.
The South was supported by the Eastern
bloc. The North, however, was not able to
get the same connections. In 1972, the
two states fought a war. The war was
resolved with a ceasefire and
negotiations brokered by the Arab
League, where it was declared that
unification would eventually occur. In
1978, Ali Abdullah Saleh was named as
president of the Yemen Arab
Republic.[214] After the war, the North
complained about the South's help from
foreign countries. This included Saudi
Arabia.[215]
In 1979, fresh fighting between the two
states resumed and efforts were
renewed to bring about unification.[214]

Thousands were killed in 1986 in the

South Yemen Civil War. President Ali
Nasser Muhammad fled to the north and
was later sentenced to death for treason.
A new government formed.[214]

Unification and civil war …

In 1990, the two governments reached a
full agreement on the joint governing of
Yemen, and the countries were merged
on 22 May 1990, with Saleh as
President.[214] The President of South
Yemen, Ali Salim al-Beidh, became Vice
President.[214] A unified parliament was
formed and a unity constitution was
agreed upon.[214] In the 1993
parliamentary election, the first held after
unification, the General People's
Congress won 122 of 301 seats.[216]:309
After the invasion of Kuwait crisis in
1990, Yemen's president opposed
military intervention from non-Arab
states.[217] As a member of the United
Nations Security Council for 1990 and
1991, Yemen abstained on a number of
UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and
Kuwait[218] and voted against the "...use
of force resolution." The vote outraged
the U.S.[219] Saudi Arabia expelled
800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to
punish Yemen for its opposition to the
intervention.[220]
In the absence of strong state
institutions, elite politics in Yemen
constituted a de facto form of
collaborative governance, where
competing tribal, regional, religious, and
political interests agreed to hold
themselves in check through tacit
acceptance of the balance it
produced.[221] The informal political
settlement was held together by a power-
sharing deal among three men: President
Saleh, who controlled the state; major
general Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar, who
controlled the largest share of the
Republic of Yemen Armed Forces; and
Abdullah ibn Husayn al-Ahmar,
figurehead of the Islamist al-Islah party
and Saudi Arabia's chosen broker of
transnational patronage payments to
various political players,[222] including
tribal sheikhs.[223][224][225][226] The Saudi
payments have been intended to
facilitate the tribes' autonomy from the
Yemeni government and to give the Saudi
government a mechanism with which to
weigh in on Yemen's political decision-
making.[227]

Following food riots in major towns in

1992, a new coalition government made
up of the ruling parties from both the
former Yemeni states was formed in
1993. However, Vice President al-Beidh
withdrew to Aden in August 1993 and
said he would not return to the
government until his grievances were
addressed. These included northern
violence against his Yemeni Socialist
Party, as well as the economic
marginalization of the south.[228]
Negotiations to end the political
deadlock dragged on into 1994. The
government of Prime Minister Haydar
Abu Bakr Al-Attas became ineffective
due to political infighting[229]

An accord between northern and

southern leaders was signed in Amman,
Jordan on 20 February 1994, but this
could not stop the civil war. During these
tensions, both the northern and southern
armies (which had never integrated)
gathered on their respective frontiers.[230]
The May – July 1994 civil war in Yemen
resulted in the defeat of the southern
armed forces and the flight into exile of
many Yemeni Socialist Party leaders and
other southern secessionists. Saudi
Arabia actively aided the south during the
1994 civil war.[231]

Contemporary Yemen …
 Prayers during
Ramadan in
Sana'a

"Sana'a risks
becoming the
first capital in the
world to run out
of a viable water
supply as
Yemen's streams
and natural
aquifers run dry,"
says The
Guardian.[232]
 Saudi-led air
strike on Sana'a,
12 June 2015:
Saudi Arabia is
operating in
violation of
international law

Ali Abdullah Saleh became Yemen's first

directly elected president in the 1999
presidential election, winning 96.2 per
cent of the vote.[216]:310 The only other
candidate, Najeeb Qahtan Al-Sha'abi, was
the son of Qahtan Muhammad al-Sha'abi,
a former president of South Yemen.
Though a member of Saleh's General
People's Congress (GPC) party, Najeeb
ran as an independent.[233]

In October 2000, 17 U.S. personnel died

after a suicide attack on the U.S. naval
vessel USS Cole in Aden, which was
subsequently blamed on al-Qaeda. After
the September 11 attacks on the United
States, President Saleh assured U.S.
President George W. Bush that Yemen
was a partner in his War on Terror. In
2001, violence surrounded a referendum,
which apparently supported extending
Saleh's rule and powers.

The Shia insurgency in Yemen began in

June 2004 when dissident cleric Hussein
Badreddin al-Houthi, head of the Zaidi
Shia sect, launched an uprising against
the Yemeni government. The Yemeni
government alleged that the Houthis
were seeking to overthrow it and to
implement Shī'ite religious law. The
rebels counter that they are "defending
their community against discrimination"
and government aggression.[234]

In 2005, at least 36 people were killed in

clashes across the country between
police and protesters over rising fuel
prices.

In the 2006 presidential election, held on

20 September, Saleh won with 77.2% of
the vote. His main rival, Faisal bin
Shamlan, received 21.8%.[235][236] Saleh
was sworn in for another term on 27
September.[237]
A suicide bomber killed eight Spanish
tourists and two Yemenis in the province
of Marib in July 2007. A series of bomb
attacks occurred on police, official,
diplomatic, foreign business, and tourism
targets in 2008. Car bombings outside
the U.S. embassy in Sana'a killed 18
people, including six of the assailants in
September 2008. In 2008, an opposition
rally in Sana'a demanding electoral
reform was met with police gunfire.

Al-Qaeda …
In January 2009, the Saudi Arabian and
Yemeni al-Qaeda branches merged to
form Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula,
which is based in Yemen, and many of its
members were Saudi nationals who had
been released from Guantanamo Bay.[238]
Saleh released 176 al-Qaeda suspects on
condition of good behaviour, but terrorist
activities continued.

The Yemeni army launched a fresh

offensive against the Shia insurgents in
2009, assisted by Saudi forces. Tens of
thousands of people were displaced by
the fighting. A new ceasefire was agreed
upon in February 2010. However, by the
end of the year, Yemen claimed that
3,000 soldiers had been killed in renewed
fighting. The Shia rebels accused Saudi
Arabia of providing support to salafi
groups to suppress Zaidism in
Yemen.[239]

On orders from U.S. President Barack

Obama, U.S. warplanes fired cruise
missiles at what officials in Washington
claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in
the provinces of Sana'a and Abyan on 17
December 2009.[240] Instead of hitting Al-
Qaeda operatives, it hit a village, killing
55 civilians.[241] Officials in Yemen said
that the attacks claimed the lives of more
than 60 civilians, 28 of them children.
Another airstrike was carried out on 24
December.[242]

The U.S. launched a series of drone

attacks in Yemen to curb a perceived
growing terror threat due to political
chaos in Yemen.[243] Since December
2009, U.S. strikes in Yemen have been
carried out by the U.S. military with
intelligence support from the CIA.[244]
The drone strikes are protested by
human-rights groups who say they kill
innocent civilians, and that the U.S.
military and CIA drone strikes lack
sufficient congressional oversight,
including the choice of human targets
suspected of being threats to
America.[245] Controversy over U.S. policy
for drone attacks mushroomed after a
September 2011 drone strike in Yemen
killed Anwar al-Awlaki and Samir Khan,
both U.S. citizens.[246] Another drone
strike in October 2011 killed Anwar's
teenaged son, Abdulrahman al-Awlaki.

