Field Test Measurements

4.11. Reflection and Refraction of Elastic Body Waves - Fundamental

Concepts
Chapter 4
 When an elastic stress wave impinges on the boundary of two layers, the wave is
reflected and refracted.
Properties of Dynamically Loaded
 Body waves
Soils  Compression waves (or P–waves): direction of movements of particles same as direction of propagation
 Shear waves (or S–waves):
 SV-waves: motion of the particles is in the plane of propagation
 SH-waves: motion of the particles is perpendicular to the plane of propagation

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 P-wave impinges on the boundary between two layers there will be:  The following equation are true for the reflections and refractions:

 Reflected waves:
• a P-wave in layer 1
• a SV-wave in layer 1
 Refracted waves:
• a P-wave in layer 2
• a SV -wave in layer 2.

 SH-wave impinges the boundary between two layers, there will be:
 Reflected waves:
• a SH-wave in layer 1
 Refracted waves:
• a SH-wave in layer 2

 SV-wave impinges the boundary between two layers, there will be:
 Reflected waves are:
• a P-wave in layer 1
• a SV-wave in layer 1.
 Refracted waves are:
• a P-wave in layer 2
• a SV -wave in layer 2
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 The mathematical derivations of these facts are shown in Kolsky (1963, pp. 24–38).
  It can be mathematically shown that for x greater than a critical value xc, the P-wave that travels the
4.12 Seismic Refraction Survey (Horizontal Layering) path ACDG will be the first to arrive at point G.

 Seismic refraction surveys are sometimes used to determine the wave propagation velocities through  If detecting instruments are placed at various distances from the source of disturbance to obtain first
various soil layers in the field and to obtain thicknesses of each layer. arrival times and the results are plotted in graphical form, the graph will be like below Figure.

 Consider the case where there are two layers of soil: let υp1 < υp2; “A” is a source of impulsive energy.  The slope of line “Oa” will give 1/vp1 . The slope of line “ab” is 1/vp2 . Thus the velocities of vp1 and
vp2 can now be obtained.

 If a detecting device is placed at point B, which is located at a small distance x from “A”, the P-wave
that travels through the upper medium will reach it first before any other wave.
 The depth of the first layer can be calculated as:
 The travel time for this first arrival may be given as

 At critical angle of αc, the P-wave will be parallel x

to layers border.

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Three-Layered Soil Medium

 Similarly for a three-layered soil medium we

will have:

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 4.13 Refraction Survey in Soils with Inclined Layering

 The figure below shows two soil layers. The interface of soil layers 1 and 2 is inclined at an angle β with
respect to the horizontal. Let the P-wave velocities in layers 1 and 2 be υp1 and υp2, respectively (υp1 < υp2).

 If a disturbance is created at A and a detector is placed at B, which is a small distance away from A, the
detector will first receive the P-wave traveling through layer 1. The time for its arrival may be given by:

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 In the actual survey, one can have a source of disturbance such as A and observe the first arrival
time at several points to the right of A and have a source of disturbance such as E and observe
the first arrival time at several points to the left of E.

 Using similar method to the horizontal layered soil medium, the equations for time and depth
for inclined layered soil can be driven as:

Source at E

Source at A

Slope Oa & O′a′ = 1/vp1

Slope of ab = md
Slope a′b′ = mu

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 Limitations

 Seismic refraction is generally applicable only where the seismic velocities of layers increase
with depth. Therefore, where higher velocity (e.g. clay) layers may overlie lower velocity (e.g.
sand or gravel) layers, seismic refraction may yield incorrect results.

 Since seismic refraction requires geophone arrays with lengths of approximately 4 to 5 times
the depth to the density contrast of interest (e.g. the top of bedrock), seismic refraction is
commonly limited (as a matter of practicality) to mapping layers only where they occur at
depths less than 100 feet.

 Greater depths are possible, but the

required array lengths may exceed site
dimensions, and the shot energy required
to transmit seismic arrivals for the
required distances may necessitate the use
of very large explosive charges.

 The lateral resolution of seismic refraction

data degrades with increasing array length
since the path that a seismic first arrival
travels may migrate laterally (i.e. in three
dimensions) off of the trace of the desired
(two dimensional) seismic profile.
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4.14 Reflection Survey in Soil (Horizontal Layering) 4.15 Reflection Survey in Soil (Inclined Layering)

 Reflection surveys can also be conducted to obtain information about the soil layers. The following  The figure below considers the case of a reflection survey where the reflecting boundary is
figure shows a two-layered soil system: inclined at an angle β with respect to the horizontal.

 A is the point of disturbance.  A is the point for the source of disturbance. The reflected P-ray reaching point C will take the
path ABC.
 If a recorder is placed at C at a distance x
away from A, and the travel time for the
first reflected P-wave was measured, the  The travel time for the reflected P-wave along the path ABC will be:
thickness of the first layer can be
calculated as:
 With a similar analytical procedure the
thickness of first layer under point A, z′,
can be calculated.

where “t” is the the travel time of

the first reflected P-waves

 Examples 4.3 & 4.4

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Plot of square of travel times t for the reflected P-waves vs. square of distance, x.
 Limitations 4.16 Subsoil Exploration by Steady-State Vibration
 Seismic reflection uses field equipment similar to seismic refraction, but field and data
 In steady-state vibration, a circular plate placed on the ground surface is vibrated vertically by a
processing procedures are employed to maximize the energy reflected along near vertical ray
sinusoidal loading:
paths by subsurface density contrasts

 Reflected seismic energy is never a first arrival, and therefore must be identified in a
generally complex set of overlapping seismic arrivals – generally by collecting and filtering
multi-fold or highly redundant data from numerous shot points per geophone placement.

