The Nuclear • Unfortunately, nuclear physics has not profited as

Force and much from analogy as has atomic physics. The reason
seems to be that the nucleus is the domain of new
the and unfamiliar forces, for which men have not yet
developed an intuitive feeling.
Nucleon-
Nucleon V. L. Telegdi [Sci. Am. 1962]

Interaction
• …more man-hours have been given to this problem
than to any other scientific question in the history of
mankind.

Hans Bethe [1952]

No info on nuclear force from
studying nucleus!

nucleons as a degenerate Fermi gas,

nucleons in a potential well

nucleons’ behaviour ind. of exact

nature of NN force

potential found from NN scattering

and deuteron

the problem of the strong coupling

constant
 Scattering phases Consider a nucleon coming in “from infinity” with kinetic
E andenergy
asmomentum
a spherical
E and wave.
p which
momentum
scatters off
The cross-section the
depends
p which scatters
potential
off upon
ofofanother
the phase
the potential shift nucleon
between
another thes
nucleon.
omingThe nucleon
two waves.
incoming may be described
nucleon by a plane
may be described wave
by a plane andand
wave thetheoutgoing nucleo
outgoing nucleon
aFor states
Thewith
ericalasSCATTERING:
wave.spherical well defined
cross-section
wave. The spin anddepends
depends
cross-section isospin
uponthe thecross-section
upon phase
the shift
phase of between
shiftnucleon-nucleo
thes
between these
scattering
ves. two waves.into a solid angle element d˝ is given by the scattering amplitude f .!/ o
the•For
reaction
NN scattering
with wellis elastic below
and pion
tates with states
well defined defined
spin andspin
isospin the production
isospin cross-section threshold,
the cross-section can
ofofnucleon-nucleo
nucleon-nucleon
use non-relativistic
scattering into a solid angleQM, using
element d˝aispotential
given by the scattering amplitude f .!/ of
ng intothea reaction
solid angle element d˝ is given d"
D j
by
f
the
.!/j 2 scattering amplitude f .!/ o
: (17.1
tion • Nucleons understood as point-like
d˝ but with spin and isospin
• Scattering phases d" 2
D j f .!/j
For scattering off a short ranged potential a partial
: wave decomposition is(17.1)
used t
d" d˝
describe the scattering amplitude. D j The scattered
f .!/j 2
: waves are expanded in terms wit
(17.1
fixed
Forangular momentum
scattering d˝
off a short In thepotential
`.ranged case of aelastic
partialscattering the following
wave decomposition relatio
is used to
holds at large
describe distancesamplitude.
the scattering r from theThe centre of the scattering:
scattered waves are expanded in terms with
cattering
fixedoff a short
angular ranged `.potential
momentum
Partial-wave decomposition: In the casea partial
of elasticwave the followingisrelation
decomposition
scattering used t
1
e the scattering
holds at largeamplitude. The
distances r from 1 X scattered
the centre ofwaves
the
iı`
are expanded in terms wit
scattering:
f .!/ D .2` C 1/ e sin ı` P` .cos !/ ; (17.2
gular momentum `. In the case k 1 of elastic scattering the following relatio
1 X`D0
large distances r from the
f .!/ D centre .2` of the
C 1/scattering:
eiı` sin ı` P` .cos !/ ; (17.2)
where k
`D0
X1 p
where f .!/ D 1 1 eiı` jsin
.2`
k C
D 1/ D
pj ı P 2ME
` ` .cos !/ ;
D (17.2
(17.3
k #– „ p „
`D0 1 j pj 2ME
 0
r
! ∞
2µV0 R k 2l+1
δl ∼ − r 2l+1 e−r/R dr
!2 [(2l + 1)!!]2 0

be evaluated by successive integration by parts. We

" 2 #
2µV0 R (2l + 1)! 2l+1
δl ∼ − (kR)
!2 [(2l + 1)!!]2
decreases as r −n (n > 2) for large r, the above l
in general does not apply.
phase shift on the wave function gl (r) is shown s
positive (repulsive) and negative (attractive) potent
the function j (kr) corresponding to the free partic
 for nuclear binding. From (17.4) we see that the s waves dominate proton-proton
the amplitude .sin ı / follows from the conservation of
scattering (potential range 2 fm) for relative momenta less than 100 MeV/c. The
Legendre` polynomial P0 is just 1, i.e., independent of !. The phase shifts ı0 as
ic scattering. This is also known as unitarity. The partial
measured in nucleon-nucleon scattering are separately plotted for spin triplet and
singlet states against the momentum in the centre-of-mass frame in Fig. 17.1. For
𝑙 = 0 s-waves imp. for nuclear binding;
ecially convenient at low energies since only a few terms
momenta larger than 400 MeV/c ı0 is negative, below this it is positive. We learn
from this that the nuclear force has adominate for momenta
repulsive character at short less thanand
distances 100anMeV/c
s because for a potential with range a we have
attractive nature at larger separations. This may be simply seen as follows.
Consider a, by definition, spherically symmetric s wave .x/. We may define a
new radial function u.r/ by u.r/ D .r/ " r which obeys the Schrödinger equation
j pj " a
`! : d2 u.r/
C
2m.E # V/
u.r/ D 0 : (17.4) (17.5)
„ dr2 „2