In 2010, the Obama administration policy

allowed targeting of people whose
names are not known. The U.S.
government increased military aid to
$140 million in 2010.[247] U.S. drone
strikes continued after the ousting of
President Saleh.[248]

As of 2015, Shi'a Houthis are fighting

against the Islamic State,[249] Al
Qaeda,[250] and Saudi Arabia.[251] The U.S.
supports the Saudi-led military
intervention in Yemen against the
Houthis,[252] but many in US SOCOM
reportedly favor Houthis, as they have
been an effective force to roll back al-
Qaeda and recently ISIL in Yemen.[253]
The Guardian reported that "The only
groups poised to benefit from the war
dragging on are the jihadis of Islamic
State (ISIL) and Al-Qaeda in the Arabian
Peninsula (AQAP), the latter's most
powerful franchise, who are likely to gain
influence amid the chaos. ISIL has
claimed recent, bloody suicide bombings
in Houthi mosques and Sana'a when it
once had no known presence in the
country, while AQAP has continued to
seize territory in eastern Yemen
unhindered by American drone
strikes."[254] In February 2016 Al-Qaeda
forces and Saudi-led coalition forces
were both seen fighting Houthi rebels in
the same battle.[255]

In June 2019, the leader of ISIS in Yemen,

Abu Osama al-Muhajir, was captured by
the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in
Yemen supported by the United States
during a raid in the province of al-
Mahra.[256] The operation included
Yemeni security forces and recovered a
number of weapons, ammunition,
computers, money in different currencies
and communications equipment. It did
not injure any civilians.[257]

Revolution and aftermath …

 Tens of
thousands of
protesters
marching to
Sana'a University,
joined for the
first time by
opposition
parties, during
the 2011–2012
Yemeni
revolution

Saudi-led air
strike on Sana'a,
 12 June 2015:
Saudi Arabia is
operating
without a UN
mandate

The 2011 Yemeni revolution followed

other Arab Spring mass protests in early
2011. The uprising was initially against
unemployment, economic conditions,
and corruption, as well as against the
government's proposals to modify the
constitution of Yemen so that Saleh's son
could inherit the presidency.

In March 2011, police snipers opened fire

on a pro-democracy camp in Sana'a,
killing more than 50 people. In May,
dozens were killed in clashes between
troops and tribal fighters in Sana'a. By
this point, Saleh began to lose
international support. In October 2011,
Yemeni human rights activist Tawakul
Karman won the Nobel Peace Prize, and
the UN Security Council condemned the
violence and called for a transfer of
power. On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew
to Riyadh, in neighbouring Saudi Arabia,
to sign the Gulf Co-operation Council
plan for political transition, which he had
previously spurned. Upon signing the
document, he agreed to legally transfer
the office and powers of the presidency
to his deputy, Vice President Abdrabbuh
Mansur Hadi.

Hadi took office for a two-year term upon

winning the uncontested presidential
elections in February 2012.[258] A unity
government – including a prime minister
from the opposition – was formed. Al-
Hadi would oversee the drafting of a new
constitution, followed by parliamentary
and presidential elections in 2014. Saleh
returned in February 2012. In the face of
objections from thousands of street
protesters, parliament granted him full
immunity from prosecution. Saleh's son,
General Ahmed Ali Abdullah Saleh,
continues to exercise a strong hold on
sections of the military and security
forces.
AQAP claimed responsibility for a
February 2012 suicide attack on the
presidential palace that killed 26
Republican Guards on the day that
President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was
also behind a suicide bombing that killed
96 soldiers in Sana'a three months later.
In September 2012, a car bomb attack in
Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after a
local al-Qaeda leader Said al-Shihri was
reported killed in the south.

By 2012, there has been a "small

contingent of U.S. special-operations
troops" – in addition to CIA and
"unofficially acknowledged" U.S. military
presence – in response to increasing
terror attacks by AQAP on Yemeni
citizens.[259] Many analysts have pointed
out the former Yemeni government role
in cultivating terrorist activity in the
country.[260] Following the election of the
new President, Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi,
the Yemeni military was able to push
Ansar al-Sharia back and recapture the
Shabwah Governorate.
The central government in Sana'a
remained weak, staving off challenges
from southern separatists and Shia
rebels as well as AQAP. The Shia
insurgency intensified after Hadi took
power, escalating in September 2014 as
anti-government forces led by Abdul-
Malik al-Houthi swept into the capital and
forced Hadi to agree to a "unity"
government.[261] The Houthis then
refused to participate in the
government,[262] although they continued
to apply pressure on Hadi and his
ministers, even shelling the president's
private residence and placing him under
house arrest,[263] until the government's
mass resignation in January 2015.[264]
The following month, the Houthis
dissolved parliament and declared that a
Revolutionary Committee under
Mohammed Ali al-Houthi was the interim
authority in Yemen. Abdul-Malik al-
Houthi, a cousin of the new acting
president, called the takeover a "glorious
revolution." However, the "constitutional
declaration" of 6 February 2015 was
widely rejected by opposition politicians
and foreign governments, including the
United Nations.[25]

   Controlled by Houthis and Saleh loyalists

   Controlled by Saudi-backed Hadi loyalists
   Controlled by al-Qaeda and Islamic State of Iraq
and the Levant-affiliated Ansar al-Sharia
   Controlled by the UAE-backed Southern
Transitional Council
Hadi managed to flee from Sana'a to
Aden, his hometown and stronghold in
the south, on 21 February 2015. He
promptly gave a televised speech
rescinding his resignation, condemning
the coup, and calling for recognition as
the constitutional president of
Yemen.[265] The following month, Hadi
declared Aden Yemen's "temporary"
capital.[266][267] The Houthis, however,
rebuffed an initiative by the Gulf
Cooperation Council and continued to
move south toward Aden. All U.S.
personnel were evacuated and President
Hadi was forced to flee the country to
Saudi Arabia. On 26 March 2015, Saudi
Arabia announced Operation Decisive
Storm and began airstrikes and
announced its intentions to lead a
military coalition against the Houthis,
whom they claimed were being aided by
Iran, and began a force buildup along the
Yemeni border. The coalition included the
United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar,
Bahrain, Jordan, Morocco, Sudan, Egypt,
and Pakistan. The United States
announced that it was assisting with
intelligence, targeting, and logistics.
Saudi Arabia and Egypt would not rule
out ground operations. After Hadi troops
took control of Aden from Houthis,
jihadist groups are active in the city, and
some of terrorist incidents were linked to
it such as Missionaries of Charity attack
in Aden in 4 March 2016. Since February
2018, Aden has been seized by the UAE-
backed separatist Southern Transitional
Council.[268]
More than 50,000 children in Yemen died
from starvation in 2017.[269][270] The
famine in Yemen is the direct result of
the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in
Yemen and blockade of Yemen.[271][272]
The famine is being compounded by an
outbreak of cholera that has affected
more than one million people.[273]

Geography
 A Haraaz landscape, Yemen

A topographic map of Yemen

Yemen is in Western Asia, in the southern

part of the Arabian Peninsula,[274]
bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden,
and the Red Sea. It lies south of Saudi
Arabia and west of Oman, between
latitudes 12 and 19°N and longitudes 42
and 55°E. Yemen is at 15°N 48°E. Yemen
is 527,970 km2 (203,850 sq mi) in size.

