nd

"#'&)+ #$,'-&" '7" !)=6+$+' ,&)#"55;

er,
to
"#$ %&' (')*+ ,-. /,*012%'33') +-4'),54+0-6
nd
+ier'7" 56=,*"
(Spin in1"&=6
beta decay)
'7")&% )( 'F!"#$%9 '7" 6+'"&$#'6)+ =$'&6> "*"="+' 0$5
so
0&6''"+ $5 $ G#)+'$#'H 6+'"&$#'6)+; 1)& )-& ">$=,*" )( ?@1 !"#$%9
rm We have so far ignored spin; all particles involved have an intrinsic spin ½, Fermions
he
%
!(/ ! !'( !!6 !##))&!6+$'"5$
In the full theory of beta decay, interaction mediated by W bosons
ks’ %
' ' ' 3
her ! $ 0 ( + #!$( " #!$( " #!$( , #!$! !%
We shall now describe beta decay taking spin
on. into account
en
76#7 0" =687' &",&"5"+' !6$8&$==$'6#$**% $5 6+ 168; ?.;2; I"("&"+#" ')
ed.
,6+ 7$5 C""+ 5-,,&"55"!9 '7)-87 0" D+)0 '7$' '7" ,$&'6#*"5 6+B)*B"! $&"
nly
** ("&=6)+5 06'7 6+'&6+56# 5,6+ J-$+'-= +-=C"& , ! ?.;
or E+ '7" (-** '7")&% )( 'F!"#$%9 '7" 6+'"&$#'6)+ 65 ="!6$'"! C% '7"
7$&8"! K C)5)+59 5) '7$' '7" ,&)#"55 $C)B" 65 &",&"5"+'"! C% 168;
.;L; M' $ =)&" (-+!$="+'$* *"B"*9 '7" 6+'"&$#'6)+ 65 06'7 $ J-$&D &$'7"&
ere
7$+
ore $Figure
+-#*")+9 $5 6+ Feynman
3.11 Quark 168; 3;39 C-' ,7"+)="+)*)86#$**% '7" ,&6+#6,$*
=6556+8diagram
("$'-&"for)(the'7"
decay
56=,*" 1"&=6 '7")&% 65 '7" !"5#&6,'6)+ )( 5,6+
−
a a n → pe ν̄e in the spectator
(("#'5; K" 57$** +)0 !"5#&6C" 7)0 '7" &"5-*'5 )( '7" ,&"B6)-5 5"#'6)+ 1
model.
 ! " ! " ! "
! " !$
Nucleon states: !!!" # !$ !!" $ !% !!" # "
" ! !%

#$% &'$(' wave-functions

are two-component #)' *+,-(,./,$'$*
(we treat+#0'-12$(*3,$45 6&' (,./7'8 (,$92:#*'
them non-relativistically)
+#0'-12$(*3,$ :'$')#734'4 *, *&' #%9,3$* ),+ .#*)38 !& !!" # !!'$ " !'% "5
The complex conjugate
;,+'0')< (adjoint)
=,*& is the row matrix
*&' /,43*),$ #$% $'2*)3$, .,0' #* )'7#*3034*3( 4/''%4
#$% 1,) *&'4' *&' )'7#*3034*3( +#0'-12$(*3,$4 .24* =' 24'%5 >8('/* 3$
Positron/electron
*').4 ,1 *&' and ?3)#(
neutrino have relativistic speeds
+#0'-12$(*3,$4< *&')' 34and
$,need to be
43./7' treated
1,). 1,) *&' 7'/*,$
in terms of Dirac wavefunctions (no simple form for the lepton part of the matrix
/#)* ,1 *&' .#*)38 '7'.'$*5
element!)
6&' (,$*)3=2*3,$ *, *&' 3$*')#(*3,$ 1),. *&' @,27,.=-73A' /#)* ,1 *&'
B-C'7% 34 .,4* 73A' *&' 43./7' D').3 *&',)E %34(244'% 3$ *&' /)'03,24
All we can say is that the W-field has a Coulomb-like part and a magnetic-like part;
4'(*3,$4
the former leads to#$%
the3*simple
34 (#77'% *&' D').3 3$*')#(*3,$5
parity-conserving 6&34 /#)*
Fermi interaction; while%,'4 $,* leads
the later (&#$:'
*&' $2(7',$
to parity-violating 4/3$4< #$%interactions
Gamow-Teller 1,) #77,+'% *)#$43*3,$4 *&' /,43*),$ #$% $'2*)3$,
#$:27#) .,.'$*# .24* (,.=3$' *, :30' # *,*#7 7'/*,$ #$:27#) .,.'$-
*2. ,1 F'),5
The Fermi interaction does not change
6&' (,$*)3=2*3,$ ,1 *&'nucleon
D').3 spins (
3$*')#(*3,$ ; 3$*')#(*3,$ .#*)38
*, *&'
because ) for allowed (pure Fermi) transitions (also no change in parity:
'7'.'$* 34
)
#
D &
!1" # "+ !$ !!"!/ !!"%G ! ( !7'/*,$ /#)*"# 2
 !"#$*2.
%&' (')*+ ,-. /,*012%'33') +-4'),54+0-6
,1 F'),5 !7$
6&' (,$*)3=2*3,$ ,1 *&' D').3 3$*')#(*3,$ *, *&' 3$*')#(*3,$ .#*)38
The contribution
'7'.'$* 34 of the Fermi interaction to the interaction matrix element is
**+%,'"#$ !- ". ,' #&$ .,/0)$ 1$+/, #&$*+2- 3!# ").*
'# *5 #&$ '$!#+,'* "'% 0*.,#+*' &.0,'. "'%G #&$ "'4!6
#
D
! #" !$ !!"!/ !!"% ! ( !7'/*,$ /#)*"#
$' #&$,+ %,+$(#,*'.81"9:&$ +'$!#+,'* %,+$(#,*' ("' 3$
4 #&$ ./")) '!()$"+ +$(*,)8; :&$ )$0#*' 0"+# ,. 4,<$'
The subtlety
6&' of42=*7'*E
the weak,1 interaction
*&' +'#A is contained in the34bracketed
3$*')#(*3,$ (,$*#3$'%lepton
3$ part, involving
*&' =)#(A'*'%
=#"'%"+% >*%$) *5 0"+#,()$ 0&2.,(. "'% 3**?. *'
neutrino and electron/positron wavefunctions evaluated at the nucleon coordinate
$ (*'.!)#$%7'/*,$5*+ /#)*5
r, as in simple
6&34(")(!)"#,*'.8
%$#",)$%
Fermi theory
3$0,70'4 *&' $'2*)3$,
A*7$<$+-#$% "' /,43*),$ +#0'-12$(*3,$4 '0#7-
2 /$".!+$. #&$ $)$(#+*' $'$+42 .0$(#+!/ "'% %*$.
The lepton
(*++$)"#,*'. part is given#*very
(*++$.0*'%. "' precisely
"<$+"4,'4 by the SM%,+$(6
*<$+ of particle physics
#&$' #&$ .0$(#+!/
However, if the ,. 4,<$' $B"(#)2
experiments do not". ,' #&$spin
measure .,/0)$
and only measure electron energy
+/, ,'#$+"(#,*'
spectrum, the (*'#+,3!#$. #* #&$is %$("2-
energy spectrum #&$ $'$+42
given exactly by the simple Fermi theory;
then"'%
/$"' ),<$. all the previous("0#!+$
$)$(#+*' analysis +"#$.
goes through except
"+$ 4,<$' 32 that
#&$ the nuclear matrix element is
!# 7,#&now
#&$given by /"#+,B $)$/$'# 4,<$' 32
'!()$"+
!
" #
!1 ! ! #!$!
"#$%
' &'%)" #!$% !" ,1 # /),*,$ 3$ # $2(7'24 .'%3#*'% =E *&' '8(&#$:' ,1 # 03)*2#7
$-%'(#E
B =,4,$5

