Descriptive Statistics: Amit K Biswas

Descriptive Statistics
Amit K Biswas
Indian Statistical Institute
@ GLIM June-July 2021
For PGPM
July 7, 2021
Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 1 / 59

Introduction
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom
Other dispersion measures
2 Population & Sample

Histogram
Moments, Skewness Kurtosis
Further on data collection, compilation
Measurements from data
Scales

Introduction Data
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

Introduction Data
TYPES OF DATA
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Introduction Data
TYPES OF DATA
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE
Measurable Subjective assessment

Introduction Data
TYPES OF DATA
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

e.g. SPO2 , Temperature e.g. Score in a beauty contest
Countable
e.g. Heart Rate, Number of defects
Data if properly collected

Introduction Data
TYPES OF DATA
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Countable
Least influenced by individual biases

Introduction Data
TYPES OF DATA
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Countable
Could be subject to critical analysis

Introduction Data
TYPES OF DATA
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Countable
Could be subject to critical analysis
Generally beyond language barriers and therefore universal in

expression.

Introduction Data
DATA GATHERING
What is Data ?

Introduction Data
DATA GATHERING
What is Data ?
Data is a numerical expression of an activity.

Introduction Data
DATA GATHERING
What is Data ?
Conclusions based on facts and data are necessary for any

improvement activity.

Introduction Data
DATA GATHERING
What is Data ?

—K.Ishikawa

Introduction Data
DATA GATHERING
What is Data ?

—K.Ishikawa
If you are not able to express a phenomenon in numbers, you do not

know about it adequately.

Introduction Data
DATA GATHERING
What is Data ?

—K.Ishikawa
If you are not able to express a phenomenon in numbers, you do not

know about it adequately.
—Lord Kelvin

Introduction Data
Difference between...
A shaft Diameter Number of shafts rejected for

oversize diameter

Introduction Data

oversize diameter
The diameter of a shaft can take The number of shafts rejected

any value ever after the decimal has necessarily to be a whole
point e.g.19.055, 19.0554 etc. number. e.g. 0, 2, 7, 10 etc.

Introduction Data

oversize diameter
The diameter of a shaft can take The number of shafts rejected

any value ever after the decimal has necessarily to be a whole
point e.g.19.055, 19.0554 etc. number. e.g. 0, 2, 7, 10 etc.
Data related to this type of Data related to this type of

parameters are called Continuous parameters are called Discrete
data data

Introduction Data
Continuous & Discrete : Distinction
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE
• They are real numbers • They are whole numbers

Introduction Data
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

• Normally they are measured • Normally they are counted
values values

Introduction Data
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

values values
• They can not take a single • They can take only ’zero’ or
value. There is an interval positive integral values
associated with it

Introduction Data
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

values values
associated with it
• They are continuous • They are in steps of 1

Introduction Data
CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

values values
associated with it
• They are continuous • They are in steps of 1
• Requires small sample size • Requires larger sample size
for same precision

Introduction Data

Weight of a PPE suit

Introduction Data

No. of new COVID patients admitted

Introduction Data

Capacity of an O2 tank

Introduction Data

Tubes rejected by Go—Nogo guage

Introduction Data

Diameter of a hypodermic needle

Introduction Data

Time taken to complete billing after doctor has discharged

Introduction Data

Number of ventilators under breakdown

Introduction Data

Out of 100 patients number discharged

Introduction Data

No. of bugs in a program

Introduction Data

No. of bugs in a program
Taste of a brand of beer

Introduction Data
Explosion of data in social media
How about an audio posted in a WhatsApp message?

Introduction Data
A photograph or a painting in the timeline of your friend in

Facebook?

Introduction Data

Facebook?
Of course they are data, analysis of which need sufficiently advanced

tools.

Introduction Data

Facebook?

tools.
How else do you think a fascist regime, books an opposition leader

for sedition, based on their social media activity?

Introduction Data

Facebook?

tools.