A number of Red Sea islands, including

the Hanish Islands, Kamaran, and Perim,
as well as Socotra in the Arabian Sea,
belong to Yemen; the largest of these is
Socotra. Many of the islands are
volcanic; for example Jabal al-Tair had a
volcanic eruption in 2007, and before that
in 1883. Although mainland Yemen is in
the southern Arabian Peninsula and thus
part of Asia, and its Hanish Islands and
Perim in the Red Sea are associated with
Asia, the archipelago of Socotra, which
lies east of the horn of Somalia and is
much closer to Africa than to Asia.[275]

Regions and climate …

A water reservoir in Haraz, Yemen

Yemen can be divided geographically into
four main regions: the coastal plains in
the west, the western highlands, the
eastern highlands, and the Rub' al Khali in
the east. The Tihāmah ("hot lands" or
"hot earth") form a very arid and flat
coastal plain along Yemen's entire Red
Sea coastline. Despite the aridity, the
presence of many lagoons makes this
region very marshy and a suitable
breeding ground for malaria mosquitos.
Extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes
are present. The evaporation in the
Tihamah is so great that streams from
the highlands never reach the sea, but
they do contribute to extensive
groundwater reserves. Today, these are
heavily exploited for agricultural use.
Near the village of Madar about 50 km
(30 mi) north of Sana'a, dinosaur
footprints were found, indicating that the
area was once a muddy flat. The
Tihamah ends abruptly at the
escarpment of the western highlands.
This area, now heavily terraced to meet
the demand for food, receives the
highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly
increasing from 100 mm (3.9 in) per year
to about 760 mm (29.9 in) in Taiz and
over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in Ibb.
Temperatures are hot in the day, but fall
dramatically at night. Perennial streams
occur in the highlands, but these never
reach the sea because of high
evaporation in the Tihamah.

The central highlands are an extensive

high plateau over 2,000 m (6,562 ft) in
elevation. This area is drier than the
western highlands because of rain-
shadow influences, but still receives
sufficient rain in wet years for extensive
cropping. Water storage allows for
irrigation and the growing of wheat and
barley. Sana'a is in this region. The
highest point in Yemen and Arabia is
Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb, at about 3,666 m
(12,028 ft).[274][276]

Yemen's portion of the Rub al Khali

desert in the east is much lower,
generally below 1,000 m (3,281 ft), and
receives almost no rain. It is populated
only by Bedouin herders of camels. The
growing scarcity of water is a source of
increasing international concern. See
Water supply and sanitation in Yemen.

Biodiversity …

Dracaena
cinnabari at
Socotra Island
 A South
Arabian relief
from the 5th
century BC, in
Walters Art
Museum. On
the left side of
this relief, a lion
attacks a
gazelle, while a
rabbit tries to
jump away
from the
gazelle's
forelegs. On the
right, a leopard
jumps down
from rocks
onto the back
 of an ibex; a
small rodent
flees the hoofs
of the ibex.
Birds in the
branches of
acacia trees
observe the
two scenes.

The flora of Yemen is a mixture of the

tropical African, Sudanian plant
geographical region and the Saharo-
Arabian region. The Sudanian element—
characterized by relatively high rainfall—
dominates the western mountains and
parts of the highland plains. The Saharo-
Arabian element dominates in the
coastal plains, eastern mountain, and the
eastern and northern desert plains. A
high percentage of Yemen plants belong
to tropical African plants of Sudanian
regions. Among the Sudanian element
species, the following may be mentioned:
Ficus spp., Acacia mellifera, Grewia
villosa, Commiphora spp., Rosa
abyssinica, Cadaba farinosa and
others.[277] Among the Saharo-Arabian
species, these may be mentioned:
Panicum turgidum, Aerva javanica,
Zygophyllum simplex, Fagonia indica,
Salsola spp., Acacia tortilis, A. hamulos,
A. ehrenbergiana, Phoenix dactylifera,
Hyphaene thebaica, Capparis decidua,
Salvadora persica, Balanites aegyptiaca,
and many others. Many of the Saharo-
Arabian species are endemic to the
extensive sandy coastal plain (the
Tihamah).[278] The characteristic genera
of the Irano-Turanian in the eastern and
northern east of the country are:
Calligonum spp., Cymbopogon
jwarancusa, and Tamarix spp. and of the
Mediterranean regions are: Teucrium,
Lavandula, Juniperus, Brassica, and
Diplotaxis spp.

Among the fauna, the Arabian leopard,

which would inhabit the mountains, is
considered rare here.[279]

Politics
Yemen is a republic with a bicameral
legislature. Under the 1991 constitution,
an elected President, an elected 301-seat
Assembly of Representatives, and an
appointed 111-member Shura Council
share power. The President is the head of
state, and the Prime Minister is the head
of government. In Sana'a, a Supreme
Political Council (not recognized
internationally) forms the government.

The 1991 constitution provides that the

president be elected by popular vote
from at least two candidates endorsed
by at least 15 members of the
Parliament. The prime minister, in turn, is
appointed by the president and must be
approved by two-thirds of the Parliament.
The presidential term of office is seven
years, and the parliamentary term of
elected office is six years. Suffrage is
universal for people age 18 and older, but
only Muslims may hold elected
office.[280]

President Ali Abdullah Saleh became the

first elected President in reunified Yemen
in 1999 (though he had been President of
unified Yemen since 1990 and president
of North Yemen since 1978). He was re-
elected to office in September 2006.
Saleh's victory was marked by an election
that international observers judged was
"partly free," though the election was
accompanied by violence, violations of
press freedoms, and allegations of
fraud.[281] Parliamentary elections were
held in April 2003, and the General
People's Congress maintained an
absolute majority. Saleh remained almost
uncontested in his seat of power until
2011, when local frustration at his refusal
to hold another round of elections, as
combined with the impact of the 2011
Arab Spring, resulted in mass
protests.[258] In 2012, he was forced to
resign from power, though he remained
an important actor in Yemeni politics,
allying with the Houthis during their
takeover in the mid-2010s.[282]

The constitution calls for an independent

judiciary. The former northern and
southern legal codes have been unified.
The legal system includes separate
commercial courts and a Supreme Court
based in Sana'a. Sharia is the main
source of laws, with many court cases
being debated according to the religious
basis of law and many judges being
religious scholars as well as legal
authorities. The Prison Authority
Organization Act, Republican decree no.
48 (1981), and Prison Act regulations,
provide the legal framework for
management of the country's prison
system.[283]

Foreign relations …
Former Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh at the
Pentagon, 8 June 2004

The geography and ruling imams of

North Yemen kept the country isolated
from foreign influence before 1962. The
country's relations with Saudi Arabia
were defined by the Taif Agreement of
1934, which delineated the northernmost
part of the border between the two
kingdoms and set the framework for
commercial and other intercourse. The
Taif Agreement has been renewed
periodically in 20-year increments, and its
validity was reaffirmed in 1995. Relations
with the British colonial authorities in
Aden and the south were usually tense.