4,<$' ,' #$+/. *5 /*+$ 5!'%"/$'#") (*'.#"'#. *5 3

JOPP#GL$"
The story does not end here even for allowed transitions; the magnetic -like part of
*# #&$the W-field
7&*)$ can allow
.#*+2- $<$' for
5*+a 𝑆"))*7$%
! = 1 implying
#+"'.,#,*'.8 with 𝐿! still 0 (parity does not change
𝐽! = 1:&$
butR6S$)%
# *5 #&$ ∆𝐽 = 1))$"%. #* " #$+/ ,' #&$ #+"'.,#,*' /"#+,B
". #&$ T"/*7U:$))$+ ,'#$+"(#,*'- ,' 7&,(& #&$ #*#")
This $
*/$'#!/ means, the nuclear
&". F!"'#!/ part of% the
'!/3$+ ! G-interaction (still treated non-relativistically) contains
"'% #&$ '!()$"+
"(#,*'the Pauli operator
9"4",' 𝝈 dotted with
#+$"#$% '*'6+$)"#,<,.#,("))2; : (*'#",'. #&$
9.$$ W00$'%,B X;8 :&$+$ ,. " #$+/ ! ' $ ,' #&$ ,'#$+"(#,*'
"# The(%)'*
$%&' Gamow-Teller
$ T"/*7U:$))$+ ,'--' matrix
'+( /"#+,B(%)'* element
$)$/$'# 5*+ *!+for GO1 $B"/0)$
example is,.
!"# $%&' (%)'* '+( ,'--' (%)'*
!
!" " ! *
!#$ ! "% #& !' #!$!!( #!$) ! % #+,(-.' (/0-$"
!" "
!#$ ! "% #& !' #!$!!( #!$)* ! % #+,(-.' (/0-$"
where the lepton part is now also a vector and the ) denotes the scalar product
1,0, 2+,(-.' (/0-3 45 '.& / 6,7-.0 /') % ),'.-,5 / 57/+/0 (0.)87-9
&1,0,
:# &, 2+,(-.' (/0-3 45 '.& / 6,7-.0 /') % ),'.-,5 / 57/+/0 (0.)87-9
),;',
Define
:# &, ),;',
!
" &
"!" ! "% !' #!$!! ! ( #!$)* ! ! #$!"
%
" $!" '
" $!" $"
" &
"!" ! "% !' #!$!!( #!$)* ! ! #$!" %
" $!" '
" $!" $"