You need text analytics, pattern recognition, Artificial Intelligence

and Machine learning kind of tools to do them on a continuos and
automated manner.

Introduction Data

Facebook?

tools.

You need text analytics, pattern recognition, Artificial Intelligence

and Machine learning kind of tools to do them on a continuos and
automated manner.

Introduction Data
We do leave a toxic or narcissistic girl friend, don’t we?

Introduction Data
Our brain analyses data of behavioural pattern and decides on the

toxicity of a person.

Introduction Data

It takes a lot of research and learning before we mechanically mimic

a human brain.

Introduction Data


a human brain.
That is why Data Mining, AI and MI are developing in such a fast

pace today.

Introduction Data


a human brain.

pace today.
These are the fastest growing research area in Wold Universities.

Introduction Data


a human brain.

pace today.
You must be aware of the Target story of pregnancy material ads

reaching an unmarried girl.

Introduction Data


a human brain.

pace today.
You must be aware of the Target story of pregnancy material ads

reaching an unmarried girl.

Introduction Collection of Data
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

Data Collection
OBJECTIVES OF DATA COLLECTION

Data Collection
To know and quantify the status

Data Collection
To monitor the process

Data Collection
To decide acceptance or rejection

Data Collection
To analyse and decide the course of action

Data Collection
HOW TO COLLECT DATA ?

Data Collection
Define the purpose

Data Collection
Define the purpose
Decide the type of analysis

Data Collection
Define the purpose
Define the period of data collection

Data Collection
Define the purpose
Define the period of data collection
Is the the required data already available ?

Introduction Compilation of Data
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

A data set
2.87, 2.85, 2.88, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.87, 2.81,
2.85, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.86, 2.89, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.83, 2.82, 2.86, 2.83, 2.85, 2.86,
2.85, 2.84, 2.84, 2.87, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.90, 2.88

Questions about the data set
What is the maximum or minimum value? Or the spread of the values?

The most frequent value?

What value is the data centred around?

What value is the data centred around?
To answer questions like these of any data set, we need to compile the data.

Introduction Centre & Spread
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

Measures of Central Tendency & Dispersion
This suspended pipe is Horizontal The same pipe has now tilted

WHY?

WHY?
The rope is tied at the center The rope is tied away from
of gravity. the center of gravity.

WHY?
Center of gravity is the point where the entire mass of the body is
supposed to be concentrated.

WHY?
Center of gravity is the point where the entire mass of the body is
supposed to be concentrated.
Thus center of gravity is a measure of CENTRAL TENDENCY of a

body.
Measure of Central Tendency

There are three ways in which central tendency of numbers can be
measured.


measured.
These three M’s are


measured.

Mean : X̄


measured.

Mean : X̄
Median: Md


measured.

Mean : X̄
Median: Md
Mode: Mo


measured.

Mean : X̄
Median: Md
Mode: Mo
Mean or Average is normally signified by


measured.

Mean : X̄
Median: Md
Mode: Mo
Mean = Summation of all the values

Number of values
Pn
xi
Mathematically it can be expressed as :x̄ = i=1
n


measured.

Mean : X̄
Median: Md
Mode: Mo

Number of values
Pn
xi
n
Let us now find the mean of the values of our earlier data.


measured.

Mean : X̄
Median: Md
Mode: Mo

Number of values
Pn
xi
n
Let us now find the mean of the values of our earlier data.
2.87+2.85+···+2.88
x̄ = 50 = 2.849
A data set
2.87, 2.85, 2.88, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.87, 2.81,
2.85, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.86, 2.89, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.83, 2.82, 2.86, 2.83, 2.85, 2.86,
2.85, 2.84, 2.84, 2.87, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.90, 2.88

A data set
2.87, 2.85, 2.88, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.87, 2.81,
2.85, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.86, 2.89, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.83, 2.82, 2.86, 2.83, 2.85, 2.86,
2.85, 2.84, 2.84, 2.87, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.90, 2.88
Few numbers do occur repeatedly.