The Soviet and Chinese Aid Missions

established in 1958 and 1959 were the
first important non-Muslim presences in
North Yemen. Following the September
1962 revolution, the Yemen Arab
Republic became closely allied with and
heavily dependent upon Egypt. Saudi
Arabia aided the royalists in their attempt
to defeat the Republicans and did not
recognize the Yemen Arab Republic until
1970. At the same time, Saudi Arabia
maintained direct contact with Yemeni
tribes, which sometimes strained its
official relations with the Yemeni
Government. Saudi Arabia remained
hostile to any form of political and social
reform in Yemen[284] and continued to
provide financial support for tribal
elites.[285]
In February 1989, North Yemen joined
Iraq, Jordan, and Egypt in forming the
Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), an
organization created partly in response
to the founding of the Gulf Cooperation
Council and intended to foster closer
economic cooperation and integration
among its members. After unification,
the Republic of Yemen was accepted as
a member of the ACC in place of its YAR
predecessor. In the wake of the Persian
Gulf crisis, the ACC has remained
inactive. Yemen is not a member of the
Gulf Cooperation Council mainly for its
republican government.[286]

Yemen is a member of the United

Nations, the Arab League, and the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and
also participates in the nonaligned
movement. The Republic of Yemen
accepted responsibility for all treaties
and debts of its predecessors, the Yemen
Arab Republic (YAR) and the People's
Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY).
Yemen has acceded to the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
Ousted Yemeni President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi
with U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, 7 May 2015

Protest against Saudi blockade of Yemen, New York

City, 2017
Since the end of the 1994 civil war,
tangible progress has been made on the
diplomatic front in restoring normal
relations with Yemen's neighbors. In the
summer of 2000, Yemen and Saudi
Arabia signed an International Border
Treaty settling a 50-year-old dispute over
the location of the border between the
two countries. Until the signing of the
Yemen-Saudi Arabia peace treaty in July
2000,[287] Yemen's northern border was
undefined; the Arabian Desert prevented
any human habitation there. Yemen
settled its dispute with Eritrea over the
Hanish Islands in 1998. The Saudi –
Yemen barrier was constructed by Saudi
Arabia against an influx of illegal
immigrants and against the smuggling of
drugs and weapons.[288] The Independent
headed an article with "Saudi Arabia, one
of the most vocal critics in the Arab
world of Israel's "security fence" in the
West Bank, is quietly emulating the Israeli
example by erecting a barrier along its
porous border with Yemen."[289]
Human rights …

The government and its security forces,

often considered to suffer from rampant
corruption,[290] have been responsible for
torture, inhumane treatment, and
extrajudicial executions. There are
arbitrary arrests of citizens, especially in
the south, as well as arbitrary searches
of homes. Prolonged pretrial detention is
a serious problem, and judicial
corruption, inefficiency, and executive
interference undermine due process.
Freedom of speech, the press, and
religion are all restricted.[291] Journalists
critical of the government are often
harassed and threatened by the
police.[218] Homosexuality is illegal,
punishable by death.[292]

Since the start of the Shia insurgency,

many people accused of supporting al-
Houthi have been arrested and held
without charge or trial. According to the
U.S. State Department International
Religious Freedom Report 2007, "Some
Zaydis reported harassment and
discrimination by the government
because they were suspected of
sympathizing with the al-Houthis.
However, it appears the Government's
actions against the group were probably
politically, not religiously, motivated."[293]

The U.S. Committee for Refugees and

Immigrants reported several violations of
refugee and asylum seekers' rights in the
organization's 2008 World Refugee
Survey. Yemeni authorities reportedly
deported numerous foreigners without
giving them access to the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees,
despite the UN's repeated requests.
Refugees further reported violence
directed against them by Yemeni
authorities while living in refugee camps.
Yemeni officials reportedly raped and
beat camp-based refugees with impunity
in 2007.[294]

Yemen is ranked last of 135 countries in

the 2012 Global Gender Gap Report.[295]
Human Rights Watch reported on
discrimination and violence against
women as well as on the abolition of the
minimum marriage age of fifteen for
women. The onset of puberty
(interpreted by some to be as low as the
age of nine) was set as a requirement for
marriage instead.[296] Publicity about the
case of ten-year-old Yemeni divorcee
Nujood Ali brought the child marriage
issue to the fore not only in Yemen but
also worldwide.[297][298][299]

Human trafficking …

The United States Department of State

2013 Trafficking in Persons report
classified Yemen as a Tier 3 country,[300]
meaning that its government does not
fully comply with the minimum standards
against human trafficking and is not
making significant efforts to do so.[301]

Yemen officially abolished slavery in

1962,[302] but it is still being
practiced.[303]

Military …
Soldiers of the Yemeni Army in 2011.

The armed forces of Yemen include the

Yemen Army (includes Republican
Guard), Navy (includes Marines), Yemeni
Air Force (Al Quwwat al Jawwiya al
Yamaniya; includes Air Defense Force). A
major reorganization of the armed forces
continues. The unified air forces and air
defenses are now under one command.
The navy has concentration in Aden.
Total armed forces manning numbers
about 401,000 active personnel,
including moreover especially conscripts.
The Yemen Arab Republic and The
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
joined to form the Republic of Yemen on
22 May 1990. The supreme commander
of the armed forces is the President of
the Republic of Yemen.

The number of military personnel in

Yemen is relatively high; in sum, Yemen
has the second largest military force on
the Arabian Peninsula after Saudi Arabia.
In 2012, total active troops were
estimated as follows: army, 390,000;
navy, 7,000; and air force, 5,000. In
September 2007, the government
announced the reinstatement of
compulsory military service. Yemen's
defense budget, which in 2006
represented approximately 40 percent of
the total government budget, is expected
to remain high for the near term, as the
military draft takes effect and internal
security threats continue to escalate. By
2012, Yemen had 401,000 active
personnel.

Administrative divisions …

Map of the
Federal Regions
of Yemen
 Governorates of
Yemen

As of the end of 2004, Yemen was

divided into twenty governorates
(muhafazat – the latest being Raymah
Governorate, which was created during
2004) plus one municipality called
"Amanat Al-Asemah" (the latter
containing the constitutional capital,
Sana'a).[304] An additional governorate
(Soqatra Governorate) was created in
December 2013 comprising Socotra
Island (bottom-right corner of map),
previously part of Hadramaut
Governorate.[305] The governorates are
subdivided into 333 districts (muderiah),
which are subdivided into 2,210 sub-
districts, and then into 38,284 villages (as
of 2001).