') 58< .6,0 /++ /++.&,) ),7/=5 -. -1, ( ! $ /') -1, -10,, ( ! > 5-/-,5? -1,
4
.-/+ ),7/= 0/-,.6,0
/') 58< -. ,+,7-0.'5 &4-1),7/=5
/++ /++.&,) ,',0@4,5 4' -1,
-. -1, ( ! 0/'@, ,? )
$ /') )-1, , & ))
-10,, (! , 45
> 5-/-,5? -1,
 ".0$(#+"-
) 58< !" ! %$("2
.6,0
!" "/++
$B0$+,/$'#
!'7&,(&
% %/++.&,)
+"#$.- #!$!!
/$"' (( #!$)-.
),7/=5
),<$. "'%
*')2
!! -1, #$ (!"!!"
$)$(#+*'
/$".!+$. $"!"$
/')
("0#!+$
#&$ !"
$)$(#+*'
" $-10,,
-1,
!"
+"#$. "+$
!" $" ( !32>!
4,<$'
$'$+42 5-/-,5?
#&$1 ! -1,
!' #!$! " #!$% !"
*'. "'% .0,'.- "'% #&$' #&$ .0$(#+!/ '*# %,.#,'4!,.&
,. 4,<$' $B"(#)2 ".#&$.$ .,/0)$ .0$(#+!/
,' #&$(*++$)"#,*'. "'%
(*++$.0*'%. %*$. #*
-/+ ),7/=
&$*+28 *')20/-,
0+$<,*!.
C5 '*# -. ,+,7-0.'5
5*+/!)"$-
%,.#,'4!,.&
#&$ 1$+/,
3!# 7,#& &4-1
#&$
#&$.$ (*++$)"#,*'.
,'#$+"(#,*' ,',0@4,5
'!()$"+
(*'#+,3!#$.
/"#+,B
#* #&$4'%$("2-
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(*++$.0*'%. 4,<$'
#&$
32
#*$'$+42 , ? ), & ))
"')"<$+"4,'4 , 45 %,+$(6
*<$+
#,*'. "'% .0,'.- "'% #&$' #&$ .0$(#+!/ ,. 4,<$'
6,' A=
) 58< .6,0 /++ /++.&,) ),7/=5 -. -1,to#&$
0$(#+"- and
%$("2sum
#,*'. over
"'%
+"#$.- all
/$"' allowed
.0,'.-),<$. "'%
"'%decays
#&$'
$)$(#+*' (!the 𝐽!/')
("0#!+$
!:&$ = +"#$.
$.0$(#+!/
(*'.#"'#and
0-1, ,.the
"+$
-10,," three
4,<$'
4,<$'! 32
( ,. 𝐽5-/-,5?
>$B"(#)2
!#&$
4,<$' 1 states;
= ,' ".
-1,
#$+/.,' #&$*5 .,/0)$
/*+$ 5!'%"
8< .6,0
+$<,*!. /++ /++.&,)
5*+/!)"$- 3!# ),7/=5
7,#&#&$ #&$&4-1 -.
'!()$"+ #&$*+28
-1, ( !
/"#+,B "
!' #!$!
C5
$ *')2
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$)$/$'# #&$
-1,
#4,<$'
71$+/,
-10,,
32 ( ! ,'#$+"(#,*'
> 5-/-,5? -1,(*'#+,3!#$.
-/+ ),7/= #&$*+28
0/-, -.C5 *')2
,+,7-0.'5 1$+/, 1 !,'#$+"(#,*'
!,',0@4,5 0"+#,()$4' -1, (*'#+,3!#$.
" #!$% !" 32
0/'@,
0&2.,(. ), ? )#* ,& #&$))%$("2-
, 45 #&$ $'$+42
),7/=
6,' A=The total-.
0/-,
.0$(#+"- decay rate
,+,7-0.'5
%$("2 to
B +"#$.-
B
electrons
&4-1
/$"' .0$(#+"-
with
),<$.energies
,',0@4,5 "'%%$("2 in +"#$.-
4'$)$(#+*'
-1, the0/'@,range/$"'
("0#!+$ ),<$.
), &"+$
), ?+"#$. "'% ,$)$(#+*'
))4,<$' 45 32 #&$("0#!
#C +8) !
0+$<,*!. % #5*+/!)"$- & B3!# 7,#& ' #&$ '!()$"+
A= is)*#) given
0+$<,*!.
:&$ (*'.#"'#,
by
$ ! 5*+/!)"$-
"7 *,. D4,<$'! '($
1 3!#
!,' C (!
B"
7,#&
#$+/.
'&#!$! #&$
($
*5
" #!$%
/*+$
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'!()$"+
!" &" ($! /"#+,B
5!'%"/$'#")" (
# &"$)$/$'#
($
(*'.#"'#.
!" ( B
4,<$'
*57 #),32
)- $)), "/"#+,B $
B#
B32 B
!, E 7 !"1 !%
0"+#,()$ 0&2.,(. # + !& (B & ($ ' (B )- #) $)) " !
)*#), $ ! B C* BD8)E '($C (B & ($!" % B
( & ($!" !" # 7 , ,
&$ (*'.#"'# "7 # ,.B# + !
4,<$' , ,' #$+/. *5 /*+$ A$+$ "
5!'%"/$'#")
%!1B ! 1 !&' #!$! ,. #&$ ermi
" (*'.#"'#. constant
B " #!$% '!" B ! !#!% !
*5 "'% ,. ""' $)$/$'
' #!$!" #!$%
C 8) B
)*#)
"+#,()$ , $ !
" 7 ! " 1 # !% " '($ C ( & ($ !" ( & ($ ( & ($ ( )-
as a a matrixE- 7&,(& "00$"+. ,' #&$ =#"'%"+% >
!" 7 #)
1 , $)) , "
) -1, 0&2.,(.
<,/' 32 B#*45!D@46,'
+4#, ,E A= !"

