Propagation of

light
we dis tossed how the Maxwell equation

lead to wave equations These waves

what
are is perceived as
light for
about 750 420 THz
frequencies of
about 400
or wavelengths of 700 am

In the
following we want to

knowledge to simple
apply our

optical systems
PL 7 Geometrical Optics
In general waves are not plane
But in a
sufficiently small spare
region they to
are a
good approximation

In this region we
define the wave

surface as the plane perpendicular to

the propagation direction and on the

all points have the

surface same

phase at a time Rays

given
the tangents to the
form propagation
dire if ion These concepts can then

be continuously continued to the

whole space
In geometriial optics the propagation
of electromagnetic waves is desivibed

in terms of propagation of rays

detached from their wave properties

That corresponds to the limit 7 10

Let be
f a
quantity destribing

the field the wave For a plane

of
monochromatic has the form
wave
J
wt ta
either eif Knx ta

y
a a

where omit Re convenience

we
for
More simply For
Je a e a

general wave where we ran

apply
geoptics
metrical a ali t and
y the t s 1 The phase y is

called the eikonal Over small space time

expand it
regions we can

4 4 t F It t
34 t

The chosen the lousidered

origin is in

space time patch and we expand about

it In small enough the

a
patch
wave is plane and then

I 5t w
It K
24
In and the systems we
vacuum
for
consider K kn YI It
0
This is called the eikonal
equation
This equation ion also be derived

the wave
equation
from
Jae't
0 I aroma e
if 22 4
22 1
12 eit 124 12 41
2 a
last
But the eikonal 457 t so
for
and the three terms
hence
first
are
negligible compared to the last

It is tempting to make an analogy

between K wie and p Elc in

claisital mechanics and then derive

the Euler Lagrange equations

 But this not
fails since it is

possible to find a
Lagrangian for
the rays

A way out is the printiple of

Mau per five

85 81 F di o

where
it is the momentum and I an

infinitesimal path element That is

the principle least length The

of
is constant the path
energy along
He first formulated it light
for
But there we
usually refer to
 Fermat's principle for rays

which reads

Sy IS F de o

which is the principle of least

time In vacuum É W di and

we obtain di n de

f de O

the rays are

straight lines

PL 2
Intensity
In geometrical optics rays

determine the direction of

Let us discuss the
propagation
 taken Landau Lifshitz
from
distribution
of intensity and

consider element of
an
infinitesimal
the I above This
wave
surface see

has two principle circles

of
curvature The arcs ac and

bd with radii R 100,1 and

Re The
10021 opening angle
 both arcs is the same
for
For point sources Ra Ra

The intensity of the wave

decreases when the surface grows

const
I
R Rz

This determines how the

formula
intensity the changes
of wave

while BA
propagating along
Since I ft we can write

1 eik

with R R or D Re
 this to all in
Applying rays

the bundle we
get in general two

more
surfaces defined by the position

the centers curvature

of of
called caustics For a
spherital
the caustics to a
wave
fuse
point called focus For convex

wave
surfaces the centers of
curvature can lie beyond the

optical system from which

they
In suit laser they are
emerge
called imaginary caustics or
foci
The rays are
tangent to the

caustics