In 2014, a constitutional panel decided to

divide the country into six regions—four
in the north, two in the south, and capital
Sana'a outside of any region—creating a
federalist model of governance.[306] This
federal proposal was a contributing
factor toward the Houthis' subsequent
coup d'état against the
government.[307][308][309]

1. Saada
2. Al Jawf
3. Hadhramaut
4. Al Mahrah
5. Hajjah
6. 'Amran
7. Al Mahwit
8. Amanat Al Asimah
(Sana'a City)
 9. Sana'a
10. Ma'rib
11. Al Hudaydah
12. Raymah
13. Dhamar
14. Ibb
15. Dhale
16. Al Bayda
17. Shabwah
18. Taiz
19. Lahij
20. Abyan
 21. Aden
22. Socotra[305]

Economy

A proportional representation of Yemen's exports

Yemen as of 2013 had a GDP (PPP) of

US$61.63 billion, with an income per
capita of $2,500. Services are the largest
economic sector (61.4% of GDP),
followed by the industrial sector (30.9%),
and agriculture (7.7%). Of these,
petroleum production represents around
25% of GDP and 63% of the government's
revenue.[310]

Agriculture …
A coffee plantation in North Yemen

Principal agricultural commodities

produced in the nation include grain,
vegetables, fruits, pulses, qat, coffee,
cotton, dairy products, fish, livestock
(sheep, goats, cattle, camels), and
poultry.[310]

Most Yemenis are employed in

agriculture. However, the role of
agricultural sector is limited due the
relatively low share of the sector in GDP
and the large share of net food-buying
households in Yemen (97%).[311]
Sorghum is the most common crop.
Cotton and many fruit trees are also
grown, with mangoes being the most
valuable. A big problem in Yemen is the
cultivation of Khat (or qat), a
psychoactive plant that releases a
stimulant when chewed, and accounts
for up to 40 percent of the water drawn
from the Sana'a Basin each year, and that
figure is rising. Some agricultural
practices are drying the Sana'a Basin and
displaced vital crops, which has resulted
in increasing food prices. Rising food
prices, in turn, pushed an additional six
percent of the country into poverty in
2008 alone.[312] Efforts are being made
by the government and Dawoodi Bohra
community at North Yemen to replace
qat with coffee plantations.[313]

Industry …

Yemen's industrial sector is centred on

crude oil production and petroleum
refining, food processing, handicrafts,
small-scale production of cotton textiles
and leather goods, aluminum products,
commercial ship repair, cement, and
natural gas production. In 2013, Yemen
had an industrial production growth rate
of 4.8%.[310] It also has large proven
reserves of natural gas.[314] Yemen's first
liquified natural gas plant began
production in October 2009.

Labour force …
A Souq in Old Sana'a

The labor force was seven million

workers in 2013. Services, industry,
construction and commerce together
constitute less than 25% of the labor
force.

Export and import …

As of 2013, exports from Yemen totaled
$6.694 billion. The main export
commodities are crude oil, coffee, dried
and salted fish, liquefied natural gas.
These products were mainly sent to
China (41%), Thailand (19.2%), India
(11.4%), and South Korea (4.4%). Imports
as of 2013 total $10.97 billion. The main
imported commodities are machinery
and equipment, foodstuffs, livestock, and
chemicals. These products were mainly
imported from the EU (48.8%), UAE
(9.8%), Switzerland (8.8%), China (7.4%),
and India (5.8%).[310]

State budget …

Drilling for oil using a land rig

As of 2013, the Yemeni government's

budget consisted of $7.769 billion in
revenues and $12.31 billion in
expenditures. Taxes and other revenues
constituted roughly 17.7% of the GDP,
with a budget deficit of 10.3%. The public
debt was 47.1% of GDP. Yemen had
reserves of foreign exchange and gold of
around $5.538 billion in 2013. Its inflation
rate over the same period based on
consumer prices was 11.8%. Yemen's
external debt totaled $7.806 billion.[310]

International relations …

Beginning in the mid-1950s, the Soviet

Union and China provided large-scale
assistance. For example, China and the
United States are involved with the
expansion of the Sana'a International
Airport. In the south, pre-independence
economic activity was overwhelmingly
concentrated in the port city of Aden. The
seaborne transit trade, which the port
relied upon, collapsed with the closure of
the Suez Canal and Britain's withdrawal
from Aden in 1967.

Since the conclusion of the war, the

government made an agreement with the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) to
implement a structural adjustment
program. Phase one of the program
included major financial and monetary
reforms, including floating the currency,
reducing the budget deficit, and cutting
subsidies. Phase two addresses
structural issues, such as civil service
reform.

In early 1995, the government of Yemen

launched an economic, financial, and
administrative reform program (EFARP)
with the support of the World Bank and
the IMF, as well as international donors.
These programs had a positive impact on
Yemen's economy and led to the
reduction of the budget deficit to less
than 3% of gross domestic product
during the period 1995–1999 and the
correction of macro-financial
imbalances.[315] The real growth rate in
the non-oil sector rose by 5.6% from
1995 to 1997.[316]

Water supply and sanitation …

A key challenge is severe water scarcity,

especially in the Highlands, prompting
The Times to write "Yemen could become
first nation to run out of water."[317] A
second key challenge is a high level of
poverty, making it difficult to recover the
costs of service provision. Access to
water supply sanitation is as low as in
some sub-Saharan African countries.
Yemen is both the poorest country and
the most water-scarce country in the
Arab world. Third, the capacity of sector
institutions to plan, build, operate and
maintain infrastructure remains limited.
Last but not least the security situation
makes it even more difficult to improve
or even maintain existing levels of
service.

The average Yemeni has access to only

140 cubic meters of water per year (101
gallons per day) for all uses, while the
Middle Eastern average is 1000 m3/yr,
and the internationally defined threshold
for water stress is 1700 cubic meters per
year.[318] Yemen's groundwater is the
main source of water in the country but
the water tables have dropped severely
leaving Yemen without a viable source of
water. For example, in Sana'a, the water
table was 30 metres (98 feet) below
surface in the 1970s but had dropped to
1200 meters below surface by 2012. The
groundwater has not been regulated by
Yemen's governments.[319]

Even before the revolution, Yemen's water

situation had been described as
increasingly dire by experts who worried
that Yemen would be the first country to
run out of water.[320] Agriculture in Yemen
takes up about 90% of water in Yemen
even though it only generates 6% of GDP.
A large portion of Yemenis are
dependent on small-scale subsistence
agriculture. Half of agricultural water in
Yemen is used to grow khat, a drug that
many Yemenis chew.

Due to the 2015 Yemeni Civil War, the

situation is increasingly dire. 80% of
Yemen's population struggles to access
water to drink and bathe. Bombing has
forced many Yemenis to leave their
homes for other areas, and so wells in
those areas are under increasing
pressure.[321]
Demographics

Population
pyramid 2016

Yemen's
population
(1961–2008).
Yemen has a
growth rate of
 3.46% (2008
est.)[322]

Yemen's population is 28 million by 2018

estimates,[1][2] with 46% of the population
being under 15 years old and 2.7% above
65 years. In 1950, it was 4.3
million.[323][324] By 2050, the population is
estimated to increase to about
60 million.[325] Yemen has a high total
fertility rate, at 4.45 children per woman.
It is the 30th highest in the world.[326]
Sana'a's population has increased rapidly,
from roughly 55,000 in 1978[327] to nearly
2 million in the early 21st century.