with the mean life given by 7$"? ,'#$+"(#,*' 3$#7$$' )$0#*'. "'% F!"+?.8 "1
) -1,A$+$
<,/'" +4#,
7 !1"(*'.#"'#
":&$ !% "
ermi"A=
45 @46,'
,.1 ##&$ constant "'% #!% #$+/.
,. "' $)$/$'# *5 #&$ DKobayashi (*'.#"'#. *5
7 ,. 4,<$' ,'$B0$+,/$'#"))2 *5 /*+$ 5+*/ 5!'%"/$'#")
#&$ %$("2 +"#$ *5 #&$ /!*' "'%
> #
0"+#,()$ + .
0&2.,(.
F
, G
32
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as a a matrixE- 7&,(& "00$"+. ,' #&$ =#"'%"+% >*%$)
B B (*'.#"'# " 7 ,. 4,<$'
#&$*+2 *5 ,' #&$#$+/. *5 /*+$ 5!
1, <,/' +4#, C45 8) @46,' , A= B % B & B ' B
7$"? ! ,'#$+"(#,*'
A$+$ "1>$,. #&$ B ermi '($
3$#7$$'
B * Fconstant
DG "'% ( &
)$0#*'.
C #!% ($ "'%
0"+#,()$ ( & ($
F!"+?.8
0&2.,(.
,. "'!"$)$/$'# " (
#&$32
*5!"1 &
/"2 ($
3$
DKobayashi!" ( )/ #0
%$#$+/,'$% ) " )$I$%
# +
C B#
$B0$+,/$'#"))2
. !
,
8) 5+*/ , #&$ B
%$("2 % *5
+"#$ & "
B #&$ /!*' !
B1"'% G"GHH BIJ#K$
' #&$
&". %
<")!$ GL &GG
# !$$ >$M &K
"
as a a ! matrixE- 7&,(& '($ C ( &,'($
"00$"+. #&$ ( & ($ >*%$)
!"=#"'%"+% ( & ($ !" ( )/
#&$*+2 ) " )$ $%
*5#0#&$
$
B
B#
B
!F7 G
* "D ! " # "
1 !%
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#>B%H$
7$"?> ,'#$+"(#,*'
#the 3$#7$$' )$0#*'. "'% F!"+?.8 " /"2 3$ %$#$+/,'$%
C+ 8) .,equations,
, 1
In above Bwe have
&GG %usedIB " !& " B 1 #!% " ' B #>B%H$
!
B0$+,/$'#"))2 1 D #&$ '($
"5+*/! G"GHH IJ#K$
%$("2C ( %
+"#$&
GL ($
*5 #
#&$!$$
!" (
1+*/
/!*' &
>$M($&K
"
7
"'% +"'4$
" (
!" #&$
&". & ($
*5<")!$!" ( )/
'!()$"+ #0
%"#"- " ),.$ $%
),#
#GK"N$ 5*!'% #&"#
$ where
A$+$B#"!1 ,.is the
*
ermiconstant
#&$ Fermi constant(exptly.
"'%determined
#!% ,. "' from muon*5
$)$/$'# decays, having the
#&$ DKobayashi
%' /++.&,) ),7/= </= A,I (80,&KC,0<4? (80, !/<.&I",++,0? .0 /
#>B%H$
value
%'1+*/
" 1
as
/++.&,)
!" a
+"'4$
G"GHH a
),7/=
*5matrixE-
IJ#K$ </=
'!()$"+
% GL &GG
A,7&,(&
!$$
%"#"-
# (80,
,# "00$"+.
,.
>$M
A$+$ C,0<4?
5*!'%
"") and ,'
(80,
#&"#
,. ##&$
#&$ !=#"'%"+%
!% is ermi
an element
!/<.&I",++,0? >*%$)
of the"'%
constant
L"JOPP#GL$"
#GK"N$ .0 / #&$*+2
Kobayashi-
# *5
,. #&$
"' $)$/
J-80, .# A.-1?
Maskawa ),(,')4'@
matrix of the .'
SM -1,
-1,and
),-/4+51
determined .# -1, '87+,/0
by studying </-04J
a range ,+,<,'-59
of nuclear
!%
data
J-80, .# 7$"?
A.-1? ,'#$+"(#,*'
),(,')4'@ .'3$#7$$' )$0#*'.
),-/4+5 .# -1,"'% F!"+?.8
'87+,/0 </-04J 1 /"2
",+,<,'-59 3$ %$#$+/,'$%
.-, -1/-
to -1,
be # ,+,7-0.'
! ,',0@=
L"JOPP#GL$"
as
5(,7-08< a a
45 matrixE-
4'),(,'),'- 7&,(&
.# "00$"+.
-1,5, ,'
),-/4+59 #&$ =#"'%"
:'
.-, -1/- $B0$+,/$'#"))2
-1, ,+,7-0.' 5+*/
,',0@= #&$
5(,7-08< %$("245 +"#$ *5
4'),(,'),'- #&$ /!*'
.# -1,5, "'% &".
),-/4+59 #&$
:' <")!$
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" +"'4$ *5 '!()$"+ %"#"- ,# ,. 5*!'% #&"# Q!# #&,. ,. '*# #&$ 7&*)$ .#*+2- $<$' 5*+ "))*7
!%
),7/= </= A, (80, 7$"? C,0<4? (80, !/<.&I",++,0?
,'#$+"(#,*' 3$#7$$' )$0#*'. .0"'%
/ F!"+?.8
',0/+? .# 7.805,? -1, 4'4-4/+ /')
',0/+? .# 7.805,? -1, 4'4-4/+ /') ;'/+ '87+,/0 ;'/+ '87+,/0 5-/-,5
5-/-,5 &1471
/"4'$#,(6),?$ 0"+#
&1471
,'-,0
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4'-. 4'-. $
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L"JOPP#GL$"7.<(+47/-,)
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%-1.5,
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.80I .80
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C ,J/<(+,9
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 #>B%H$ ),(,')4'@
<4J-80, .# A.-1?
#>B%H$ #>B%H$
#>B%H$ .' -1,
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B
)/ #0) " )$ $% > #BC +8)
B
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),7/= </= A,
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* D
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!
($!" ( &
!/<.&I",++,0?
($ !"
.0
( K.-, -1/- & ($
/ -1, !",+,7-0.'
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$ $% 5(,7
%' /++.&,) The allowed ),7/= decay </=canA,be(80,
B# pure Fermi
C,0<4? or pure
(80,Gamow-Teller
!/<.&I",++,0? (GT) or .0a mixture
/%' /++.&,)of both,
%'
7/= </= #>B%H$