Mean for classified data & Median
sum of product of mid point of class and its frequency

Mean =
Sum of frequencies of all classes


Mean =
Pk
i=1 fi ×xi
Pk
Mathematically, x̄ = = P fi
k i=1 xi . k fi
P
i=1 fi i=1


Mean =
Pk
i=1 fi ×xi
Pk
k i=1 xi . k fi
P
i=1 fi i=1
Let us find Mean for the values now with this new method. We will
need frequency table.


Mean =
Pk
i=1 fi ×xi
Pk
k i=1 xi . k fi
P
i=1 fi i=1
2.81×5+2.83×12+2.85×26+2.87×5+2.89×2
Mean, x̄ = 5+12+26+5+2 = 2.8448


Mean =
Pk
i=1 fi ×xi
Pk
k i=1 xi . k fi
P
i=1 fi i=1
2.81×5+2.83×12+2.85×26+2.87×5+2.89×2
Mean, x̄ = 5+12+26+5+2 = 2.8448
Median is the value which has equal number of values above it and
below it, when arranged in ascending order.


Mean =
Pk
i=1 fi ×xi
Pk
k i=1 xi . k fi
P
i=1 fi i=1
2.81×5+2.83×12+2.85×26+2.87×5+2.89×2
Mean, x̄ = 5+12+26+5+2 = 2.8448
Mathematically :


Mean =
Pk
i=1 fi ×xi
Pk
k i=1 xi . k fi
P
i=1 fi i=1
2.81×5+2.83×12+2.85×26+2.87×5+2.89×2
Mean, x̄ = 5+12+26+5+2 = 2.8448
Mathematically :
2 value+( 2 +1) value

" n th n th
; when n is even
Median = 2
n+1 th
2 value ; when n is odd

Mode
This is the value which occurs with the highest frequency.

Mode
In our case it is 2.85 which occurred 19 times.

Mode
We have thus calculated, The Mean, Median and Mode for a given
data set.

Mode
data set.
The Mean, Median and Mode are equal for a symmetric unimodal
distribution.

Mode
data set.
The Mean, Median and Mode are equal for a symmetric unimodal
distribution.
They are not equal if distribution is not symmetric.

Measures of Dispersion
The extent of the spread of the values from the mean value is called
Dispersion.

Dispersion.
The measures of Dispersions are:

Dispersion.
1 Range (R)

Dispersion.
1 Range (R)
2 Standard Deviation (s)

Dispersion.
1 Range (R)
3 Variance (s 2 )

Dispersion.
1 Range (R)
3 Variance (s 2 )
4 Co-efficient of Variation (CV )

Dispersion.
1 Range (R)
3 Variance (s 2 )
4 Co-efficient of Variation (CV )
Standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of

dispersion.

Of Population:

Of Population:
If x1 , x2 , . . . , xN are population values and µ is their population mean,

Of Population:

s
r PN 2
(x1 − µ)2 + (x2 − µ)2 + . . . + (xN − µ)2 i=1 (xi − µ)
σ= =
N N
Of Sample:

Of Population:

s
r PN 2
(x1 − µ)2 + (x2 − µ)2 + . . . + (xN − µ)2 i=1 (xi − µ)
σ= =
N N
Of Sample:
If x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are sample values and X̄ is their sample mean,

Of Population:

s
r PN 2
(x1 − µ)2 + (x2 − µ)2 + . . . + (xN − µ)2 i=1 (xi − µ)
σ= =
N N
Of Sample:
If x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are sample values and X̄ is their sample mean,

s s
Pn 2
(x1 − X̄ )2 + (x2 − X̄ )2 + . . . + (xn − X̄ )2 i=1 (xi − X̄ )
s= =
n−1 n−1
The ”n − 1” in the denominator above is called the degree of freedom

Degrees of Freedom
This is a deep and wide concept, not easy to get in a single go.

Degrees of Freedom
Here is an analogy!

Degrees of Freedom
Here is an analogy! an analogy only not the whole concept.