Ethnic groups …

Yemen's tribal areas and Shia/Sunni regions. Shia

Muslims predominant in the green area of Yemen's
West, with the rest of Yemen being Sunni Muslims
Yemeni ethnic groups are predominantly
Arabs, followed by Afro-Arabs, South
Asians and Europeans.[310] When the
former states of North and South Yemen
were established, most resident minority
groups departed.[328] Yemen is a largely
tribal society.[329] In the northern,
mountainous parts of the country, there
are 400 Zaidi tribes.[330] There are also
hereditary caste groups in urban areas
such as Al-Akhdam.[331] There are also
Yemenis of Persian origin. According to
Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority
of Aden's population in the 10th
century.[332][333]

Yemenite Jews once formed a sizable

minority in Yemen with a distinct culture
from other Jewish communities in the
world.[334] Most emigrated to Israel in the
mid-20th century, following the Jewish
exodus from Arab and Muslim countries
and Operation Magic Carpet.[335] An
estimated 100,000 people of Indian
origin are concentrated in the southern
part of the country, around Aden,
Mukalla, Shihr, Lahaj, Mokha and
Hodeidah.[336]

Most of the prominent Indonesians,

Malaysians, and Singaporeans of Arab
descent are Hadhrami people with
origins in southern Yemen in the
Hadramawt coastal region.[337] Today
there are almost 10,000 Hadramis in
Singapore.[338] The Hadramis migrated to
Southeast Asia, East Africa and the
Indian subcontinent.[339]
The Maqil were a collection of Arab
Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin who
migrated westwards via Egypt. Several
groups of Yemeni Arabs turned south to
Mauritania, and by the end of the 17th
century, they dominated the entire
country. They can also be found
throughout Morocco and in Algeria as
well as in other North African
Countries.[340]

Yemen is the only country in the Arabian

Peninsula that is signatory to two
international accords dating back to
1951 and 1967 governing the protection
of refugees.[341] Yemen hosted a
population of refugees and asylum
seekers numbering approximately
124,600 in 2007. Refugees and asylum
seekers living in Yemen were
predominantly from Somalia (110,600),
Iraq (11,000), Ethiopia (2,000),[294] and
Syria.[342] Additionally, more than 334,000
Yemenis have been internally displaced
by conflict.[341]

The Yemeni diaspora is largely

concentrated in neighbouring Saudi
Arabia, where between 800,000 and 1
million Yemenis reside,[343] and the
United Kingdom, home to between
70,000 and 80,000 Yemenis.[344]

Languages …

Modern Standard Arabic is the official

language of Yemen, while Yemeni Arabic
is used as the vernacular. In al Mahrah
Governorate in the far east and the island
of Socotra, several non-Arabic languages
are spoken.[345][346] Yemeni Sign
Language is used by the deaf
community.

Yemen is part of the homeland of the

South Semitic languages. Mehri is the
largest South Semitic language spoken in
the nation, with more than 70,000
speakers. The ethnic group itself is
called Mahra. Soqotri is another South
Semitic language, with speakers on the
island of Socotra isolated from the
pressures of Arabic on the Yemeni
mainland. According to the 1990 census
in Yemen, the number of speakers there
was 57,000.[347]

Yemen was also home of the Old South

Arabian languages. The Razihi language
appears to be the only remaining Old
South Arabian language.

English is the most important foreign

language, being widely taught and
spoken mostly in the south, a former
British colony.[348] There are a significant
number of Russian speakers, originating
from Yemeni-Russian cross-marriages
occurring mainly in the 1970s and 1980s.
A small Cham-speaking community is
found in the capital city of Sana'a,
originating from refugees expatriated
from Vietnam after the Vietnam War in
the 1970s.

Urban areas …

Religion …
 Religion in Yemen[350]
Sunni Islam   55%
Zaidiyyah (Shia Islam)   45%
Ismāʿīlism (Shia Islam) 1.51%
Salafism 0.03%
Other religion 0.01%

Saleh Mosque in Sana'a

Religion in Yemen consists primarily of
two principal Islamic religious groups:
About 55% of the Muslim population is
Sunni and 45% is Shia, according to the
International Religious Freedom
Report.[351] Sunnis are primarily Shafi'i
but also include significant groups of
Malikis and Hanbalis. Shias are primarily
Zaydi and also have significant minorities
of Ismaili[352] and Twelver[352][353] Shias.

The Sunnis are predominantly in the

south and southeast. The Zaidis are
predominantly in the north and northwest
whilst the Ismailis are in the main centres
such as Sana'a and Ma'rib. There are
mixed communities in the larger cities.
About .05 percent of Yemenis are non-
Muslim – adhering to Christianity,
Judaism, or Hinduism or having no
religious affiliation.[354][355]

Estimates of the number of Christians in

Yemen range from 25,000[356] to
41,000.[357] A 2015 study estimates 400
Christians from a Muslim background in
the country.[358]
There are approximately 50 Jews left in
Yemen. Some 200 Yemenite Jews were
brought to Israel by the Jewish Agency
circa 2016.[359]

Culture

The National Museum in Sana'a

Typical Yemeni House

Dance in Sa'dah, northwestern Yemen

Yemen is a culturally rich country with

influence from many civilizations, such
as the early civilization of Saba'.[13][14][15]
Media …

Radio broadcasting in Yemen began in

the 1940s when it was still divided into
the South by the British and the North by
the Imami ruling system.[360] After the
unification of Yemen in 1990, the Yemeni
government reformed its corporations
and founded some additional radio
stations that broadcast locally. However,
it drew back after 1994, due to destroyed
infrastructure resulting from the civil war.
Television is the most significant media
platform in Yemen. Given the low literacy
rate in the country, television is the main
source of news for Yemenis. There are
six free-to-air channels currently
headquartered in Yemen, of which four
are state-owned.[361]

The Yemeni film industry is in its early

stages; only two Yemeni films have been
released as of 2008.

Theatre …
The history of Yemeni theatre dates back
at least a century, to the early 1900s.
Both amateur and professional
(government-sponsored) theatre troupes
perform in the country's major urban
centres. Many of Yemen's significant
poets and authors, like Ali Ahmed Ba
Kathir, Muhammad al-Sharafi, and Wajdi
al-Ahdal, have written dramatic works;
poems, novels, and short stories by
Yemeni authors like Mohammad Abdul-
Wali and Abdulaziz Al-Maqaleh have also
been adapted for the stage. There have
been Yemeni productions of plays by
Arab authors such as Tawfiq al-Hakim
and Saadallah Wannous and by Western
authors, including Shakespeare,
Pirandello, Brecht, and Tennessee
Williams. Historically speaking, the
southern port city of Aden is the cradle of
Yemeni theatre; in recent decades the
capital, Sana'a, has hosted numerous
theatre festivals, often in conjunction
with World Theatre Day.

Sport …
 This article needs additional citations for
verification. Learn more

Football is the most popular sport in

Yemen. The Yemen Football Association
is a member of FIFA and AFC. The
Yemeni national football team
participates internationally. The country
also hosts many football clubs. They
compete in the national and international
leagues.