Fig. 17.1 The phase shift ı0

he partial waves with ` D 0 (i.e., 1.0
s waves) is decisive
as determined from
experiment both for the spin 3S Spin triplet
(17.4) we see that the s waves dominate proton-proton
triplet-isospin singlet 3 S1 and
for the spin singlet-isospin
0.75
1 Isospin singlet

Phase shift δ0 [rad]

2 fm) for relative momenta less than 100 MeV/c.
triplet 1 S0 systems plotted
against the relative momenta 1
The
Spin singlet S0
s just 1, i.e., independent of !. The phase shifts ı0 as
of the nucleons. The rapid
0.50 Isospin triplet
variation of the phases at
small momenta is not plotted
eon scattering are separately plotted for spin triplet and
since the scale of the diagram
0.25
is too small
momentum in the centre-of-mass frame in Fig. 17.1. For
MeV/c ı0 is negative, below this it 0is positive.
100 200
We300
learn 400 500
force has a repulsive character at short distances and
Momentum [MeV/c] an
 from this that the nuclear force has a repulsive
n u.r/ by u.r/ D .r/ " r which
attractive obeys
nature at the Schrödinger
larger equation
separations. This may
phase for a repulsive (left) and an attractive (right) potential.
red waves, 2the continuous ones Consider a, by
the scattered definition, spherically symm
waves
d u.r/ 2m.E # V/
C new radialu.r/ function
D 0 :u.r/ by u.r/ D .r/(17.5)
" r wh
dr2 „2
n for a repulsive rectangular potential V with radius2 b
d u.r/ 2m.E # V/
we find
Solve for repulsive rect. pot. 𝑉 with radius 𝑏 and 𝑉 → ∞ ; soln. 2
C
shift ı0 290
dr „ 2
1.0
ı0 D !kb : (17.6)
he spin 3S Spin triplet
3
S1 and Fig. 17.1V ( r )The phase shift 1 ı0 Isospin singlet V ( r )
tive
ospin
and proportional as todetermined
the range of the potential.
from δ 0 < 0 A 1.0
0.75
Phase shift δ0 [rad]

ans
ottedthat the scattered wave lags behind
experiment both forthetheunscattered
spin
omenta triplet-isospin singlet 3
S and a
b 1unscattered
1
the scattered wave runs Spin singlet
ahead of the S0 one r
rapid for the spin singlet-isospin 0.75

ase shift δ0 [rad]

0.50 Isospin triplet
(right)).
s at The size of the phase
triplet 1 shift is plotted
S0 systems the difference
veplotted against
scattered off the edge thepotential
of the relative momenta
a and that of
diagram Spin sing
of the nucleons. The rapid Isospin tr
0.25 variation 0.50
Fig.of theSketch
17.2 phases atscattering phase for a repulsive (left) and
of the
p ! The p dashed curves
2 small momenta 2 is notdenote
plotted
unscattered waves, the continuous ones th
 V (r)
𝛿! positive
δ 0< 0 δ 0> 0

a
r r

17.1 Nucleon-Nucleon Scattering 291

of the scattering phase for a repulsive (left) and an attractive (right) potential.
δ0 Attraction
denote unscattered waves, the continuous ones the scattered waves
Sum

e this equation for a repulsive rectangular potential VMomentum

with radius b
g. 17.2 (left)), we find
Repulsion

ı0 D !kb : (17.6)
Fig. 17.3 Superposition of negative and positive scattering phases ı0 plotted against the relative
momenta of the scattered particles. The resulting effective ı0 is generated by a short distance
phase is negative
repulsiveand
and aproportional to the
longer range attractive range ofpotential
nucleon-nucleon the potential. A
ing phase means that the scattered wave lags behind the unscattered
100
 -50
Superposition of negative and positive scattering phases ı0 plotted against the relative
Completeparticles.
of the scattered phase-shift
Theanalysis leads
resulting to an NNı0pot
effective is of the typeby a short distance
generated
nd a longer range attractive nucleon-nucleon potential
-100
100
l dependence of the nucleon-nucleon potential for ` D 0. Note that
ce of the potential
50
is not shown
No spin and isospin
V(r) [MeV]

1 2 3 dependence shown
0
e valid for nucleon-nucleon bound states and low energy
r [fm]
g. -50
determine the interaction are the separation of the nucle-
menta p, the-100total orbital angular momentum L and the
he spins of the two nucleons, s1 and s2 . The potential is
Sketch of the radial dependence of the nucleon-nucleon potential for ` D 0. Note that
dvery least beof invariant
isospin dependence under
the potential is not shown translations and rotations.
symmetric under exchange of the two nucleons. These
Symmetry and invariance considerations