Degrees of Freedom
This is a piece of chocolate I want to divide in three pieces.

Degrees of Freedom
For my friend!

Degrees of Freedom
For my friend!
A big piece for myself!

Degrees of Freedom
For my friend!
Do I have a choice for the last?

Degrees of Freedom
For my friend!

Degrees of Freedom
For my friend!
The degree of freedom to make three pieces out of the chocolate is

only 2.
back to Variation
Alternatively:

back to Variation
Alternatively:
s s
Pn 2
(x12 + x22 + . . . + xn2 ) − n × X̄ 2 i=1 xi− nX̄ 2
s= =
n−1 n−1
r
(2.872 + 2.852 + . . . + 2.882 ) − 50 × 2.8492
s= = 0.0181
50 − 1
This is also known as :
Root Mean Square (R.M.S) Deviation from mean.

Other measures
Range, R = Largest Observation -Smallest Observation

Other measures
= Xmax − Xmin

Other measures
= Xmax − Xmin
Variance (s 2 ) is the square of standard deviation.

Other measures
= Xmax − Xmin

SD s
Coefficient of Variation, CV = Mean = X̄

Other measures
= Xmax − Xmin

SD s
Mean Deviation :
Pn
|xi −A|
i=1
n is the mean deviation from some value A.

Other measures
= Xmax − Xmin

SD s
Mean Deviation :
Pn
|xi −A|
i=1
Pn
|xi −x̄|
i=1
n is the mean deviation from Mean x̄.

Other measures
= Xmax − Xmin

SD s
Mean Deviation :
Pn
|xi −A|
i=1
Pn
|xi −x̄|
i=1
Pn
|xi −Md|
i=1
n is the mean deviation from Median Md.

Other measures
= Xmax − Xmin

SD s
Mean Deviation :
Pn
|xi −A|
i=1
Pn
|xi −x̄|
i=1
Pn
|xi −Md|
i=1
n is the mean deviation from Median Md.
Mean deviation from the median happens to be the lowest among

all Mean Deviations.

Percentiles
Percentile (or a centile) is a score below which a given percentage of
scores in its frequency distribution falls. For example, the 50th
percentile (the median) is the score below which 50% of the scores
in the distribution may be found.

Percentiles
25th percentile is called the first quartile Q1 . 75th percentile is called

the third quartile Q3 .

Percentiles

Q3 − Q1 is called the quartile range, which is also considered a

measure of dispersion.

Percentiles

Q3 − Q1 is called the quartile range, which is also considered a

measure of dispersion.
Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data PAUSE for break!

July 7, 2021 27 / 59
Variation

Variation
This man wants to reach his work place by 6.55 a.m.. But he can
not do so, exactly at 6.55 a.m. daily. Sometimes he reaches earlier
(but almost never before 6.50 a.m.). Sometimes he reaches later
(but almost never after 7.00 a.m.)

Variation
This man wants to reach his work place by 6.55 a.m.. But he can
not do so, exactly at 6.55 a.m. daily. Sometimes he reaches earlier
(but almost never before 6.50 a.m.). Sometimes he reaches later
(but almost never after 7.00 a.m.)
WHY ?

Population & Sample
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

Population & Sample
Population & Sample
The entire set of items is called the Population.

Population & Sample
Population & Sample
The small number of items taken from the population to make a

judgment of the population is called a Sample.

Population & Sample
Population & Sample

The numbers of samples taken to make this judgment is called

Sample size.

Population & Sample
Population & Sample

The numbers of samples taken to make this judgment is called

Sample size.
The bin below is the population and the three selected ones by its
side is a sample of size 3.
Population Sample

Population & Sample
Population, Sample and Data
Random
Population - Sample
sampling
- Data

Population & Sample
Random Measurement/
Population - Sample
sampling
-
Observation
Data

Population & Sample
No action
6
?
Random Measurement/
Population - Sample
sampling
-
Observation
Data
6
?
Action

Population & Sample
What and why sampling
Population mean will hardly ever be known, though we designate it

xi i=1N
P
as µ = N When population size is N.