/++.&,)
depending ),7/=
A,.'(80, on the </=
C,0<4?
details A,
(80,
of the(80, C,0<4?
!/<.&I",++,0?
nuclear matrix (80,@,',0/+?
elements / .# 7.805,? -1,
.0!/<.&I",++,0? .0.0 / / ),7/=
4'4-4/+ /') < ;
%'
),(,')4'@
</= /++.&,)
A, (80, ),7/=
-1,
C,0<4? ),-/4+5</=
(80, .# A,
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'87+,/0
!/<.&I",++,0?
80, .# A.-1? ),(,')4'@ .' -1, ),-/4+5 .# -1, '87+,/0 </-04J ,+,<,'-59
C,0<4? </-04J .0(80, !/<.&I",++,0?
,+,<,'-59
/ #>B%H$
-80, .# A.-1? ),(,')4'@ .' -1, ),-/4+5 .# -1, '87+,/0 </-04J <4J-80, .# A.-1? ),(,')4'
,+,<,'-59
(,')4'@
,7-0.'
)4'@
J-80,-1/- The.'.# .' ),-/4+5
,',0@=
-1,
A.-1?
-1, electron
-1, ),-/4+5
5(,7-08<
),(,')4'@
,+,7-0.'energy .# -1,.#45
,',0@=spectrum,
-1,
'87+,/0
.' '87+,/0
4'),(,'),'-
-1,
5(,7-08<though, </-04J</-04J
),-/4+5 .#
45 4'),(,'),'-
-1,5,
,+,<,'-59
.# -1, /')
,+,<,'-59
),-/4+59
.#
"
'87+,/0
-1,5,
:'
!" /0,
</-04J
),-/4+59
<.0,
:'
7.<(+47/-,) -1
,+,<,'-59
is 4'),(,'),'-
independent of .#
these K.-,
details -1/- -1, ,+,7-0.' ,'
,.'
,? -1/-
&I",++,0? ,',0@=
-1, -1, .0
4'4-4/+ 5(,7-08<
,+,7-0.'
//') ;'/+ 45 4'),(,'),'-
,',0@=
'87+,/0 5(,7-08<
5-/-,5 .# -1,5,
45
&1471 ),-/4+59
,'-,0 " 4'-.:' $
/+&/=5 -1,5, ),-/4+59
6/'451 4# :'-1,
:' /4'4-4/+
',0@=
-,
0/+? -1/- 5(,7-08<
.# 7.805,? %'
-1, ,+,7-0.' 454'4-4/+
-1,/++.&,) 4'),(,'),'-
,',0@= ),7/=
/') .#
</=
5(,7-08<
;'/+ -1,5,
'87+,/0A, (80, ),-/4+59
455-/-,5 C,0<4?
4'),(,'),'- :'!"(80,
&1471 ,'-,0 C!/<.&I",++,0?
.# -1,5,
4'-. $ ),-/4+59
@,',0/+?
C .# .0
7.805,? -1, 4'4/
-1,
.0,-04J4'4-4/+
,0/+?
'4-4/+ ,+,<,'-59
.#/') /')
7.805,?
7.<(+47/-,)
<4J-80,
;'/+ ;'/+
-1,
-1/'
.#
'87+,/0 '87+,/0
4'4-4/+
A.-1? -1.5,
5-/-,5 5-/-,5
/') ;'/+
.#&1471
),(,')4'@ .80 >D
&1471 '87+,/0
C-1,
.','-,0 ,'-,0
,J/<(+,9
),-/4+5
4'-.>D4'-.
5-/-,5
$ .# $$
-1,&1471
/')
'87+,/0
C&1471 ,'-,0
</-04J4'-. $
,+,<,'-59
',0/+?
" !" In.#
/0, general,
7.805,?
<.0, the initial
-1,
7.<(+47/-,) and
4'4-4/+ final
/')
-1/' nuclear
;'/+
-1.5,
>D states
'87+,/0
.# .80 whichC enter
5-/-,5
(/04-=?
,J/<(+,9
C C into
54'7,$ C!and
,'-,0
45
/')
/') "4'-.
/' are
/J4/+
!" /0,$Cmore
6,7-.09
<.0,
C 7.<("1
,5,
" ),-/4+59
7.<(+47/-,) /0, K.-, :'
<.0, -1/'
-1/- -1.5,
-1,
7.<(+47/-,) .#
,+,7-0.' .80
>D,',0@=
-1/' C 5-/-,5
,J/<(+,9
5(,7-08<
-1.5, .#.# $
45
.80 >D
/')
4'),(,'),'-
C C.#,J/<(+,9.#"-1,5, ),-/4+596/'451
$/+&/=5 :'
'451
<(+47/-,)
/+&/=5
),'-,0 "!" 4#complicated
-1, 4'4-4/+
-1/'
6/'451
/0, <.0, 4# /')
than
-1.5, -1, ;'/+
those
.#
4'4-4/+
7.<(+47/-,) .80of'87+,/0
/') C example
,J/<(+,9
;'/+
-1/' '87+,/0
-1.5, /0,
$ .#
/')
5-/-,5 C.((.54-,
.80 >D
/0, .((.54-,
,J/<(+,9 $C /') /') 4# -1,
1"=? !"
4#/+&/=5
-1,4'-. $C /')
@,',0/+?
4'4-4/+ .#4#;'/+
7.805,? -1,
'87+,/0 4'4-4/+
5-/-,5 /') /0,;'/+
C '87+,/0
'87+,/0
.#'. .((.54-, 5-/-,5 5-/-,5
&1471 4'
!" /'
,'-,0 /++.&,)
C
4'-.!$ -0/'54
/'
1, /J4/+
54'7,
4'4-4/+! 6,7-.09
6/'451
45 /'
/') "185
/J4/+
;'/+ -1, -1,0,
6,7-.09
'87+,/0 7/'
4'4-4/+
"1855-/-,5A,
/')
-1,0,'.
/0, (/04-=
;'/+
7/'.# A, 71/'@,
'87+,/0
.((.54-, (/04-= 4'71/'@,
5-/-,5 -1,>D/0, .#-1,
(/04-=?
4' .((.54-,
54'7, 45C/' /J4/+ 6
<(+,9
!" /J4/+ /+&/=5
$ and
C/')
6,7-.09 6/'451 !" always
/')-0/'54-4.'9
""185 4#
/0,
-1,0,-1,
<.0, 4'4-4/+
vanish A,if"185
7/'7.<(+47/-,)
'. /')
the (/04-= ;'/+
initial-1/'and '87+,/0
final
71/'@,-1.5, nuclear 5-/-,5
"1,
.#-1,
4''. .80 axial
states /0,
C are .# .((.54-,
coupling $Cconstant
of opposite
,J/<(+,9 parity
/') "%
-=?
,/0 /' /++.&,)
54'7,
5-/-,5
+ 6,7-.09 !4'
"185 45/'/' /J4/+
/++.&,)
-1,0, 7/'6,7-.09
-0/'54-4.'9
A, '. (/04-= -1,0,
71/'@, 7/' A,
4' -1, (/04-= 71/'@,
'87+,/0 4' -1,
5-/-,5 4' /' /++.&
04-=?
0, since"
.# 54'7,
.((.54-, is /+&/=5
!!"45 an
/' axial
/J4/+ vector;
6/'4516,7-.09no parity
4# -1, "185 change
4'4-4/+-1,0,/')in7/' nuclear
;'/+ 45A, /states
'.
'87+,/0 in an allowed
(/04-=
5-/-,5
(/0/<,-,0 71/'@,
/0,"1,
.# transition
4' -1,
.# -1,
.((.54-,
-1,.0=9
"1, /++.&,)
upling
,/0 axial
5-/-,5 -0/'54-4.'9
constant
coupling
4' /'" constant
&1471
/++.&,) /((,/05
" -0/'54-4.'9