Many-body forces for more than two nucleons?

 the simplest of all the nucleon bound states i.e.,
The Deuteron
particularly suitable for studying the nucleon-nu
ve yielded the following data about the deuteron g

Binding energy B D 2:225 MeV

Spin and parity JP D 1C
Isospin ID 0
Magnetic moment ! D 0:857 !N
Elec. quadrupole moment Q D 0:282 e!fm2 .
 gnetic moment
moments are not altered by the binding interaction). This prediction for the deuteron
magnetic moment
!p C !n D 2:793 !N ! 1:913 !N D 0:880 !N (17.9)
!p C !n D 2:793 !N ! 1:913 !N D 0:880 !N (17.9)
fers slightly from the measured value of 0:857 !N . Both the magnetic dipole
mentdiffers
and slightly
the
Measured
fromquadrupole
electric the measuredmoment
value 0.857 𝜇"
value ofcan N . Both theby
be!explained
0:857 magnetic dipole
the admixture
moment
a state with theandsame
the electric quadrupole
J P quantum moment can be explained by the admixture
numbers
P
of aExplanation:
state with the same J quantum numbers
3 3
j di D 0:98 " j S 3i C 0:20 " j D 1 i1 i: :
j d i D 0:98 " j S1 i C 0:20 " j 3 D
1 (17.10)
(17.10)
294 17 The Nuclear Force
otherInwords there is
other words therea 4is%a chance4 % chance of finding
of findingthethedeuteron
deuteron in in a 33D
D11 state.
state.This
This
mixture can becan
admixture explained
Fig.be Radialfrom
17.5explained the the
from
probability tensor
tensorcomponents
components ofof the
the nucleon-nucleon
nucleon-nucleon
distribution u2 .r/ D r2 j j2 u 2 (r)
interaction. of the nucleons in the
eraction.
We nowWe nowtowant
want to calculate
deuteron
calculate the nucleon
for an attractive
thea nucleon
potential with range
wave
wave functioninside
function insideaa deuteron.
deuteron. Since
Sincethethe
system is more or less in an ` D 0 state, the wave function will be spherically
tem is more or less in an ` D 0 state, the wave function will be spherically
(dashed curve) and for the
symmetric. We rangewill
a ! 0need the depth V of the potential well (averaged over the
with a fixed
mmetric. We will need
volume
attractive and well
repulsive the
Va2 for depth
the potential
(continuousparts)
V of the potential well (averaged rover the
curve) and its range, a. The binding energy of the deuteron
active andgives
alone repulsive
us oneparts) parameter and its– therange, a. The
“volume” of binding energy
the potential well,ofi.e.,
theVadeuteron
2
. The
ne gives us one
solutions parameter
of the Schrödinger – the “volume”
equation of the potential
(17.5) are a well, i.e., Va2 . The
utions of the Schrödinger equation (17.5) arep
if r < a W uI .r/ D A sin kr where k D 2m.E ! V/=„; .V < 0/ ;
pp (17.11)
f r < aifW ru>I .r/
a W uD A sin kr where
II .r/ D Ce
!"r
wherek D" D 2m.E ! V/=„; .V
!2mE=„; .E << 0/0/;;
p which is characterised by 1=! ! 4:3 fm,(17.11)
2.25 MeV). The tail of the wave function,
!"r
17.3 Nature of the Nuclear Force 295

Fig. 17.6 The radial Hydrogen molecule

probability distribution u2 .r/ b = 0.39 . 10 --10 m
u 2(r)
of the hydrogen atoms in a
hydrogen molecule (top) [7] 2
and of nucleons in a deuteron
(bottom) in units of the
relevant hard cores (From
[1]). The covalent bond 1
strongly localises the H
atoms, since the binding
energy is comparable to the 0 r/b
depth of the potential. The 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
weak nuclear bond, since the V [eV]
potential energy is
2
comparable in size to the
kinetic energy, means that the
nucleons are delocalised 4 Binding energy
= 4.47 eV

Deuteron
2 b = 0.5 fm
u (r)
2

0 r/b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
V [MeV]
–100 Binding energy
= 2.23 MeV

–200

17.3 Nature of the Nuclear Force

296 17 The Nuclear Force

Fig. 17.7 Sketch of the

nucleon-nucleon potential
derived from phase shift V(r)
short range intermediate long range
analyses of low-energy elastic
nucleon-nucleon scattering
data

1 2 3

r [fm]

Ideally, we would like to derive the nuclear force between nucleons from QCD,
the field theory of the strong interaction between quarks mediated by the exchange
of gluons. Such a derivation is, however, not yet possible, one of the reasons being
that nucleons are colour-neutral. At distances larger than the confinement scale only
colour-neutral objects can be exchanged between them, i.e., only the exchange of
two or more gluons, of quark-antiquark pairs or of mesons is possible.
Consequently, one has to rely on simplifications and approximations. Below, we
will shortly present some aspects of two different approaches for the description of
the nuclear force: quark models and meson-exchange models.