Population & Sample

xi i=1N
P
Similarly we will possibly never know

q PNpopulation standard deviation
2
i=1 (xi −µ)
σ however we designate it by σ = N

Population & Sample

xi i=1N
P

2
i=1 (xi −µ)
In the absence of population values, we shall of course use sample

values x̄ and s.

Population & Sample

xi i=1N
P

2
i=1 (xi −µ)
In the absence of population values, we shall of course use sample

values x̄ and s.
This is why sample size, it’s being a good representative of the

population etc. are important issues.

Population & Sample
— Sampling is

Population & Sample
— Sampling is
• Collecting a portion of all the data.

Population & Sample
— Sampling is
• Using that portion to draw conclusions (make inferences).

Population & Sample
— Sampling is
— Why sample?

Population & Sample
— Sampling is
— Why sample?
• Because looking at all the data may be Too expensive.

Population & Sample
— Sampling is
— Why sample?
• Too time-consuming. Destructive (e.g., taste tests).

Population & Sample
— Sampling is
— Why sample?
• Too time-consuming. Destructive (e.g., taste tests).
• Sound conclusions can often be drawn from a relatively small

amount of data.

Population & Sample Histogram
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

Frequency Distribution & Histogram
If I had to reduce my message to management to just a few words, I

would say it all had to do with reducing variation.

Frequency Distribution & Histogram
If I had to reduce my message to management to just a few words, I

would say it all had to do with reducing variation.
— W. Edwards Deming

A data set
What do these numbers mean to you?
2.87, 2.85, 2.88, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.87, 2.81,
2.85, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.86, 2.89, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.83, 2.82, 2.86, 2.83, 2.85, 2.86,
2.85, 2.84, 2.84, 2.87, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.90, 2.88

A data set
2.87, 2.85, 2.88, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.87, 2.81,
2.85, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.86, 2.89, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.83, 2.82, 2.86, 2.83, 2.85, 2.86,
2.85, 2.84, 2.84, 2.87, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.90, 2.88
Possibly not much!

A data set
2.87, 2.85, 2.88, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.87, 2.81,
2.85, 2.82, 2.83, 2.85, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.86, 2.89, 2.85,
2.84, 2.84, 2.85, 2.85, 2.83, 2.82, 2.86, 2.83, 2.85, 2.86,
2.85, 2.84, 2.84, 2.87, 2.85, 2.86, 2.85, 2.84, 2.90, 2.88
Possibly not much!

Pictorial representation of data
Why pictures are important?

Pictures/Displays of data stimulate hypothesis generation which is a

key step in process improvement


Now lets do the following—


Find the minimum value.



Find the maximum value.



Arrange all values between minimum & maximum value in
ascending order.



Arrange all values between minimum & maximum value in
ascending order.
For each number, in the table make a mark, after reading each
number from the given jumble of numbers.


Value Tally Frequency
2.80 - 0
2.81 // 2
2.82 /// 3
2.83 //// 4
2.84 //////// 8
2.85 /////////////////// 19
2.86 /////// 7
2.87 /// 3
2.88 // 2
2.89 / 1
2.90 / 1
Total 50
The above table now tells us


2.80 - 0
2.81 // 2
2.82 /// 3
2.83 //// 4
2.84 //////// 8
2.85 /////////////////// 19
2.86 /////// 7
2.87 /// 3
2.88 // 2
2.89 / 1
2.90 / 1
Total 50
2.85 occurs with a maximum frequency of 38%.


2.80 - 0
2.81 // 2
2.82 /// 3
2.83 //// 4
2.84 //////// 8
2.85 /////////////////// 19
2.86 /////// 7
2.87 /// 3
2.88 // 2
2.89 / 1
2.90 / 1
Total 50
Approximately 82% of the values lie between 2.83 and 2.87.