&1471 4' -1,
/((,/05 ,J(0,554.'5
4' -1, /A.6,
,J(0,554.'5 /A.6, axial coupling:- con
.&,)
7+,/0
71/'@, -0/'54-4.'9
(/04-=?
5-/-,5
4' -1, 4'%-1,/'
%
54'7, /++.&,)
! /((,/05 %
45 /' /J4/+ 6,7-.09
-0/'54-4.'9 "185 -1,0,/A.6, 7/' A, '. (/04-= 71/'@, 4' -1,.# -1, -1
ng constant " &1471 4''.--1,/,J(0,554.'5 (/0/<,-,09 45
L, / (/0/<,-,0
51/++ 5,, 4' !>B9E -
.#
"1,
onstant-1,
(/0/<,-,0 axial coupling
-1,.0=9
The"'87+,/0
axial.# :-
coupling
&1471 45 constant
/((,/05
5-/-,5
'.-
-1,.0=9
constant
4'
/
/'
:-
4' #8')/<,'-/+
45 #8')/<,'-/+
is a -0/'54-4.'9
&1471 parameter
"% ,J(0,554.'5
-1,
/++.&,)
(/0-47+,
/((,/05 of the
/A.6, (1=5475
(/0-47+,
theory,
4' -1, (1=5475
not a fundamental
,J(0,554.'5 /A.6, particle
-1,"1,-1,.0=9
1/++
<,-,09 5,,axial
physics
L,
% coupling
4' :- 455,,
parameter
!>B9E
51/++ '.-
-1/- 4' constant
( / #8')/<,'-/+
!>B9E
" * >%BE9
-1/- "%") &1471
* >%BE9 /((,/05
(/0-47+, 4' -1, ,J(0,554.'5
(1=5475 (/0/<,-,09 /A.6,L, 51/++ 5,, 4
(/0/<,-,0
-1,.0=9
,554.'5 :-
/A.6, 45 .#
"1,'.- -1,
axial/ -1,.0=9
%
#8')/<,'-/+ :-
coupling constant 45% '.- /
"% &1471
(/0-47+, #8')/<,'-/+ C.0 / C,0<4
(/0-47+,
/((,/05 4' -1, ,J(0,554.'5
(1=5475 -0/'54-4.'?
(1=5475
C.0 /
-1, 71
/A.6, -0/'54-4.
C,0<4
/++-0/'54-4.'?
C.0 5,, 4' !>B9E
(/0/<,-,0
/ C,0<4 -1/-
.#71/'@,
-0/'54-4.'?
-1, -1, *
"% -1,.0=9
-1, >%BE9
!( 71/'@, :- 45
4' -1,.0=9
'87+,/0!("'.-
4':-5(4' / '.-
'87+,/0 #8')/<,'-/+
<85- 5(4'A, <85-
M,0.9 (/0-47+,
A, M,0.9 (1=5475
/<,-,094' !>B9E
,0/<,-,09
/0-47+, L,
45
(1=5475 /
-1/- 51/++
(/0/<,-,0
" 5,,
* >%BE9 4' .#!>B9E
-1, -1/- % * 45 >%BE9 C.0
/ / !/<.&I",++,0
#8')/<,'-/+ (/0-47+, -0/'54-4.'?-0/'
(1=5475
C.0 / !/<.&I",++,0 !
/'54-4.'?
/ !/<.&I",++,0
For -1,
L,
a Fermi 71/'@,
51/++% !(
5,,
-0/'54-4.'?
transition, 4'
4' the'87+,/0
!>B9E
!( !
change -1/-
$ .05(4'
>?"
in 08+,5 A=
nuclear <85-
* -1, A,
>%BE9
08+,5
spin, M,0.9
#.0 /))4-4.'
,.#
whereas .#
for a GT transition,
",++,0
C.0 / -0/'54-4.'?
(/0/<,-,09
C,0<4 !(L,
-0/'54-4.'? ! $51/++ .0-1,>?5,,A= 4'-1,
71/'@, !>B9E !(%-1/- #.0
4' " *∆𝐽
%/))4-4.'
'87+,/0 = 05(4'
>%BE9 <85- A, M,0.9
-4.'?
,0
+/0 -1,
-0/'54-4.'?
∆𝐽
<.<,'-8<? 71/'@,
= 0 !(
or 1 !($4'.0
!
,J7,(- '87+,/0
-1/- >? A=
$ + -1,5(4'
$ 08+,5<85-
-0/'54-4.'5#.0 A,
/))4-4.'
/0, /'@8+/0
M,0.9
#.0A4)),'.# <.<,'-8<?
54'7,
/'@8+/0
-1, ,J7,(-
<.<,'-8<? -1/-,J7,
$
/C.0
8<?
<85-
/ C,0<4
,J7,(-
!/<.&I",++,0
A, M,0.9 C.0-0/'54-4.'?
-1/- $/ + C,0<4
-0/'54-4.'? -1,!(
$ -0/'54-4.'5
-0/'54-4.'? 71/'@,
!/0,
-1, $ !(>?4'A=!(
#.0A4)),'
71/'@,
.0 '87+,/0
54'7,
4' '87+,/0
-1, 08+,5 5(4'
-1, #.0 <85-
5(4' <85-
/))4-4.'
</-04J
A, A,M,0.9
,+,<,'- M,0.9
.# .# !A,-&
6/'45
<? /'54-4.'?
4J ,J7,(-
,+,<,'-Note: !(
-1/-.# !
$
! +$ .0
6/'451,5$ >?
GT A=
-0/'54-4.'5 -1,
transitions
A,-&,,' 08+,5
/0,are
-&. #.0 /))4-4.'
forbidden
#.0A4)),'
5(1,047/++= as54'7,.#
the
</-04Jmatrix
-1,
5=<<,-047/+ elements
,+,<,'- 5-/-,59 of
.# ! vanish
6/'451,5 between
.# 0 /! !/<.&I",++,0
6/'451,5C.0 /A,-&,,'!/<.&I",++,0 -0/'54-4.'?
+5=<<,-047/+
-0/'54-4.'?
-&. 5(1,047/++= $!(.0!>?$ A=
!( ! 5=<<,-047/+ .0 >?-1, A= 08+,5
-1, 08+,5
5-/-,59 #.0 #.0 /))4-4.'.#.#
/))4-4.'
!8+/0
7,(- <.<,'-8<?
.06/'451,5
/))4-4.'
-1/- .# $with
two$states
+
A,-&,,'
/'@8+/0
,J7,(-
-&.
<.<,'-8<?
-1/-
angular
-0/'54-4.'5 /0,$#.0A4)),'
momentum
5(1,047/++=
,J7,(-
$ 0-0/'54-4.'5
-1/- $ +54'7,
$ -1,/0, #.0A4)),' 54'7, -1,
5-/-,59
-0/'54-4.'5 /0, #.0A4)),' 54'7,-1,
-1,
@8+/0
)),'
04J <.<,'-8<?
54'7,
,+,<,'- ,J7,(- -1/-
-1,.# ! 6/'451,5 $ +-&.
A,-&,,' $ -0/'54-4.'5
5(1,047/++=/0,5=<<,-047/+
#.0A4)),' 54'7,
5-/-,59
'451,5 A,-&,,'
</-04J -&. 5(1,047/++=
,+,<,'- 5=<<,-047/+
.# ! 6/'451,5 A,-&,,' 5-/-,59
-&. 5(1,047/++= 5=<<,-047/+ 5-/-,59
-04J ,+,<,'-
<,-047/+ 5-/-,59 .# ! 6/'451,5 A,-&,,' -&. 5(1,047/++= 5=<<,-047/+ 5-/-,59
6
 Table 5.5.
Classification in β-decay
J!P = J!D + L! β + S!β
πP = πD (−1) L β
Allowed transitions !
L! β = 0
1st forbidden transitions !
L! β = 1
2nd forbidden transitions !
L! β = 2
Fermi transitions S!β = 0!
Gamow–Teller transitions S!β = 1!