Yemen's mountains provide many

opportunities for outdoor sports, such as
biking, rock climbing, trekking, hiking, and
other more challenging sports, including
mountain climbing. Mountain climbing
and hiking tours to the Sarawat
Mountains, including peaks of 3,000 m
(9,800 ft) and above, particularly that of
An-Nabi Shu'ayb,[274][276] are seasonally
organized by local and international
alpine agencies.

The coastal areas of Yemen and Socotra

island also provide many opportunities
for water sports, such as surfing,
bodyboarding, sailing, swimming, and
scuba diving. Socotra island is home to
some of the best surfing destinations in
the world.

Camel jumping is a traditional sport that

is becoming increasingly popular among
the Zaraniq tribe on the west coast of
Yemen in a desert plain by the Red Sea.
Camels are placed side to side and
victory goes to the competitor who leaps,
from a running start, over the most
camels. The jumpers train year round for
competitions. Tribesmen (women may
not compete) tuck their robes around
their waists for freedom of movement
while running and leaping.[362]

Yemen's biggest sports event was

hosting the 20th Arabian Gulf Cup in
Aden and Abyan in the southern part of
the country on 22 November 2010. Many
thought Yemen was the strongest
competitor, but it was defeated in the
first three matches of the
tournament.[363]

Internationally, Naseem Hamed, a world

champion boxer, is the most well known
Yemeni athlete.

World Heritage sites …

High-rise architecture at Shibam, Wadi Hadramawt

Among Yemen's natural and cultural

attractions are four World Heritage
sites.[364][365] The Old Walled City of
Shibam in Wadi Hadhramaut, inscribed
by UNESCO in 1982, two years after
Yemen joined the World Heritage
Committee, is nicknamed "Manhattan of
the Desert" because of its skyscrapers.
Surrounded by a fortified wall made of
mud and straw, the 16th-century city is
one of the oldest examples of urban
planning based on the principle of
vertical construction.

The Old City of Sana'a, at an altitude of

more than 2,100 metres (7,000 ft), has
been inhabited for over two and a half
millennia, and was inscribed in 1986.
Sana'a became a major Islamic centre in
the 7th century, and the 103 mosques, 14
hammams (traditional bathhouses), and
more than 6,000 houses that survive all
date from before the 11th century.

Close to the Red Sea Coast, the historic

town of Zabid, inscribed in 1993, was
Yemen's capital from the 13th to the 15th
century, and is an archaeological and
historical site. It played an important role
for many centuries because of its
university, which was a centre of learning
for the whole Arab and Islamic world.
Algebra is said to have been invented
there in the early 9th century by the little-
known scholar Al-Jazari.

The latest addition to Yemen's list of

World Heritage Sites is the Socotra
Archipelago. Mentioned by Marco Polo in
the 13th century, this remote and isolated
archipelago consists of four islands and
two rocky islets delineating the southern
limit of the Gulf of Aden. The site has a
rich biodiversity. Nowhere else in the
world do 37% of Socotra's 825 plants,
90% of its reptiles and 95% of its snails
occur. It is home to 192 bird species, 253
species of coral, 730 species of coastal
fish, and 300 species of crab and lobster,
as well as a range of Aloes and the
Dragon's Blood Tree (Dracaena
cinnabari). The cultural heritage of
Socotra includes the unique Soqotri
language.

Education
New Sana'a University in Sana'a

The adult literacy rate in 2010 was

64%.[366] The government has committed
to reduce illiteracy to less than 10% by
2025.[367] Although Yemen's government
provides for universal, compulsory, free
education for children ages six through
15, the U.S. Department of State reports
that compulsory attendance is not
enforced. The government developed the
National Basic Education Development
Strategy in 2003 that aimed at providing
education to 95% of Yemeni children
between the ages of six and 14 years and
also at decreasing the gap between
males and females in urban and rural
areas.[368]

Literacy Rate of Yemen population plus15 1995–

2015 by UNESCO Institute of Statistics

A seven-year project to improve gender

equity and the quality and efficiency of
secondary education, focusing on girls in
rural areas, was approved by the World
Bank in March 2008. Following this,
Yemen has increased its education
spending from 5% of GDP in 1995 to 10%
in 2005.[218]

According to the Webometrics Ranking

of World Universities, the top-ranking
universities in the country are the Yemeni
University of Science & Technology
(6532nd worldwide), Al Ahgaff University
(8930th) and Sanaa University
(11043rd).[369]

Health

A Yemeni doctor examines an infant in a USAID-

sponsored health care clinic
According to 2009 estimates, life
expectancy in Yemen is 63.27 years.[310]
Despite the significant progress Yemen
has made to expand and improve its
health care system over the past decade,
the system remains severely
underdeveloped. Total expenditures on
health care in 2004 constituted 5% of
gross domestic product. In that same
year, the per capita expenditure for health
care was very low compared with other
Middle Eastern countries – US$34 per
capita according to the World Health
Organization.

The number of doctors in Yemen rose by

an average of more than 7% between
1995 and 2000. as of 2005 there were
three doctors per 10,000 people. In 2005
Yemen had 6.1 hospital beds available
per 10,000 persons. Health care services
are particularly scarce in rural areas. 25%
of rural areas are covered by health
services, compared with 80% of urban
areas. Most childhood deaths are caused
by illnesses for which vaccines exist or
that are otherwise preventable.[370]

Circa 2009 Sana'a may be the first capital

city in the world to run out of drinking
water.[371]

Prior to the crisis …

Prior to the current conflict, Yemen's

health care system was weak due to its
lack of spending in public healthcare.
During the mid-2000s Yemen decided to
take a market-based approach to their
healthcare system due to increased
liberalization within the country.[372]
However, this market based approach
directly affected the poor and those living
in rural areas, because of a decrease in
Yemen's budget in public healthcare and
use of user fees.[372] Access to
healthcare services is highly determined
by geographic location. Although
Yemen's constitution promises
healthcare for all, only 25% of those living
in rural areas have access to healthcare
services compared to the 80% that have
access to healthcare services in urban
areas.[372] In addition, most hospitals are
in urban areas which makes accessibility
difficult for those living in rural areas.
Yemen's public healthcare system is
compiled of four levels: (1) 2929 primary
health care units (2) 184 district
hospitals (3) 53 general hospitals (4) two
specialist referral hospitals. However,
many of these facilities lack resources
and employees due to the small budget
spent on public healthcare in Yemen.[372]
However, in 2002 Yemen created the
District Healthcare System (DHS) in order
to deliver primary health care through
community-based services, which in the
end failed due to poor management. On
the other hand, Yemen's private sector
has succeeded, there were 167 private
hospitals in 2002 and by 2012 there were
746 private hospitals.[372] Yemen's
healthcare system prior to the current
conflict was weak, however, still better
than currently.