2.80 - 0
2.81 // 2
2.82 /// 3
2.83 //// 4
2.84 //////// 8
2.85 /////////////////// 19
2.86 /////// 7
2.87 /// 3
2.88 // 2
2.89 / 1
2.90 / 1
Total 50
Approximately 82% of the values lie between 2.83 and 2.87.
THIS TABLE THAT GIVES YOU THIS DISTRIBUTION IS

CALLED :
Frequency Distribution Table
Now do the following. . .

For the same data, divide the range (i.e. 2.9 − 2.80 = 0.10) in equal
no.of parts (say 5).


Hence each part will be equal to 0.02.


The table now will have values:

2.80 − 2.82, 2.82 − 2.84, 2.84 − 2.86, 2.86 − 2.88, 2.88 − 2.90



2.80 − 2.82, 2.82 − 2.84, 2.84 − 2.86, 2.86 − 2.88, 2.88 − 2.90
2.80-2.82 ///// 5
2.82-2.84 //////////// 12
2.84-2.86 ////////////////////////// 26
2.86-2.88 ///// 5
2.88-2.90 // 2
Total 50
The spread of each range is (e.g. 2.82 − 2.80 = 0.2 ) is called Class
Interval. Now we also know that:



2.80 − 2.82, 2.82 − 2.84, 2.84 − 2.86, 2.86 − 2.88, 2.88 − 2.90
2.80-2.82 ///// 5
2.82-2.84 //////////// 12
2.84-2.86 ////////////////////////// 26
2.86-2.88 ///// 5
2.88-2.90 // 2
Total 50
52% of values lie in 2.84 − 2.86 range.



2.80 − 2.82, 2.82 − 2.84, 2.84 − 2.86, 2.86 − 2.88, 2.88 − 2.90
2.80-2.82 ///// 5
2.82-2.84 //////////// 12
2.84-2.86 ////////////////////////// 26
2.86-2.88 ///// 5
2.88-2.90 // 2
Total 50
What is the distribution in a given range.



2.80 − 2.82, 2.82 − 2.84, 2.84 − 2.86, 2.86 − 2.88, 2.88 − 2.90
2.80-2.82 ///// 5
2.82-2.84 //////////// 12
2.84-2.86 ////////////////////////// 26
2.86-2.88 ///// 5
2.88-2.90 // 2
Total 50
What is the distribution in a given range.
It is helpful when you have a large number of values.
Variation for a period of time
Definition : A Histogram shows the shape, or distribution, of the

data by displaying how often different values occur.


The following is an example—


The following is an example—

Histogram
A Histogram gives you the Frequency distribution pictorially.

Histogram
The concept of X - Y axis and origin need not be followed once you
gain proficiency in drawing histograms.

Histogram
The specified limits can be marked on histograms to show the

behavior of variation versus the actual required values.

Histogram
The specified limits can be marked on histograms to show the

behavior of variation versus the actual required values.
Histogram is more common than frequency distribution.

Histogram
Histograms can be of various shapes, each meaning different things.

Histogram

Histogram
Interpretation of Histogram can lead to finding the source or root

cause of a possible problem.
Population & Sample Moments, Skewness Kurtosis
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

Moments
Beyond the measures of central tendency and dispersion discussed

so far, there are measures that further describe the characteristics
of a distribution. Few of them, shall follow.

Moments

Moments are statistical parameters that measure a distribution.

Four moments commonly used are :

Moments


1st moment — Mean (describes central value)

Moments


2nd moment — Variance (describes dispersion)

Moments


3rd moment — Skewness (describes asymmetry)

Moments


4th moment — Kurtosis (describes peakedness)

Moments


4th moment — Kurtosis (describes peakedness)

Moments
Moments are of two types, Raw and Central

Moments

P
x
Population mean µ1 = N is the first raw moment, 1st central moment being
0.

Moments

P
x
0.
(x−µ)2
P
Population variance µ2 = N is the second central moment.