!β
I. Allowed transitions ( L = 0, π P = π D )
!
Fermi-type ( S!β = 0) Gamow–Teller type ( S!
J!P = J!D J!P = J!D + 1! 7
+
Ex. : 14O à 14N*, 34Cl à 34S, 10C à 10B*, all pure Fermi type, 0" ⟶ 0"

#% &%
6Heà 6Li (0" ⟶ 1" ), 13Bà 13C ( ⟶ ), 230Paà 230Th* (2% ⟶ 3% ),
$ $
111Snà 111In '" ("
($ ⟶ $
), all pure GT transitions

8
 J!P = J!D J!P = J!D + 1!
|#J | = 0 |#J | = 0, 1: no 0+ → 0+
0+ → 0+ : superallowed 0+ → 1+ : unique Gamow–Teller

! π P = −π D )
! β = 1,
II. 1st forbidden transitions ( L
!
Fermi-type ( S!β = 0) !
Gamow–Teller type ( S!β = 1)
J!P = J!D + 1! J!P = J!D + 1! + 1!
! "# $
!0,2!1, 2
! 1,
0,
|#J | = 0, 1
no 0− → 0+ 3 types
(i) |#J | = 0
(ii) |#J | = 0, 1; no 0+ → 0+
(iii) |#J | = 0, 1, 2; no 0− → 0+
no 1+ → 0−
+ −
no 12 → 12
Ex. :

5.3.5 Electron-capture processes

If the energy difference between parent and daughter nuclei is less than 92m 0 c2
then rather than β + -decay, electrons from the atomic bound states (K, L, M, . . .)
Second Forbidden decays, examples:

Third Forbidden decays, examples:

Fourth Forbidden decays, example:

8.4 What are the configurations of the ground states of the nuclei 41 Nb
93
and
16 S and what values are predicted in the single-particle shell model for
33

their spins, parities, and magnetic dipole moments?