 Therefore, the field and processing time for a given lineal footage of seismic reflection
survey are much greater than for seismic refraction.  This vibration will send out Rayleigh waves, and the vertical motion of the ground surface will
predominantly be due to these waves. This can be picked up by motion transducers.
 However, seismic reflection can be performed in the presence of low velocity zones or
velocity inversions, generally has lateral resolution vastly superior to seismic refraction, and
 The velocity of the Rayleigh waves can be given as:
can delineate very deep density contrasts with much less shot energy and shorter line lengths
than would be required for a comparable refraction survey depth. Where f = frequency & L = wavelength.

 The main limitations to seismic reflection are its higher cost than refraction (for sites where  If the L can be measured, the velocity of waves can easily be calculated.
either technique could be applied), and its practical limitation to depths generally greater than
approximately 50 feet.  L is generally determined by the number of waves occurring at a given distance x:

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 We know that for all practical purposes, the Rayleigh wave travels through the soil within a depth of 4.18 Soil Exploration by “Shooting Up the Hole,” “Shooting Down the Hole,”
one wavelength.
and “Cross-Hole Shooting”
Test different f  record n at different x  Find associated L with each f  Calculate vr for each f
 Plot Fig. (a)  plot soil profile Shooting Up the Hole

 In this technique, a hole is drilled into the ground and a detector is placed at the ground surface.
 Charges are exploded at various depths in the hole and the direct travel time of body waves (P or S)
along the boundary of the hole is measured.

 Thus the values of υp and υs of various soil layers can be easily obtained.

Shooting Down the Hole

f: decreases
 This method relies on measuring the time interval for SH-waves to travel between ground surface and
L: increases
the subsurface points.

 A bidirectional impulsive source for propagation of SH-waves is placed on the surface adjacent to a
Soil type associated with vr = vs

borehole.

 A horizontal sensitive transducer is located at a depth in borehole. The depth of the transducer is varied
throughout the length of the borehole.

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 Cross-Hole Shooting
 The shear wave velocity can then be obtained as:
 The seismic cross-hole survey is considered by many engineers to be the most reliable method of
determining the dynamic shear modulus of soil.

 The technique of cross-hole shooting relies on the measurement of SV-wave velocity.

 The arrival of the body wave is recorded by a

vertically sensitive transducer placed at the
bottom of another borehole at the same depth.
Thus:
 Note that even small turbulences in the sampling can
introduce large errors in the evaluation of representative
shear moduli of soils.

 In the test that was done on Undisturbed samples by

Larkin and Taylor 1979: t = travel time for the shear wave
L = length between the two boreholes.

The Down-Hole method of seismic wave testing

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Schematic diagram of cross-hole seismic survey technique

Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio

4.24 Shear Modulus (G) and Damping Ratio (D) for Gravels

4.23 Correlation of Gmax of Sand with Standard Penetration Resistance  Seed et al. (1986) provided the experimental results of several well-graded gravels.

 The standard penetration test is used in soil-exploration programs in the United States and other  Based on their studies they concluded that same equation as Sand can be used for gravel.
countries. In granular soils the standard penetration numbers (N in blows/0.3 m) are widely However, the magnitude of K2(max) for gravels ranges between 80 to 180 (as compared to a range
used for the design of foundation. of 30 to 75 for sand) - see page 175 of Das book for sand

 The standard penetration number can be correlated in the following form to predict the
maximum shear modulus (Seed et al. 1986):
is the average effective confining
pressure - Eq. 4.106

23 Shear moduli of well-graded Oroville material Variation of F′ with shear strain for gravelly soils
24 (after Seed et al., 1986) (after Seed et al., 1986)
  Seed et al. 1986 presented the equivalent damping ratio of gravelly soils determined in the  Rollins et al. (1998) analyzed the results of several investigators between 1986 and 1998,
laboratory from the hysteresis loops at the fifth cycle of each strain amplitude as shown in which were obtained from cyclic triaxial tests and large diameter cyclic torsional simple
the figure below: shear tests.
 Based on this analysis it was suggested:

 They also observed that:

• There is not significant effect of gradation on the equivalent damping ratios of gravelly
soil.

• The damping ratio (D) is not significantly affected by the number of cycles at very small
strain amplitudes. However, it decreases to approximately three-fourths of its original
value after 60 cycles at any axial strain amplitude of ± 0.2%.

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4.25 Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio for Clays

 Hardin and Black (1968) and Hardin (1978) proposed the following empirical relationship for
the shear modulus of clays at low amplitudes of strain.

 The equation includes the effects of soil plasticity and the overconsolidation ratio (OCR).

e = void ratio
pa = atmospheric pressure expressed in the same units (≈ 100 kPa) as Gmax
K = f (plasticity index, PI)

 Following are the recommended values of K for use in the preceding equation:

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  Vucetic and Dobry (1991) used a large database and provided the variation of G/Gmax and D at
various cyclic shear strain levels which are functions of PI and OCR. These variations are shown
in Figure 4.72.

(Booker and Ireland, 1965)

(Mayne and Kulhawy, 1982)

Fig. 4.72: Test results of Vucetic and Dobry (1991) – Variation of
G/Gmax and D

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 Seed and Idriss (1970) collected the experimental results for shear modulus and damping ratio
from various sources for saturated cohesive soils.

 Based on these results the variation of G/cu (where cu = undrained cohesion) with shear strain is
shown in Figure 4.73 (below).
We know for sand:

For Clay:

In situ shear modulus for saturated clays (after Seed and Idriss, 1970)

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 Note that at low amplitude of vibration G = Gmax

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Test results of Vucetic and Dobry (1991)

(* Note that this is not at low amplitude of vibration, therefore G ≠ Gmax) Fig. 4.72: Variation of G/Gmax and D

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