Moments

P
x
0.
(x−µ)2
P
(x−µ)3
P
3rd central moment is µ3 = N

Moments

P
x
0.
(x−µ)2
P
(x−µ)3
P
(x−µ)4
P
4th central moment is µ4 = N

Moments

P
x
0.
(x−µ)2
P
(x−µ)3
P
(x−µ)4
P
4th central moment is µ4 = N
So the index defines which moment it is and the subtraction of µ or

not defines whether it is raw or central. Though mostly we use central
moments.

Skewness
Skewness refers to deviation from symmetry.

Skewness

Skewness
As we observe in the picture above,

Skewness
As we observe in the picture above,If Mean > Mode, the skewness is positive.

Skewness
As we observe in the picture above,If Mean > Mode, the skewness is positive.If
Mean < Mode, the skewness is negative.

Skewness
Mean < Mode, the skewness is negative.If Mean = Mode, the skewness is zero.

Skewness
Mean−Mode
standarddeviation is a measure of skewness by Karl Pearson.

Skewness
Mean−Mode
standarddeviation is a measure of skewness by Karl Pearson.

Skewness
µ23
Moment based measure of skewness = β1 = µ32

Skewness
µ23
PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING :

Skewness
µ23
PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING :
γ1 is √
defined as the square root of β1 to retain the original sign of µ3 .
γ 1 = β1

Kurtosis
Kurtosis refers to the degree of peakedness of a frequency curve.

Kurtosis
Kurtosis is measured in the following ways: Moment based Measure

of kurtosis β2 = µµ24
2

Kurtosis

2

Kurtosis

2

Population & Sample Further on data collection, compilation
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

Stratification
• The method of grouping data by common points or characteristics

to better understand similarities and characteristics of data is called
stratification.

Stratification

stratification.
• Such classification helps in obtaining vital information by

distinguishing and comparing data in different class or strata.

Stratification

stratification.

• It also identifies the key strata to concentrate on.

Stratification

stratification.

• It also identifies the key strata to concentrate on.
• The stratification may be based on machines, operators, shifts or

any other source of variation.

Stratification . . .
• The purpose of stratification is to ascertain the difference between

different categories and to analyze the reasons behind abnormal
distribution.


distribution.
• Stratification of data is an effective method for isolating the cause

of a problem.


distribution.
• Stratification of data is an effective method for isolating the cause

of a problem.
• You can also stratify the data you collect by different QC tools
such as graphs, Pareto diagrams, check sheets, histograms, scatter
diagrams, and control charts.

Area of application
• Raw Material
Quantity supplied, Delivery time, Rejection % - supplier wise and
batch wise.

Area of application
• Raw Material
batch wise.
• Production
Rejection percentage with respect to machine, shift, operator, raw
material, tool, jig and so on.

Area of application
• Raw Material
batch wise.
• Production
Rejection percentage with respect to machine, shift, operator, raw
material, tool, jig and so on.
• Engineering and design

Draftsman wise drawing errors, Type of drawing wise.

Check sheet, Data formats
A check sheet is a convenient and compact format for collection of

data.


data.
• PURPOSE OF CHECK SHEET
1 Simplification of data gathering

2 Provide preliminary summarization
3 Provide a basis for statistical analysis


data.
• PURPOSE OF CHECK SHEET
1 Simplification of data gathering

2 Provide preliminary summarization
3 Provide a basis for statistical analysis
• USES OF CHECK SHEET
1 Problem monitoring
2 Direction for trouble shooting

Area of Application — Check-Sheet
• Raw Material
No. of defects, Location of defect, measurement on quality
characteristics etc

Area of Application — Check-Sheet
• Raw Material
No. of defects, Location of defect, measurement on quality
characteristics etc
• Production
Measurements on process parameters, No. of defects in products,
location of defects etc