8.5 Show explicitly that a uniformly charged ellipsoid at rest with total
charge Z e and semi-axes defined in Figure 2.17 has a quadrupole moment
Q = 2Z (a2 − b2 )/5.
8.6 The ground state of the nucleus 165 67Ho has an electric quadrupole moment
Q ≈ 3.5 b. If this is due to the fact that the nucleus is a deformed ellipsoid,
use the result of Question 8.5 to estimate the sizes of its semi-major and
semi-minor axes.
8.7 The decay 226 90 Th (0+
) → 88Ra (0 ) + α has a Q-value of 6.451 MeV and
222 +

a half-life of 30.57 min. If the frequency and probability of forming

alpha particles (see (8.53)) for this decay are the same as those for the
decay 228
90 Th (0 +
) → 88Ra (0 ) + α, estimate the half-life for the α decay
224 +

90Th, given that its Q-value is 5.520 MeV.

of 228
8.8 The 23892U is unstable and decays via alpha emission. (a) Calculate the
height of the Coulomb barrier shown in Figure 8.2 for this decay. (b) What
is the distance from the centre of the nuclear potential beyond which the
kinetic energy of the α-particle is positive?
8.9 Three nuclei A, B, C are radioactive isotopes of the same element and all
decay via α-emission. The half-lives t1/2 and ranges r of the alpha particles
for A and B are:
A (t1/2 = 103 yr, r = 3 cm), B (t1/2 = 102 days, r = 4 cm).
 is the distance from the centre of the nuclear potential beyond which the
kinetic energy of the α-particle is positive?
8.9 Three nuclei A, B, C are radioactive isotopes of the same element and all
decay via α-emission. The half-lives t1/2 and ranges r of the alpha particles
for A and B are:
A (t1/2 = 103 yr, r = 3 cm), B (t1/2 = 102 days, r = 4 cm).
If the range of the α particles from the decay of C is r = 6 cm, estimate
its half-life.
8.10 The reaction 34 S(p,n)34 Cl has a threshold proton laboratory energy of
6.45 MeV. Calculate nonrelativistically the upper limit of the positron
energy in the β decay of 34 Cl, given that the mass difference between
the neutron and the hydrogen atom is 0.78 MeV.
8.11 To determine the mass of the electron neutrino from the beta decay of tri-
tium requires measurements of the electron energy spectrum very close to
the endpoint, where there is a paucity of events (see Figure 8.12). Obtain a
rough estimate of the fraction of electrons with kinetic energies within 5 eV
of the endpoint by ignoring the Fermi screening factor and approximating
the spectrum as a function of kinetic energy T by dω/dT = T 1/2 (T0 − T)2 ,
where T0 is the endpoint. You may assume the integral
!a
x1/2 (a − x)2 dx ≈ 13 a1/2 ε3 , ε $ a.
a−ε

8.12 Use the approximation given in Problem 8.11 for the kinetic energy spectra
of β decays with very low-energy endpoints T0 to show that in these cases
 x1/2 (a − x)2 dx ≈ 13 a1/2 ε3 , ε $ a.
a−ε

8.12 Use the approximation given in Problem 8.11 for the kinetic energy spectra
of β decays with very low-energy endpoints T0 to show that in these cases
the mean kinetic energy is T0 /3.

Kurie Plot and mass of neutrinos are for self-study

Also problems 8.11 and 8.12 are for homework!

@46,' A=

𝑓𝑇! or 𝑓𝑡 valuesB or comparative half-life:

#BC +8) &
B % B B ' B
)*#),$ ! '($ ( & ($ ( & ($ ( & ($!" ( )-7 #), $)), "
"
C !"
B# ! ,
* D E !"

The product of a beta-decay half life 𝑇&/$ and the number 𝑓(𝑍* , 𝐸+ ) is the 𝑓𝑇! or
"
the 𝑓𝑡 value !"#$%&'( )*+
/') -1, <,/' +4#, 45 @46,' A=
From
!"#$%&'(
> #BC +8) B
.F, ,G B % B & B ' B
!
!"#! $ $%& '()*+,- '($ ( & ($ ( & ($
* D). / !0*&,/1 %/2. 23.& !!" 4!"#56
C !" ( & ($ " !#) *" ")$$:$%" 3;
( )/ #0
/7* -%& 7+89&(
!"
B# ! !"
-%& <"!!" = >/2+&# ?()8 &@+/-3)7; 4!"#A6 /7* 4!"#B6 -%& "!!" >/2+& C3>&; /
#>B%H$
we see that
*3(&,- a direct empirical
&8'3(3,/2 determination
*&-&(837/-3)7 ). -%&of the7+,2&/(
nuclear matrix
8/-(3Delement
&2&8&7-
#%? #" $ #!E$ #" # canF/2,+2/-&
be accomplished
-%& if we
"!! know
"
the 𝑓𝑡 .)(
>/2+& values -%& *&,/1
%' G!
/++.&,)G!
!H I %!J K $ &$ $</=
),7/= #L A, (80,
.)( M%3,%C,0<4? (80,;L !/<.&I",++,0?
!!" & "$H: $: & 5$B5 N&O .0 /7*/
<4J-80, .#" !!J" 5$B5"
A.-1? & !PG:# Q7.'
),(,')4'@ -%&-1,
;38'2& ;%&22
),-/4+5 .#8)*&2L -%3; *&,/1
-1, '87+,/0 37>)2>&;
</-04J / ";!"
,+,<,'-59
K.-, -1/-'()-)7 ,%/7C37C
-1, ,+,7-0.' -) / ";5(,7-08<
,',0@= ! 7&+-()7# F)8'/(&
"
-%3; "!!".#
45 4'),(,'),'- >/2+& M3-%
-1,5, -%/- ).:'
),-/4+59 /
@,',0/+? .#.(&& 7&+-()7#
7.805,? -1,R%1 *) /')
4'4-4/+ -%& -M)
;'/+>/2+&; *3..&(S
'87+,/0 5-/-,5 &1471 ,'-,0 4'-. $C
/') !"#"
"!" $%& /0, ,();;0;&,-3)7 -1/' -1.5, .# .80 >DC ,J/<(+,9 $C /')
.)( -%& (&/,-3)7
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