During the crisis …

Currently, only 45% of healthcare
facilities in Yemen are functioning and
accessible to the public, while, 247 of
healthcare facilities have been destroyed
and damaged by the ongoing
conflict.[373] In addition, healthcare
facilities that are still functioning lack the
resources and employees to provide the
appropriate healthcare service because
humanitarian aide is restricted by the
constant fighting, airstrikes,
bombardments, and lack of ceasefire. It
is dangerous for humanitarian workers to
set foot on the ground because they
could be easily killed due to the constant
fighting by both parties.[374] Many
hospitals and clinics have had shortages
in vaccines, medical equipment, and
basic drugs due to the ongoing
conflict.[375] Therefore, while healthcare
facilities are working they lack the
equipment and employees to provide all
of those in need with help. In 2017, the
UN reported that healthcare facilities had
not been given sufficient funds and that
healthcare workers were working without
salaries since September 2016.[373] As a
result, healthcare workers are quitting
and facilities are losing staff in a time of
need. At the same time, many patients
are not able to afford the hospital service
fees, even though they are cheap. Due to
the high demand of healthcare services,
local volunteers and medical students
have been trained to respond to basic
needs during emergencies.[376] It is
estimated that 14.8 million people in
Yemen currently lack healthcare and that
22 million people are in need of
humanitarian assistance.[373]

During the conflict …

Since the beginning of the conflict, the

people of Yemen have become more
susceptible to diseases and long-lasting
health problems. More and more people
are dying from treatable diseases
because of the weakened healthcare
system. According to the UN, since the
escalation of the conflict in March 2015,
more than 7,600 people have died and
about 42,000 people have been
injured.[373]

Malnutrition …

Children are highly suffering from acute

malnutrition. According to the World
Health Organization, more than 1.8
million children under the age of five are
suffering from acute malnutrition and
500,000 children under five years old are
suffering from severe acute
malnutrition.[377] A study shows that
global acute malnutrition (GAM) 12.5%
from 2013 to 2016 in children under five
years old.[378] In addition, the study
shows that the national average of
women between the ages of 15 and 49
suffering from severe malnutrition was
11.4%. However, from 2013 to 2016 it
decreased by 1.6%.[378] According to the
UN, in total 4.5 million people in Yemen
are suffering from malnutrition.

Mortality rates …

According to a study, in the Journal

Globalization and Health, child mortality
rates for those under five years old have
increased nationally. In 2013 there were
53 deaths per 1,000 live births and in
2016 it was 56.8 deaths per 1,000 live
births.[378] In 2016, national average
maternal mortality was 213.4 deaths per
100,000 live births, which was a 1.3%
increase from 2013.[378]

Cholera …

Currently, according to WHO, Yemen is

suffering the worst cholera outbreak in
history with an estimated more than
10,000 cases a week in 2018.[379] Cholera
is caused by lack of clean water,
according to WHO 19.3 million Yemenis
lack access to clean water and
sanitation.[377]  

Infant mortality rate …

This section may lend undue weight to certain

ideas, incidents, or controversies. Please
Learnhelp
more

This section needs additional citations for

verification. Learn more
In 1950, the child mortality rate in Yemen
rose to 250 children per 1000 births.
Yemen then made significant progress,
with the rate falling to 44.5 children per
1000 births in 2015. Subsequently, the
ongoing cholera outbreak caused the
death toll of children to rise. As of 2018,
more than 20 million Yemeni people are
in need of humanitarian assistance,
including 9 million children.

Malnutrition is one of the leading causes

of child mortality. By 2018, about two
million Yemeni children suffered from
acute malnutrition, as a result of the civil
war consuming their nation's economy.
Geographically, Yemen also has the
world's most depleted water sources.
According to UNICEF, nearly 462,000
children are suffering from Severe Acute
Malnutrition. By November 2018, an
estimated 85,000 children under the age
of five had died due to acute malnutrition
over the three years of the war.[380] This
number does not include children
missing, displaced, or currently medically
unstable.
Abuse and the exploitation of children in
Yemen has become common practice
with the continuation of the civil war
between the Houthi rebels and Yemeni
government forces. A reported 6,500
children have been killed or injured from
violence as the country's infrastructure
collapses. It is reported that upwards of
800 children being recruited to
participate in the civil war.

Disease …
Cholera has broken out within Yemen
because of its poor infrastructure that
deteriorated due wide spread war in the
country. Yemen faces issues in control
and provisions of fresh, clean water as
Yemen does not have the capacity to
create the infrastructure needed to
provide it; thus, people are forced to
obtain unsanitary water from rivers,
lakes, and wells. Cholera is prominently
found in contaminated drinking water,
making the Yemeni people, especially
children, the most prone to such a
disease. There have been more than
815,000 suspected cases of Cholera in
Yemen over the past three years, 60%
percent of them being children.[381]
Cholera can be found throughout a
majority of Yemen, mostly concentrated
in the cities closest to water. Cholera
currently kills an estimated 95,000
people per year and infects upwards of
2.9 million people.[382]

Diphtheria has spread throughout

Yemen. Upwards of 1,300 people have
been infected as of March 2018, 80% of
cases being children. As of February 21,
2018, there have been 66 reported
deaths from Diphtheria.

Foreign assistance …

UNICEF has made a huge effort in

fighting the war against the Cholera
Epidemic with major efforts of providing
vaccines help immunize the Yemeni
people. There have been 900,000 of
suspected Cholera cases and can be
treated. They've launched various
campaigns to help combat sicknesses
such as whooping cough, pneumonia,
tetanus, tuberculosis, diphtheria, and
meningitis, and they continue to send
vaccines to the Yemeni
people.[383][384][385] As of December 4,
2018, the United States has funded
approximately US$696 million in
Humanitarian funding for Yemen.
Humanitarian organizations have created
huge impacts in Yemen by providing
health, nutrition, and food provisions for
the impacted. The KSA and United Arab
Emirates (UAE) have also supported food
and nutritional support by pledging
US$500 million to help provide for 12
million Yemeni people.

The World Health Organization has

provided substantial aid to Yemen and
continues its efforts in creating a
sustainable health system. In 2016, the
World Health Organization created
functional health facilities including 414
operating sites within 145 districts
including of over 400 mobile health and
nutrition teams in another 266 districts
throughout Yemen. They've also provided
extensive child health nutrition
interventions in over 300 districts and
have established 26 Cholera Treatment
centers. They are the leading effort in
polio immunization treating over 4.5
million children under the age of 5.
They've supplied 565 tons of essential
vaccines and medical supplies expected
to help upwards of 3 million people in
conflict impacted areas.

The World Health Organization has

provided huge efforts by creating its
humanitarian response plan in 2017.
Their plan consisted of a US$219.2
million WHO budget and a US$430.4
million Health Sector budget that
targeted support for 2.6 million women
and 5.8 million children in Yemen.[386]
They created four specific objectives in
providing aid: Provide health services,
response and supervision, and medical
supplies to districts; Strengthen health
sector efficiency and health information
systems; Increase reproductive,
maternal, newborn, and adolescent
health interventions, including violence
against women; Bolster community-
based health initiatives and create self-
sustaining infrastructure for the health
system. They have allocated budgets
primarily towards Severe Acute
Malnutrition (SAM) and Cholera projects.

See also
List of Yemen-related topics
Outline of Yemen

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External links

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(in Arabic)
Yemen Government official portal (At
the Wayback Machine, March 2009) (in
Arabic)
"Yemen" . The World Factbook. Central
Intelligence Agency.
Yemen web resources provided by
GovPubs at the University of Colorado
Boulder Libraries
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Yemen profile from the BBC News
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Retrieved from
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