How to make a check sheet
Clarifying the objective

Determining the type of check sheet to use

Deciding which items to check

Creating the check sheet

Recording the data

Recording the data
Tallying the data

Recording the data
Tallying the data
Examining the check sheet

Process Distribution Check-Sheet

Location Check-Sheet

Population & Sample Measurements from data
Contents
1 Introduction
Data
Collection of Data
Compilation of Data
Centre & Spread
Central Tendency
Dispersion
Degree of Freedom

Histogram
Scales

Scales of Measurements
Nominal: A scale that measures data by name only. For example,
religious affiliation (measured as Jewish, Christian, Buddhist, and
so forth), political affiliation (measured as Democratic, Republican,
Libertarian, and so forth), or style of automobile (measured as
sedan, sports car, station wagon, van, and so forth).
Ordinal: Measures by rank order only. Other than rough order, no

precise measurement is possible. For example, medical condition
(measured as satisfactory, fair, poor, guarded, serious, and critical);
social-economic status (measured as lower class, lower-middle class,
middle class, upper-middle class, upper class); or military officer
rank (measured as lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant colonel,
colonel, general). Such rankings are not absolute but rather relative
to each other: Major is higher than captain, but we cannot measure
the exact difference in numerical terms. Is the difference between
major and captain equal to the difference between colonel and
general? You cannot say.

Scales of Measurements
Interval: Measures by using equal intervals. Here you can compare

differences between pairs of values. The Fahrenheit temperature
scale, measured in degrees, is an interval scale, as is the centigrade
scale. The temperature difference between 50 and 60 degrees
centigrade (10 degrees) equals the temperature difference between
80 and 90 degrees centigrade (10 degrees). Note that the 0 in each
of these scales is arbitrarily placed, which makes the interval scale
different from ratio.
Ratio: Similar to an interval scale, a ratio scale includes a 0

measurement that signifies the point at which the characteristic
being measured vanishes (absolute 0). For example, income
(measured in dollars, with 0 equal to no income at all), years of
formal education, items sold, and so forth, are all ratio scales.

Descriptive Statistics: Amit K Biswas

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Descriptive Statistics

Indian Statistical Institute

@ GLIM June-July 2021

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 1 / 59

2 Population & Sample

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 2 / 59

2 Population & Sample

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Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 4 / 59

Measurable Subjective assessment

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 4 / 59

Measurable Subjective assessment

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 4 / 59

Measurable Subjective assessment

Least influenced by individual biases

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 4 / 59

Measurable Subjective assessment

Least influenced by individual biases

Could be subject to critical analysis

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 4 / 59

Measurable Subjective assessment

Least influenced by individual biases

Could be subject to critical analysis

Generally beyond language barriers and therefore universal in

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 4 / 59

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 5 / 59

Data is a numerical expression of an activity.

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 5 / 59

Data is a numerical expression of an activity.

Conclusions based on facts and data are necessary for any

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 5 / 59

Data is a numerical expression of an activity.

Conclusions based on facts and data are necessary for any

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 5 / 59

Data is a numerical expression of an activity.

Conclusions based on facts and data are necessary for any

If you are not able to express a phenomenon in numbers, you do not

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 5 / 59

Data is a numerical expression of an activity.

Conclusions based on facts and data are necessary for any

If you are not able to express a phenomenon in numbers, you do not

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 5 / 59

A shaft Diameter Number of shafts rejected for

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 6 / 59

A shaft Diameter Number of shafts rejected for

The diameter of a shaft can take The number of shafts rejected

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 6 / 59

A shaft Diameter Number of shafts rejected for

The diameter of a shaft can take The number of shafts rejected

Data related to this type of Data related to this type of

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 6 / 59

Continuous & Discrete : Distinction

• They are real numbers • They are whole numbers

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 7 / 59

Continuous & Discrete : Distinction

• They are real numbers • They are whole numbers

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 7 / 59

Continuous & Discrete : Distinction

• They are real numbers • They are whole numbers

Amit (ISI, Chennai) Data July 7, 2021 7 / 59

Continuous & Discrete : Distinction

• They are real numbers • They are whole numbers